Electronic Devices and Circuits

Module 1 - Week 01 (Part 2):

Semiconductor Basics, Diodes &
Diode Equivalent Circuit Models
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Electronic Devices and Circuits 2

Objectives of this lecture
 Know the history and significance of the invention of the transistor
 Review the fundamental concepts of semiconductor physics
 Understanding how conduction takes place in semiconductors
 Understanding of semiconductor diode construction
 Learn the working principle of a diode
 Gain knowledge of the diode current-voltage relationship
 Develop an equivalent circuit of a diode
 Gain knowledge of diode specifications
 Learn the method for testing diodes

Electronic Devices and Circuits 3

  Invention of the Transistor
Outline  Fundamental Concepts
 Energy Band
 Conduction in Semiconductors
 Doped semiconductors – extrinsic
 Construction of Semiconductor Diode
 Working Principle of Diode
 Diode Current-voltage Relationship
 Diode Equivalent Circuits
 Diode Specification
 Diode Testing
 Review of Today’s Lecture
 Topics for Next Week
 References

Electronic Devices and Circuits 4

Historical background

Pioneers—
in 1947, physicists
Shockley,
Bardeen, and
Brattain of Bell
Labs developed
the first point
contact transistor
(AT&T Archives)

Electronic Devices and Circuits 5

The first transistor

The first transistor—two gold contacts on a germanium base (AT&T Archives)

Electronic Devices and Circuits 6

Integrated circuit (IC)
The first integrated circuit (IC) was Intel ® Core TM i7 Extreme Edition Processor has
developed by Jack Kilby, Texas 731 million transistors in a package that is only
Instruments in 1958. slightly larger than a 1.67 sq. inches.

Fig.:The first integrated circuit, a Fig. Intel® Core i7 Extreme Edition Processor.
phase shift oscillator.

In 1965, Dr. Gordon E. Moore predicted that the transistor count in a single IC chip would double every two
years

Electronic Devices and Circuits 7

Fundamental concepts
• What is a transistor?
– Has two main terminals
– And a third small terminal
– The signal at the small terminal controls the flow of current between
the main terminals

• The transistor is inherently an electronic switch

Electronic Devices and Circuits 8

Current in Metals

Current flow in metals

For copper, ρ = 1.72 × 10-6 Ω-cm ⇒ for 1 cm3 of material

R = 1.72 × 10-6 Ω. This is very small.

Electronic Devices and Circuits 9

What are semiconductors?

• Semiconductors such as Ge, Si, and GaAs lie between

metals and insulators.
• Conduction is very dependent on temperature.
• Strong bonding of the electrons in a silicon crystal causes
it to be a semiconductor.
• When pure Si is at room temperature about 1 in 1013 of its
atoms are ionised.
• When Si is heated it becomes a better conductor.

Electronic Devices and Circuits 10

Classification

Semiconductor

Single-crystal Compound

• Germanium (Ge) • Gallium arsenide (GaAs)

• Silicon (Si) • Cadmium sulfide (CdS)
• Gallium nitride (GaN)
• Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)

Electronic Devices and Circuits 11

Comparison between semiconductors, conductor and
insulator

Electronic Devices and Circuits 12

Atoms

Hydrogen atom Helium atom

Electronic Devices and Circuits 13

Energy band theory
• Bands are allowed states for carriers
• Bandgaps are forbidden states for carriers
The farther an electron is
from the nucleus, the
higher is the energy state,
and any electron that has
left its parent atom has a
higher energy state than
any electron in the atomic
structure.

Electronic Devices and Circuits 14

Energy band theory

Energy levels: conduction and valence bands of an insulator, a semiconductor, and a conductor

Electronic Devices and Circuits 15

Energy band theory

• The energy refers to the amount required to release an

electron to vacuum (free).

• The two upper bands are valence band (filled) and

conduction band (partially filled).

• Free atoms have discrete energy levels.

• Crystals have energy bands.

Electronic Devices and Circuits 16
Concept of electron-hole pair
• When a pure semiconductor is subjected to some type of excitation, such
as heat, light, or electric field, some valence electrons will jump to the
conduction band (free), each leaving behind a hole in the valence band.
• Each electron and its hole is called a pair and the number of electrons is
equal to the number of holes.

Electron-hole
pairs in a
semiconductor

Electronic Devices and Circuits 17

 Intrinsic Semiconductors
At room temperature, some of the covalent bonds are
broken by thermal generation. Each broken bond gives rise
to a free electron and a hole, both of which become
available for current conduction.
In thermal equilibrium, the recombination rate is equal to the
generation rate, and the concentration of free electrons n is
equal to the concentration of holes p.

Fig. Two-dimensional representation of the silicon crystal.

The product of the hole and free-electron

B is a material-dependent parameter: 7.3 × 1015 cm−3K−3/2 for silicon concentration
Eg (bandgap energy): 1.12 electron volt (eV) for silicon
k: Boltzmann’s constant (8.62×10−5 eV/K).
For silicon at room temperature
1 eV = 1.6×10−19 J
The bandgap energy Eg is the minimum energy required to break a
covalent bond and thus generate an electron-hole pair.

Electronic Devices and Circuits 18

Conduction in semiconductors

A semiconductor will conduct

electricity only if it contains free
carriers.

Carriers can be created

through the electron-hole pair
generation process or added in
externally through a process
called impurity doping. Fig. Crystal visualisation of electron-hole pair
generation in a pure semiconductor

Electronic Devices and Circuits 19

Pure silicon – intrinsic
• Silicon is a material that occupies 25% of the earth crust, mostly as oxides
or silicates (SiO2).
• Its density is 5 x 1022 atoms/cm3.
• Pure (intrinsic) material has high resistivity: ρ = 230 kΩ-cm.
• As grown material has 5 x 1013 impurities/cm3, ρ = 100Ω-cm; that is, 1 in 109
atoms are impurities. This is very low.

For intrinsic Si
n = p = ni and ni = 1.5 × 1010 carriers/cm3 at T = 300 °K
µn = 1300 cm2/V.s µp = 500 cm2/V.s q = 1.6 × 10-19 C
σ = 4.32 10-6 (Ω cm)-1 Resistivity:ρ = 1/σ = 230 kΩ-cm.

Electronic Devices and Circuits 20

Impurity addition or doping
• When small quantities of specific impurities are added to the host
semiconductor it becomes doped or extrinsic material.
• Very dramatic changes take place as a result of very slight amounts
of impurity doping.

Fig. Antimony impurity in n-type material. Fig. Boron impurity in p-type material.

Electronic Devices and Circuits 21

Materials for doping

• If impurities have more valence electrons that the

host crystal, they are said to be donors and the
semiconductor becomes n-type doped.

• If the impurities have less valence electrons than

the host crystal, they are said to be acceptors and
the semiconductor becomes p-type doped.

Electronic Devices and Circuits 22

Total Carrier Concentration

𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖2
• For p-type material: 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ≃ 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 and 𝑛𝑛𝑝𝑝 ≃
𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴
Electronic Devices and Circuits 23
Materials for doping

• Impurities and semiconductors are located in the middle of the

periodic table.

Group III: P Dopants Group IV: Semiconductors Group V: N Dopants

B: Boron C: Carbon N: Nitrogen
Al: Aluminium Si: Silicon P: Phosphorus
Ga: Gallium Ge: Germanium As: Arsenic
In: Indium Sb: Antimony

Electronic Devices and Circuits 24

Energy bands in extrinsic SCs

Effect of donor impurities on the energy band structure

Electronic Devices and Circuits 25

 Current flow in semiconductor
Two different mechanisms for the movement of charge carriers and hence the
current flow: drift and diffusion.
Drift current

Fig. An electric field E

established in a bar of
silicon

The result is negative because the electrons move in the direction opposite to E.
Note that µn is about 2.5 times µp, signifying that electrons move with much greater
ease through the silicon crystal than do holes.
Electronic Devices and Circuits 26
 Current flow in semiconductor

Fig. An electric field E

The hole component of the drift current flowing through the established in a bar of
bar, silicon

The current density:

Similarly for free electrons, the current density is:
Total drift current density:

The resistivity is given by:

Electronic Devices and Circuits 27

 Carrier Diffusion
Carrier diffusion occurs when the density of charge carriers in a piece of
semiconductor is not uniform.
The diffusion of charge carriers gives rise to a net flow of charge, or diffusion
current.

The holes diffuse in the positive direction of x and give rise to a Electrons diffuse in the x direction, giving rise to an electron
hole diffusion current in the same direction. diffusion current in the negative -x direction.

Electronic Devices and Circuits 28

Carrier Diffusion

• Note that the diffusion coefficient is related to the mobility through the Einstein
relationship:
Dn DpkT
= = = VT
µn µ p q

Where VT is the thermal voltage and is ≈ 26 mV at T = 300 K.

Electronic Devices and Circuits 29

Semiconductor materials: n-type

Antimony impurity in n-type material. Fig. n-type material

An n-type material is created by introducing impurity elements that have five

valence electrons (pentavalent). Example: antimony, arsenic, phosphorus.
Diffused impurities with five valence electrons are called donor atoms.
© Boylestad R and Nashelsky L 2012, Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 11thEd, Pearson

Electronic Devices and Circuits 30

Semiconductor materials: n-type and p-type

Fig. P-type material

Boron impurity in p-type material.

The p -type material is formed by doping a pure germanium or silicon crystal with
impurity atoms having three valence electrons. Example: boron, gallium, indium .
The diffused impurities with three valence electrons are called acceptor atoms.
© Boylestad R and Nashelsky L 2012, Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 11thEd, Pearson

Electronic Devices and Circuits 31

 Section 1
Semiconductor Diodes

Electronic Devices and Circuits 32

Diode: Applications

Section 1

Electronic Devices and Circuits 33

Semiconductor Diode

Fig. Diode symbol, with the defined

polarity and the current direction

© Boylestad R and Nashelsky L 2012, Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 11thEd, Pearson

Electronic Devices and Circuits 34

Semiconductor Diode: No Applied Bias (V = 0 V)
A p–n junction with no external bias

Fig. Diode symbol, with the defined

polarity and the current direction
Fig. An internal distribution of charge
© Boylestad R and Nashelsky L 2012, Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 11thEd, Pearson

Electronic Devices and Circuits 35

Reverse-Bias Condition (VD < 0 V)

Fig. Reverse-bias polarity and direction of

Fig. Internal distribution of charge when the diode is reverse biased. reverse saturation current.
The current that exists under reverse-bias conditions is called the reverse saturation current and is
represented by Is.
The reverse saturation current is seldom more than a few microamperes and typically in nA, except
for high-power devices.

Electronic Devices and Circuits 36

Forward-Bias Condition (VD > 0 V)

Fig. Forward biased polarity and direction of

Fig. Internal distribution of charge when the diode is forward biased. resulting current.

As the applied bias increases in magnitude, the depletion region will continue to decrease in width
until a flood of electrons can pass through the junction, resulting in an exponential rise in current.

Electronic Devices and Circuits 37

Forward-bias Condition (VD > 0 V)
The general characteristics of a semiconductor diode can be defined by
Shockley’s equation, for the forward- and reverse-bias regions:
𝐼𝐼𝐷𝐷 = 𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆 𝑒𝑒 𝑉𝑉𝐷𝐷 /𝑛𝑛𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 − 1
Is = the reverse saturation current
VD = applied forward-bias voltage across the diode
n = ideality factor (function of the operating conditions and physical construction)
VT = thermal voltage
𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇
VT is determined by 𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 = 𝑘𝑘
𝑞𝑞
k is Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 × 10−23 J/K
TK is the absolute temperature in kelvins = 273 + the temperature in °C
q is the magnitude of electronic charge = 1.6 × 10−19 C
© Boylestad R and Nashelsky L 2012, Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 11thEd, Pearson

Electronic Devices and Circuits 38

Forward-Bias Condition (VD > 0 V)
Example: At a temperature of 27°C (common temperature for components in
an enclosed operating system), determine the thermal voltage VT.

𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇𝑘𝑘
Solution: We have, 𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 =
𝑞𝑞

The absolute temperature in kelvins,

𝑇𝑇𝑘𝑘 = 273 + 27 = 300 K

J
𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇𝑘𝑘 1.38×10−23 K ×300K
𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 = = = 25.875 mV ≈ 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝐦𝐦𝐕𝐕
𝑞𝑞 1.6×10−19 C

Electronic Devices and Circuits 39

Forward-Bias Condition (VD > 0 V)
Shockley’s equation

𝐼𝐼𝐷𝐷 = 𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆 𝑒𝑒 𝑉𝑉𝐷𝐷 /𝑛𝑛𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 − 1

𝐼𝐼𝐷𝐷 = 𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆 𝑒𝑒 𝑉𝑉𝐷𝐷 /𝑛𝑛𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 − 𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆

For positive values of VD the first term of the

above equation will grow very quickly and totally
overpower the effect of the second term.

𝐼𝐼𝐷𝐷 ≅ 𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆 𝑒𝑒 𝑉𝑉𝐷𝐷 /𝑛𝑛𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇

Electronic Devices and Circuits 40

Forward-Bias Condition (VD > 0 V)

𝐼𝐼𝐷𝐷 = 𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆 𝑒𝑒 𝑉𝑉𝐷𝐷 /𝑛𝑛𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 − 𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆

For positive values of VD the first

term of the above equation will grow
very quickly and totally overpower
the effect of the second term.

𝐼𝐼𝐷𝐷 ≅ 𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆 𝑒𝑒 𝑉𝑉𝐷𝐷 /𝑛𝑛𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇

© Boylestad R and Nashelsky L 2012, Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 11thEd, Pearson

Electronic Devices and Circuits 41

Diode Characteristics (VD > 0 V)
For negative values of VD, the
exponential term drops very quickly
below the level of I. So, the resulting
equation:

At V = 0 V

© Boylestad R and Nashelsky L 2012, Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 11thEd, Pearson

Electronic Devices and Circuits 42

 Breakdown Region
• Breakdown potential: the reverse-bias potential that
results in this dramatic change in characteristics.
• Given the label VBV.
• As the voltage across the diode increases in the
reverse-bias region, the velocity of the minority carriers
responsible for the reverse saturation current Is will
also increase. Fig. Breakdown region.
1
• Their velocity and associated kinetic energy (𝑊𝑊𝐾𝐾 = 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣 2 )
2 Zener breakdown contribute
will be sufficient to release additional carriers through to the sharp change in the
collisions with otherwise stable atomic structures. characteristic.
“The maximum reverse-bias potential that can be applied before entering
the breakdown region is called the peak inverse voltage (referred to simply
as the PIV rating) or the peak reverse voltage (denoted the PRV rating).”

Electronic Devices and Circuits 43

 Comparison of Ge, Si, and GaAs commercial diodes

GaAs and Si: breakdown

voltages typically extend
between 50 V and 1 kV.
Si power diodes: breakdown
voltages as high as 20 kV.
Germanium: typical
breakdown voltages of less
than 100 V, with maximums
around 400 V. Operating speed
of a device
Fig. Comparison of Ge, Si, and GaAs commercial diodes.

© Boylestad R and Nashelsky L 2012, Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 11thEd, Pearson

Electronic Devices and Circuits 44

 Temperature Effects
In the forward-bias region the
characteristics of a silicon diode shift to
the left at a rate of 2.5 mV per centigrade
degree increase in temperature.

In the reverse-bias region the reverse

current of a silicon diode doubles for
every 10°C rise in temperature.

The reverse breakdown voltage of a

semiconductor diode will increase or
decrease with temperature.
Variation in Si diode characteristics with temperature change.
© Boylestad R and Nashelsky L 2012, Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 11thEd, Pearson

Electronic Devices and Circuits 45

Conduction and Nonconduction States of Ideal
Diode Determine by the applied bias

Fig: (a) Conduction and (b) nonconduction states of the ideal diode.
© Boylestad R and Nashelsky L 2012, Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 11thEd, Pearson

Electronic Devices and Circuits 46

Ideal Versus Practical

Fig. Ideal semiconductor diode: (a) forward-biased;

(b) reverse-biased.
Fig. characteristics of semiconductor diodes: Ideal versus actual.

© Boylestad R and Nashelsky L 2012, Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 11thEd, Pearson

Electronic Devices and Circuits 47

Resistance Levels
Due to the shape of the characteristics curve the resistance of the diode
change when the operating point of a diode move from one region to another.

DC or Static Resistance Let’s consider an operating point on the

characteristic curve that will not change with time.

The resistance of the diode at the

operating point:
𝑉𝑉𝐷𝐷 When RD is high?
𝑅𝑅𝐷𝐷 =
𝐼𝐼𝐷𝐷 When RD is low?

Typically, the dc resistance of a diode in the active

(most utilised) will range from about 10 to 80 Ω.
© Boylestad R and Nashelsky L 2012, Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 11thEd, Pearson

Electronic Devices and Circuits 48

Resistance Levels
Example: Determine the dc resistance levels for the diode of figure below at
a. ID = 2 mA (low level) b. ID = 20 mA (high level) c. VD = −10 V (reverse-biased)

Solution:
a. From the curve, at 𝐼𝐼𝐷𝐷 = 2 mA, 𝑉𝑉𝐷𝐷 = 0.5 V and
𝑉𝑉𝐷𝐷 0.5 V
𝑅𝑅𝐷𝐷 = = = 250 Ω
𝐼𝐼𝐷𝐷 2 mA
b. From the curve, at 𝐼𝐼𝐷𝐷 = 20 mA, 𝑉𝑉𝐷𝐷 = 0.5 V and
𝑉𝑉𝐷𝐷 0.8 V
𝑅𝑅𝐷𝐷 = = = 40 Ω
𝐼𝐼𝐷𝐷 20 mA
c. From the curve, at 𝑉𝑉𝐷𝐷 = −10 V, 𝐼𝐼𝐷𝐷 = −𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆 = −1 μA, and
𝑉𝑉𝐷𝐷 10 V
𝑅𝑅𝐷𝐷 = = = 10 MΩ
𝐼𝐼𝐷𝐷 1 μA

Electronic Devices and Circuits 49

Resistance Levels
AC or Dynamic Resistance
The designation Q-point is derived from
the word quiescent , which means “still or
unvarying.”
If a sinusoidal rather than a dc input is
applied, the varying input will move the
instantaneous operating point up and down
a region of the characteristics
Fig. dynamic or ac resistance
The ac resistance:
Δ𝑉𝑉𝑑𝑑
𝑟𝑟𝑑𝑑 = Δ signifies a finite
Δ𝐼𝐼𝑑𝑑 change in the quantity Accurate only for values of ID in the
© Boylestad R and Nashelsky L 2012, Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 11thEd, Pearson vertical-rise section of the curve

Electronic Devices and Circuits 50

Resistance Levels
Example: For the characteristics of Figure :
a. Determine the ac resistance at ID = 2 mA.
b. Determine the ac resistance at ID = 25 mA.
c. Compare the results of parts (a) and (b) to the
dc resistances at each current level.
Solution:
(a)

Electronic Devices and Circuits 51

Resistance Levels
Solution:
b. Determine the ac resistance at ID = 25 mA.

© Boylestad R and Nashelsky L 2012, Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 11thEd, Pearson

Electronic Devices and Circuits 52

Resistance Levels

Solution:
c. Compare the results of parts (a) and (b) to the
dc resistances at each current level.

For ID = 2 mA, VD = 0.7 V and

For ID = 25 mA, VD = 0.79 V

© Boylestad R and Nashelsky L 2012, Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 11thEd, Pearson

Electronic Devices and Circuits 53

Resistance Levels
Average AC Resistance

For this situation

Fig. Determining the average ac resistance

© Boylestad R and Nashelsky L 2012, Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 11thEd, Pearson

Electronic Devices and Circuits 54

Resistance Levels
Summary Table

© Boylestad R and Nashelsky L 2012, Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 11thEd, Pearson

Electronic Devices and Circuits 55

Diode Equivalent Circuits
“An equivalent circuit is a combination of elements
properly chosen to best represent the actual
terminal characteristics of a device or system in a
particular operating region.”

Piecewise-Linear Equivalent Circuit

Obtaining an equivalent circuit for a diode by
approximating the characteristics of the device by
straight-line segments

Fig. Components of the piecewise-linear equivalent circuit Fig. Defining the piecewise-linear equivalent circuit
© Boylestad R and Nashelsky L 2012, Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 11thEd, Pearson

Electronic Devices and Circuits 56

Diode Equivalent Circuits
Simplified Equivalent Circuit
For most applications, the resistance rav is
sufficiently small to be ignored in comparison
to the other elements of the network.

This approximation is frequently employed in

semiconductor circuit analysis.

A forward-biased silicon diode in an electronic

system under dc conditions has a drop of 0.7 V
across it in the conduction state at any level of
diode current within rated values. Fig. Simplified equivalent circuit for the
silicon semiconductor diode
© Boylestad R and Nashelsky L 2012, Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 11thEd, Pearson

Electronic Devices and Circuits 57

Diode Equivalent Circuits
Ideal Equivalent Circuit
A 0.7-V level can often be ignored in comparison to the applied
voltage level.
Diode Equivalent Circuit

Diode model

Fig. Simplified equivalent circuit for the silicon semiconductor diode.

© Boylestad R and Nashelsky L 2012, Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 11thEd, Pearson

Electronic Devices and Circuits 58

Diode Equivalent Circuits
Summary Table

© Boylestad R and Nashelsky L 2012, Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 11thEd, Pearson

Electronic Devices and Circuits 59

 Reverse Recovery Time
Forward-bias state: a large number of electrons from
the n -type material progressing through the p-type
material and a large number of holes in the n-type
material—a requirement for conduction.

trr is reverse recovery time

𝑡𝑡𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 𝑡𝑡𝑠𝑠 + 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

ts (storage time) required for the minority carriers to return

to their majority-carrier state in the opposite material. Fig. Defining the reverse recovery time.

tt transition interval - the current will be reduced in level to that associated with the nonconduction state.
An important consideration in high-speed switching applications.
Most commercially available switching diodes have a trr in the range of a few nanoseconds to 1 μs.
Some available units with a trr of only a few hundred picoseconds (10−12 s).

Electronic Devices and Circuits 60

Diode Specification Sheets
1. The forward voltage VF (at a specified current and temperature)
2. The maximum forward current IF (at a specified temperature)
3. The reverse saturation current IR (at a specified voltage and temperature)
4. The reverse-voltage rating [PIV or PRV or V(BR), where BR comes from the
term “breakdown” (at a specified temperature)]
5. The maximum power dissipation level at a particular temperature
6. Capacitance levels
7. Reverse recovery time trr
Maximum power or dissipation rating
8. Operating temperature range

© Boylestad R and Nashelsky L 2012, Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 11thEd, Pearson

Electronic Devices and Circuits 61

Semiconductor Diode Notation

Semiconductor diode notation.

© Boylestad R and Nashelsky L 2012, Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 11thEd, Pearson

Electronic Devices and Circuits 62

Semiconductor Diode Notation

Fig. junction diodes

© Boylestad R and Nashelsky L 2012, Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 11thEd, Pearson

Electronic Devices and Circuits 63

Diode Testing
Checking in the forward-bias state Checking with an ohmmeter

© Boylestad R and Nashelsky L 2012, Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 11thEd, Pearson

Electronic Devices and Circuits 64

Prefixes
Permit easy recognition of the power of ten and an improved
channel of communication between technologists

Electronic Devices and Circuits 65

Review of Today’s Lecture

Electronic Devices and Circuits 66

Topics for next week
Ac line
230 V (rms)
50 Hz

Electronic Devices and Circuits 67

References

• Burns GS, and Bond PR, “Principles of Electronic

Circuits”, PWS Publishing, 2nd Ed, 1997
• Sedra, A. and Smith K., Microelectronic Circuits, 6th Ed,
Oxford Press, 2011
• B. Van Zeghbroeck, Principles of Semiconductor
Devices, 2011: [Link]
• Boylestad R and Nashelsky L 2012, Electronic Devices
and Circuit Theory, 11th, Pearson.

Electronic Devices and Circuits 68

Suggested reading
• Horenstein, M (1996). 'Appendix A'. In Microelectronic
circuits and devices.
2nd edition. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall,
pages 1029-1035.
• Streetman, B G (1980). Chapter 3. In Solid state electronic
devices. 2nd edition. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:
Prentice Hall.

Electronic Devices and Circuits 69

Electronic Devices and Circuits 70