THEORY A N D DESIGN OF
STRUCTURES I
S01 B – Structural Loading
Lecture Outline
§ Introduction
§ Definitions
§ Loadings
§ Load combinations
§ Floor load distribution
§ Worked Example
2
Introduction
§ All structures are subjected to loading from various sources,
which may be either static or dynamic loads.
§ The main categories of loading are:dead, imposed and wind loads.
Other loading types include seismic loads, settlement, fatigue,
temperature effects, or impact effects.
§ Loading in buildings are generally classified into two: gravity loads
(dead and imposed loads) and lateral loads (wind and earthquake
loads).
§ All relevant loads should be considered separately and in such
realistic combinations as to comprise the most critical effects on
the elements and the structure as a [Link] magnitude and
frequency of fluctuating loads should also be considered.
§ Loading conditions during erection should receive particular
attention. Settlement of supports should be taken into account
where necessary.
3
Terms & definitions
§ Dead Load – the load due to the weight of all walls,
permanent partitions, floors, roofs, finishes and all other
permanent construction including services of a permanent
nature
§ Imposed Load – the load assumed to be produced by the
intended occupancy or use, including the weight of movable
partitions, distributed, concentrated, impact and inertia,
loads, but excluding wind loads
§ Wind Load – the load due to the effect of wind pressure or
suction
§ Self-weight – weight of the structural system, including the
weight of any bonded concrete topping. It’s a dead load
§ Superimposed Dead Load – dead loads other than the self-
weight that are present or are considered in the design.
4
Terms & definitions
§ Load Case – compatible load arrangements, sets of deformations
and imperfections considered simultaneously with fixed variable
actions and permanent actions for a particular verification
§ Load Combination – set of design values used for the verification
of the structural reliability for a limit state under the
simultaneous influence of different loads
§ Design Load – value obtained by multiplying the representative
value by the partial factor γf
§ Design Ultimate Load – the design load for the ultimate limit state
§ Design Service Load – the design load for the serviceability limit
state
§ Service load – all loads, static or transitory, imposed on a
structure or element thereof, during the operation of a facility,
without load factors.
5
Terms & definitions
§ Dynamic load – part of an imposed load resulting from
motion
§ Pattern loading – loads arranged to give the most severe
effect on a particular element
§ Factored load – specified load multiplied by the relevant
partial factor
§ LoadArrangement – identification of the position, magnitude
and direction of a free action
§ Load Effects – forces and deformations produced in
structural members by applied loads or restrained volume
changes.
6
Loadings
§ The principal forms of loading associated with building
design are: dead load, imposed load and wind load
§ Dead loading (𝐺𝑘)
• This loading is of constant magnitude and location, and is
mainly the self-weight of the structure itself.
§ Imposed loading (𝑄𝑄𝑘)
• This is loading applied to the structure, other than wind load,
which is not of a permanent nature. Gravity loading due to
occupants, equipment, furniture, material which might be
stored within the building, demountable partitions and snow
loads are the prime sources for imposed loads on building
structures.
• BS 6399-1 should be consulted for imposed loadings.
7
Loadings
§ Wind loading (W𝑘)
• Wind produces both lateral and (in some cases) vertical
[Link] may blow in any direction, although usually only
two orthogonal load-cases are considered.
• Wind loading can be obtained from BS 6399-3
§ Nominal earth loads (𝐸𝑛)
• Nominal earth loads should be obtained in accordance with
normal practice (see, for example, BS 8004).
§ Loads during construction
• The loading conditions during erection and construction
should be considered in design and should be such that the
structure’s subsequent conformity to the limit state
requirements is not impaired.
8
Load Combination
§ Load Combination (ULS)
Load Combination Design Ultimate Load
LC1 = Dead + Imposed LC1 = 1.4𝐺𝑘 + 1.6 𝑄𝑄𝑘
LC2 = Dead + Wind LC2 = 1.4𝐺𝑘 + 1.4 W𝑘
LC 3 = Dead + Imposed + Wind LC3 = 1.2 𝐺𝑘 + 1.2 𝑄𝑄𝑘 + 1.2 W𝑘
Refer to Cl. 2.4,BS 5950-1
§ Note:
• Load combinations depends on the type of structure and type
of loads considered for a specified design problem
• Upper case letters (e.g.𝐺𝑘, 𝑄𝑄𝑘,W𝑘) are normally used for
concentrated loads and lower case letters (e.g.𝑔𝑘, 𝑞𝑘, 𝑤𝑘) for
distributed loads. (Refer to Lec S01)
9
Dead & Imposed Loads
§ Different types of loads on structures have been provided under
separate codes for use in deign
§ Different load types and reference codes are provided in the
table below
Type of load Reference Code
Dead load
(a) Self-weight BS 648:1964
(b) Superimposed Dead Load (SDL) BS 648:1964
Imposed Load
(a) Imposed floor loads BS 6399-1-1996
(b) Imposed wind loads BS 6399-2-1988
(c) Imposed roof loads BS 6399-3-1997
10
Dead & Imposed Loads
Dead loads
• Dead loads are calculated from the unit weights given in BS
648 or from the actual known weights of the materials used.
• The weights of tanks and other receptacles, and of their
contents, are considered as dead [Link] loads should be
calculated for the cases when a tank or receptacle is full and
when it is empty.
• Where the density of the material is given,the weight is
calculated by multiplying the unit mass by volume x
acceleration due to gravity (taken as 10 m/s²)
Imposed Loads
• Minimum imposed loads for floors are to be obtained from
BS 6399-1
• Imposed floor loads are categorised based on the type of
activity/occupancy
11
Unit weight of building materials (BS 648)
Material Unit Weight
Reinforced concrete 2400 kg/m³
Steel
(a) Solid (mild) 7850 kg/m³
(b) Corrugated roofing sheets, per mm thick 10 kg/m²
Timber
(a) Softwood 590 kg/m³
(b) Hardwood 1250 kg/m³
Blockwork
(a) Solid per 25 mm thick, stone aggregate 55 kg/m²
(b)Aerated per 25 mm thick 15 kg/m²
Rendering: Cement: sand (1:3), 13 mm thick 30 kg/m²
Screeding: Cement: sand (1:3), 13 mm thick 30 kg/m²
12
Floor Load Distribution
§ In a typical beam-and-slab floor system, floor loads are
distributed to beams through a one-way and two-way load
distribution
§ In beam-and-slab floor systems, vertical loads give rise to
three basic types of beam loading condition:
• uniformly distributed line loads
• triangular and trapezoidal loads
• concentrated point loads
§ The focus of this section is to understand how slab loads
are distributed onto beams or walls
13
Types of slabs
§ For design purposes, slabs are classified into two:
• One-way spanning slabs
• Two-way spanning slabs
Classification of slab Aspect Ratio (k)
𝐿𝑦
One-way spanning slabs 𝑘= >2
𝐿𝑥
𝐿𝑦
Two-way spanning slabs 𝑘= ≤2
𝐿𝑥
• Where 𝑙𝑥 = Length of shorter side
𝑙𝑦 = Length of longer side
14
Representation of slabs
§ Typical representation for one- and two- way spanning slab
𝑙𝑥
𝑙𝑥
𝑙𝑦
𝑙𝑦
(a) One-way spanning slab (b) Two-way spanning slab
15
Load distribution onto supports
§ The load distribution from the panels shown in (a) and (b) is
applicable when designing beams supporting a panel freely
supported along all four edges or with the same degree of fixity
along all four edges
§ One-way spanning slabs – the load distribution is to the beams
along only the two longer sides of the [Link] load is uniformly
distributed on the beams
§ Two-way spanning slabs – the load is distributed to the all the
beams along the four edges of the [Link] rectangular slabs, the
beams along the shorter side carry triangular loads whilst those
along the longer side carries trapezoidal loads. In the case of a
square panel,each beam carries one-quarter of the total load on
the panel,the load on each beam being distributed triangularly.
§ Note: The load distribution varies from that shown when
designing the beams supporting a panel not freely supported
along all four edges or with the varying degree of fixity along one
or more edges – in such cases, a more rigorous approach is used
16
Load distribution onto supports
Note: slabs are simply supported along all four edges
or with the same degree of fixity along the four edges
𝑙𝑥⁄2 𝑙𝑥⁄2
A B
A B
𝑙𝑥
𝑙𝑥
C
D
45º C
𝑙𝑦 D
𝑙𝑦
(a) One-way spanning slab (b) Two-way spanning slab
17
Load distribution onto columns
§ In a typical beam-and-slab floor system, the floor loads from the
beams are shared equally between the supporting columns
§ The load reaction from the beams are considered as point loads
on the [Link] point loads directly distributed onto columns
are generally not considered in the analysis of beams
§ Where secondary beams are supported on primary beams, the
load reactions are considered as point loads and included in the
analysis of the beams
§ The triangular and trapezoidal loads distribution onto beams are
considered in the analysis of the structure (beams). However, in
order to simplify the analysis (especially for hand calculations), the
triangular and trapezoidal loads are converted to equivalent 𝑈𝐷𝐿
by dividing the total load on a particular span (or length covered
by the loads). Note that this is considered span by span
18
Load Distribution Summary
§ Slab load distribution onto Beams
1. Classify the slabs into one-way and two-way spanning slabs
2. Indicate the load distribution based on the slab type
3. Calculate the characteristic dead and imposed loads
4. Calculate the design load based on the appropriate load combination
5. Calculate the area of slab supported by the beams
6. Calculate the total load distribution onto the beams from the slabs-
𝑈𝐷𝐿 from one-way slabs; and triangular and trapezoidal loads from
two-way slabs
7. Calculate the total load and equivalent 𝑈𝐷𝐿 for triangular and
trapezoidal loads by dividing the total load by the span of the beam
8. Calculate appropriate point load reactions from secondary beams
9. Sketch a line diagram of the beam and indicate all the load values
Note:
Total design load on the beams includes the self-weight of the slabs,
imposed loads, superimposed dead loads (SDL), plus the self-weight of the
beam itself,which is generally a 𝑈𝐷𝐿.
19
Load Distribution Summary
§ Beam load distribution onto Columns
1. The load distribution onto beams is generally done first
2. One-half of the beam loads goes to adjacent columns as
point loads
3. All beams supported on the column transfer one-half of
their total load to the column under consideration
4. Note that the total load on the beam includes loads from
the slab and self-weight of the beam
20
Worked Example
Worked Example
§ Question
The figure below shows a typical floor layout.
a) Calculate the ultimate design loads on the beams and sketch
their loading diagram
b) Calculate the ultimate design load on each of the columns.
Assume a single storey with a column height of 3.15 m
Information:
– Thickness of slab = 150 mm
– Imposed load = 3 kN/m²
– Super imposed dead load = 2.5 kN/m²
– Size of beam = 457 x191 x 82 UB
– Size of Colum = 305 x 305 x 240 UC
– Unit weight of concrete = 24 kN/m³
22
Floor Layout
1 2 3
2.5 m
5m B
2.5 m
2m 6m
23
Worked Example
Given:
Information:
– Thickness of slab = 150 mm
– Imposed load = 3 kN/m²
– Super imposed dead load = 2.5 kN/m²
– Size of beam = 457 x191 x 82 UB
– Size of Colum = 305 x 305 x 240 UC
– Column height = 3.15 m
– Unit weight of concrete = 24 kN/m³
24
Floor Layout
1 2 3
B5 B6
C
2.5 m
B2
B1
B3
5m
B4
B
2.5 m
B7 B8
A
2m 6m
25
Floor Layout
1 2 3
B5 B6
C
2.5 m
B1
B2
B3
5m
B4
B
2.5 m
B7 B8
A
2m 6m
26
Worked Example
§ Unit weight of materials
RC concrete = 24 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚3
Universal Beams UB = 60 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚
Universal Columns UC = 240 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚
§ Slab Loading
Slab dead load, 𝑔𝑘
Self– weight of slab = 0.15 × 24 = 3.6 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚2
Superimposed Dead Load (SDL) = 2.5 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚2
Characteristic dead load, 𝑔𝑘 = 3.6 + 2.5 = 6.1 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚2
Slab imposed load, 𝑞𝑘
Characteristic imposed load, 𝑞𝑘 = 3 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚2
Slab design ultimate load
Design load = 1.4 𝑔𝑘 + 1.6𝑞𝑘
= 1.4 6.1 + 1.6 3 = 13.34 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚2
27
Worked Example
§ Self-weight of Beams and Columns
Universal Beams
Beam s⁄w (𝑔𝑘1) = mass per metre × gravity
= 60 𝑘g⁄𝑚 × 10 𝑚⁄𝑠2
= 0.600 × 103 𝑁⁄𝑚
= 0.60 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚
Beam design load = 1.4 𝑔𝑘1 = 1.4 × 0.60 = 0.84 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚
Universal Columns
Column s⁄w (𝑔𝑘2) = mass per metre × gravity
= 240 𝑘g⁄𝑚 × 10 𝑚⁄𝑠2
= 2.400 × 103 𝑁⁄𝑚
= 2.40 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚
Column design load = 1.4 𝑔𝑘2 = 1.4 × 2.40 = 3.36 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚
28
Worked Example
§ Beam B1
Area supported = 1 × 5 = 5.0 𝑚2
Slab load = Design Load × Area Supported
= 13.34 × 5.0
= 66.7 𝑘𝑁
Total Load 66.7
Equivalent 𝑈𝐷𝐿 = = = 13.34 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚
Span 5
Total load = Slab
Total Load, 𝑈𝐷𝐿 = 13.34 + 0.84 = 14.18 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚 load + beam s/w
14.18 kN/m
5m
𝑅𝐴1 𝑅𝐶1
29
Worked Example
§ Beam B2
Area supported = 2 × (1.25 × 6) = 15.0 𝑚2
Slab load = Design Load × Area Supported
= 13.34 × 15.0
= 200.1 𝑘𝑁
Total Load 200.1
Equivalent 𝑈𝐷𝐿 = = = 33.35 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚
Span 6
Total Load, 𝑈𝐷𝐿 = 33.35 + 0.84 = 34.19 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚
34.19 kN/m
6m
𝑅𝐵2 𝑅𝐵3
30
Worked Example
§ Beam B3
Area supported = 1 × 5 = 5.0 𝑚2
Slab load = Design Load × Area Supported
= 13.34 × 5.0
= 66.7 𝑘𝑁
Total Load 66.7
Equivalent 𝑈𝐷𝐿 = = = 13.34 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚
Span 5
Total Load, 𝑈𝐷𝐿 = 13.34 + 0.84 = 14.18 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚
Total Load 34.19 × 6
Reaction from Beam B2 = = = 102.57 𝑘𝑁
2 2
31
Worked Example
§ Beam B3 (cont’d)
102.57 kN
14.18 kN/m
5m
𝑅𝐴2 𝑅𝐶2
32
Worked Example
§ Beam B4
Self-weight of Beam 𝐵𝐵
Self−weight, 𝑈𝐷𝐿 = 0.84 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚
Reaction from Beam 𝐵𝐵
Total Load 34.19 × 6
𝑅𝐵2 = = = 102.57 𝑘𝑁
2 2
102.57 kN 0.84 kN/m
5m
𝑅𝐴3 𝑅𝐶3
33
Worked Example
§ Beam on Grid A – B7 & B8
Beam B7
Area supported by 𝐵𝐵 = 0 𝑚2
Self−weight 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚, 𝑈𝐷𝐿 = 0.84 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚
Beam B8
Area supported by 𝐵𝐵 = 1.25 × 6 = 7.5 𝑚2
Slab Load = Design Load × Area Supported
= 13.34 × 7.5
= 100.05 𝑘𝑁
Total Load 100.05
Equivalent 𝑈𝐷𝐿 = = = 16.68 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚
Span 6
Self−weight of beam, 𝑈𝐷𝐿 = 0.84 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚
34
Worked Example
§ Beam on Grid A – B7 & B8
0.84 kN/m 16.68 kN/m
2m 6m
𝑅𝐴1 𝑅𝐴2 𝑅𝐴3
35
Worked Example
§ Beam on Grid C – B5 & B6
Beam B5
Area supported by 𝐵5 = 0 𝑚2
Self−weight 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚, 𝑈𝐷𝐿 = 0.84 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚
Beam B6
Area supported by 𝐵6 = 1.25 × 6 = 7.5 𝑚2
Slab Load = Design Load × Area Supported
= 13.34 × 7.5
= 100.05 𝑘𝑁
Total Load 100.05
Equivalent 𝑈𝐷𝐿 = = = 16.68 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚
Span 6
Self−weight 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚, 𝑈𝐷𝐿 = 0.84 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚
36
Worked Example
§ Beam on Grid C – B5 & B6
0.84 kN/m 16.68 kN/m
2m 6m
𝑅𝐶1 𝑅𝐶2 𝑅𝐶3
37
Worked Example
§ Column A1
Reaction from B1
Reaction from B7
Column A1
38
Worked Example
§ Column A1
Reaction from Beam B1
14.18 × 5
𝑅𝐵1 = = 35.45 𝑘𝑁
2
Reaction from Beam B7
0.84 × 2
𝑅𝐵𝐵 = = 0.84 𝑘𝑁
2
Self-weight of Column
Column 𝑠/𝑤 = 3.36 × 3.15 = 10.58 𝑘𝑁
Total Ultimate Load
𝑁 = 35.45 + 0.84 + 10.58 = 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒.𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝑘𝑁
39
Worked Example
§ Column C1
Column C1
Reaction from B5
Reaction from B1
40
Worked Example
§ Column C1
Reaction from Beam B1
14.18 × 6
𝑅𝐵1 = = 35.45 𝑘𝑁
2
Reaction from Beam B5
0.84 × 2
𝑅𝐵𝐵 = = 0.84 𝑘𝑁
2
Self-weight of Column
Column 𝑠/𝑤 = 3.36 × 3.15 = 10.58 𝑘𝑁
Total Ultimate Load
𝑁 = 35.45 + 0.84 + 10.58 = 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒.𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝑘𝑁
41
Worked Example
§ Column A2
Reaction from B3
Reaction from B7 Reaction from B8
Column A2
42
Worked Example
§ Column A2
Reaction from Beam B3
14.18 × 5
𝑅𝐵3 = 102.57 + = 138.02 𝑘𝑁
2
Reaction from Beam B7
0.84 × 2
𝑅𝐵𝐵 = = 0.84 𝑘𝑁
2
Reaction from Beam B8
16.68 × 6 + 0.84 × 6
𝑅𝐵8 = = 52.56 𝑘𝑁
2
Self-weight of Column
Column 𝑠/𝑤 = 3.36 × 3.15 = 10.58 𝑘𝑁
Total Ultimate Load
𝑁 = 138.02 + 0.84 + 52.56 + 10.58 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝑘𝑁
43
Worked Example
§ Column C2
Column C2
Reaction from B5 Reaction from B6
Reaction from B3
44
Worked Example
§ Column C2
Reaction from Beam B3
14.18 × 5
𝑅𝐵3 = 102.57 + = 138.02 𝑘𝑁
2
Reaction from Beam B5
0.84 × 2
𝑅𝐵𝐵 = = 0.84 𝑘𝑁
2
Reaction from Beam B6
16.68 × 6 + 0.84 × 6
𝑅𝐵6 = = 52.56 𝑘𝑁
2
Self-weight of Column
Column 𝑠/𝑤 = 3.36 × 3.15 = 10.58 𝑘𝑁
Total Ultimate Load
𝑁 = 138.02 + 0.84 + 52.56 + 10.58 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝑘𝑁
45
Worked Example
§ Column A3
Reaction from B4
Reaction from B8
Column A3
46
Worked Example
§ Column A3
Reaction from Beam B4
0.84 × 5
𝑅𝐵4 = 102.57 + = 104.67 𝑘𝑁
2
Reaction from Beam B8
16.68 × 6 + 0.84 × 6
𝑅𝐵8 = = 52.56 𝑘𝑁
2
Self-weight of Column
Column 𝑠/𝑤 = 3.36 × 3.15 = 10.58 𝑘𝑁
Total Ultimate Load
𝑁 = 104.67 + 52.56 + 10.58 = 1𝟒𝟒𝟖𝟖.𝟖𝟖1𝑘𝑁
47
Worked Example
§ Column C3
Column C3
Reaction from B6
Reaction from B4
48
Worked Example
§ Column A3
Reaction from Beam B4
0.84 × 5
𝑅𝐵4 = 102.57 + = 104.67 𝑘𝑁
2
Reaction from Beam B6
16.68 × 6 + 0.84 × 6
𝑅𝐵6 = = 52.56 𝑘𝑁
2
Self-weight of Column
Column 𝑠/𝑤 = 3.36 × 3.15 = 10.58 𝑘𝑁
Total Ultimate Load
𝑁 = 104.67 + 52.56 + 10.58 = 1𝟒𝟒𝟖𝟖.𝟖𝟖1𝑘𝑁
49
Trial Question
Trial Question
§ Question
The figure below shows a typical floor layout
a) Calculate the ultimate design loads on the beams and sketch
their loading diagram
b) Calculate the ultimate design load on each of the columns.
Assume a single storey with a column height of 3.15 m
Information:
– Thickness of slab = 150 mm
– Imposed load = 5 kN/m²
– Super imposed dead load = 2.5 kN/m²
– Size of beam = 610 x 229 x 101 UB
– Size of Colum = 356 x 368 x 129 UC
– Unit weight of concrete = 24 kN/m³
51
Floor Layout
1 2 3
B5 B6
C
2.m
B2
B
5.5 m
B1
B3
B4
3.5 m
A
B7 B8
2.5 m 6m
52
End of Lec S01B
53