Evolution

Origin of Life
IIT JAM Biotechnology — Short Notes Unit: Evolution

Origin of Life

Introduction

Evolution is the gradual change in heritable characteristics of populations over successive

generations, resulting in adaptation, diversification, and the origin of new species.
The origin of life explains how living organisms originated from non-living matter on prim-
itive Earth. While evolution explains diversification of life after its appearance, the origin of
life addresses the fundamental question of how the first living system emerged. Early ideas
were philosophical and supernatural, but modern explanations are scientific and supported
by experimental evidence.

Theories of Origin of Life

Theory of Special Creation

This theory states that all living organisms were created by a supernatural power in their
present form.

• Life was created suddenly

• Species are immutable

• No evolutionary change occurred

Status: Rejected due to lack of scientific evidence.

Theory of Spontaneous Generation

This theory proposed that life arises spontaneously from non-living matter under suitable con-
ditions.

• Frogs from mud

• Maggots from decaying meat

• Microorganisms from broth

Experiments Disproving Spontaneous Generation

Francesco Redi (1668) demonstrated that maggots appeared only in meat exposed to flies.
Spallanzani showed that boiled and sealed nutrient broth did not develop microorganisms.
Louis Pasteur, through the swan-neck flask experiment, conclusively proved that life arises
only from pre-existing life.
Conclusion: Spontaneous generation is false; biogenesis is true.

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IIT JAM Biotechnology — Short Notes Unit: Evolution

Theory of Catastrophism

Proposed by George Cuvier and supported by Alcide d’Orbigny.

• Earth experienced sudden catastrophes

• Each catastrophe caused mass extinction

• New forms appeared after catastrophes

This theory explains extinction but not origin of life.

Spore (Cosmozoic) Theory

Proposed by Richter (1865) and supported by Arrhenius (1911).

• Life originated in outer space

• Resistant spores reached Earth

Limitation: Does not explain the first origin of life.

Theory of Eternity of Life

This theory suggests that life has always existed.

• Life has no beginning

• Philosophical concept

• No experimental support

Chemical Theory of Evolution (Oparin–Haldane Theory)

Proposed independently by A.I. Oparin and J.B.S. Haldane. This is the most widely accepted
scientific theory of origin of life. It proposes that life originated through gradual chemical
evolution on primitive Earth.

Primitive Earth Conditions

• Reducing atmosphere

• Gases: CH4 , NH3 , H2 , H2 O

• Absence of free oxygen

• Energy sources: UV radiation, lightning, volcanic heat

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IIT JAM Biotechnology — Short Notes Unit: Evolution

Chemical Theory
(Oparin–Haldane)

Primitive Earth

Chemical Evolution Biological Evolution

Reducing Atmosphere
(CH4 , NH3 , H2 , H2 O)

No Free Oxygen Protobionts

First Living Cells

Stages of Chemical Evolution

1. Formation of Simple Organic Molecules Abiotic synthesis of amino acids, sugars, nitroge-
nous bases and fatty acids occurred under primitive Earth conditions.
2. Spontaneous Formation of Complex Molecules Simple organic molecules polymerized to
form proteins, nucleic acids and polysaccharides on hot surfaces and clay minerals.
3. Formation of Nucleic Acids and Nucleoproteins Nucleic acids interacted with proteins to
form nucleoproteins, increasing stability and catalytic efficiency.
4. Protoribosomes (RNA World) RNA molecules acted both as genetic material and enzymes
(ribozymes).
5. Protovirus Self-replicating nucleic acids enclosed in protein coats formed primitive virus-
like entities.
6. Protobionts Macromolecules aggregated to form protobionts with selective permeability
and internal organization.

Experimental Evidence Supporting Chemical Evolution

Miller–Urey Experiment (1953)

Stanley Miller and Harold Urey designed an experiment to test Oparin–Haldane’s hypothesis
under laboratory conditions.
Experimental Setup:

• A closed apparatus simulating primitive Earth

• Gases used: methane (CH4 ), ammonia (NH3 ), hydrogen (H2 ), and water vapour
• Electric discharge used to simulate lightning

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IIT JAM Biotechnology — Short Notes Unit: Evolution

• Continuous circulation of gases and water

Observations: After one week, the experiment produced amino acids such as glycine, alanine,
and aspartic acid, along with other organic compounds.
Inference: The experiment proved that organic molecules essential for life could be synthe-
sized abiotically under primitive Earth conditions.
Significance:

• First experimental support for chemical evolution

• Validated Oparin–Haldane theory

• Demonstrated plausibility of abiotic origin of life

Oparin’s Coacervates

Oparin proposed coacervates as early models of protobionts. Coacervates are colloidal aggre-
gates formed by phase separation of organic molecules such as proteins and polysaccharides
in aqueous solutions.
Characteristics:

• No true membrane

• No genetic material

• Showed growth by absorption

• Exhibited simple metabolic reactions

Although non-living, coacervates represented an important step toward cellular organization.

Sydney Fox Experiment

Sydney Fox experimentally demonstrated the formation of protocell-like structures under lab-
oratory conditions, strengthening the chemical evolution theory.
Experimental Procedure:

• Dry heating of amino acids produced proteinoids

• Proteinoids were cooled and placed in water

• Proteinoids spontaneously formed microspheres

Observations:

• Microspheres showed membrane-like boundaries

• Exhibited growth, division-like behaviour

• Maintained internal chemical organization

Significance: Microspheres closely resembled primitive cells and provided strong evidence for
the spontaneous formation of protocells.

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IIT JAM Biotechnology — Short Notes Unit: Evolution

Coacervates Microspheres
Proposed by Oparin Proposed by Sydney Fox
Colloidal aggregates Proteinoid aggregates
No membrane Membrane-like boundary
Low stability High stability
No enzyme activity Showed catalytic properties
Protobiont model Protocell model

Quick Revision Summary

• Spontaneous generation was experimentally disproved

• Chemical evolution explains origin of life
• Primitive Earth had reducing atmosphere
• RNA preceded DNA
• Protobionts preceded true cells
• Life evolved gradually from chemical systems

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 Evolution
Evidences of Evolution
IIT JAM Biotechnology — Short Notes Unit: Evolution

Evidences of Evolution

Introduction

Evolution is supported by several independent lines of evidence derived from different branches of
biology. These evidences collectively demonstrate that present-day organisms have evolved from
pre-existing ancestral forms through gradual modifications over long periods of geological time. The
evidences of evolution provide strong scientific support for the concept of organic evolution and com-
mon ancestry.

Evidences of Organic Evolution

Organic evolution refers to gradual heritable changes in populations that lead to structural, functional,
and genetic diversification. The evidences supporting organic evolution are broadly classified into the
following categories:
• Morphological and anatomical evidences
• Paleontological evidences
• Embryological evidences
• Biochemical and physiological evidences
• Cellular and molecular evidences
• Biogeographical evidences

Morphological and Anatomical Evidences

Morphological and anatomical evidences are based on comparative study of external and internal
structures of organisms. Similarities in structure indicate common ancestry, while differences indicate
evolutionary divergence.

Body Organization

A gradual increase in body complexity is observed during evolution. Organisms range from unicellu-
lar forms to multicellular organisms with tissues, organs, and organ systems. This increasing level of
organization reflects evolutionary advancement.

Vertebrate Organ System

All vertebrates possess a common basic structural plan of organ systems such as skeletal, muscular,
circulatory, nervous, and excretory systems. These systems are modified according to habitat and
mode of life, indicating descent from a common vertebrate ancestor.

Homologous Structures

Homologous structures have the same embryonic origin and basic structural plan but perform differ-
ent functions in different organisms. These structures provide strong evidence for divergent evolution.
• Forelimbs of human (grasping), whale (swimming), bat (flying), and horse (running)
• Pentadactyl limb pattern is conserved
Evolutionary significance: Homologous structures indicate divergent evolution from a common an-
cestor.

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IIT JAM Biotechnology — Short Notes Unit: Evolution

Analogous Structures

Analogous structures perform similar functions but differ in origin, internal structure, and embryonic
development. These arise due to similar environmental pressures.
• Wings of birds and insects
• Flippers of whales and fins of fishes
Evolutionary significance: Analogous structures indicate convergent evolution.

Feature Homologous Structures Analogous Structures

Origin Same ancestry Different ancestry
Structure Similar basic plan Different internal structure
Function Different Similar
Type of evolution Divergent Convergent
Examples Mammalian forelimbs Wings of birds and insects

Vestigial Structures

Vestigial organs are reduced and functionless structures that were functional in ancestral forms. Their
presence indicates evolutionary change.
• Appendix and coccyx in humans
• Pelvic bones in whales
• Wings of flightless birds like ostrich

Connecting Links

Connecting links are organisms that possess characteristics of two different taxonomic groups, thus
bridging evolutionary gaps.
• Lungfish – fish and amphibian features
• Peripatus – annelid and arthropod traits

Atavism

Atavism refers to the reappearance of ancestral traits in modern organisms due to reactivation of
suppressed genes.
• Tail in human newborns
• Extra nipples (polythelia)
• Excessive body hair

Paleontological Evidences

Paleontological evidences are obtained from fossils preserved in sedimentary rocks and provide direct
proof of evolution.

Fossil Records

Fossils represent remains or impressions of organisms that lived in the past. Fossil records show
gradual changes in organisms over geological time.

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IIT JAM Biotechnology — Short Notes Unit: Evolution

Geological Time Scale

The geological time scale arranges fossils chronologically and shows progressive evolution from sim-
ple unicellular organisms to complex multicellular forms.

Missing Links

Missing links are transitional fossils connecting two evolutionary groups.

• Archaeopteryx – link between reptiles and birds
• Australopithecus – link between apes and humans

Embryological Evidences

Embryological evidences are based on similarities observed during early development of organisms.

Similarity in Early Development

Early embryos of vertebrates show striking similarities such as presence of notochord, pharyngeal gill
slits, and tail, indicating common ancestry.

Similarity among Vertebrate Embryos

Fish, amphibian, reptile, bird, and mammalian embryos resemble each other in early stages and di-
verge only during later development.

Recapitulation Theory

Proposed by Ernst Haeckel, stating that ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny. Though not strictly accepted
today, it highlights evolutionary relationships.

Metamorphosis

Metamorphosis refers to drastic structural and physiological changes that occur during post-embryonic
development. It provides strong evidence for evolution by indicating ancestral larval forms.
• Progressive metamorphosis: Larval stage is simpler and transforms into a more complex adult
form.
– Example: Tadpole → Adult frog
• Retrogressive metamorphosis: Larval stage is more complex than the adult form.
– Example: Ascidian larva → Sessile adult ascidian

Trochophore Larva

The trochophore larva is a free-swimming, ciliated larval form considered an important embryological
evidence of evolution.
• Found in Annelids and Molluscs
• Possesses a band of cilia (prototroch) used for locomotion
• Indicates common ancestry between annelids and molluscs
• Supports the concept of evolutionary relationship based on similar larval stages

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IIT JAM Biotechnology — Short Notes Unit: Evolution

Trochophore Larva

Free-swimming
Annelids Molluscs
Ciliated Larva

Evidence of
Common Ancestry

Temporary Embryonic Structures

• Yolk sac
• Allantois
• Amnion
• Chorion

Biochemical and Physiological Evidences

All organisms show fundamental similarity in biochemical composition and physiological processes.
• Universal genetic code
• Common metabolic pathways (glycolysis, Krebs cycle)
• Similar respiratory enzymes

Cellular and Molecular Evidences

All living organisms are composed of cells with similar structural organization.
• Plasma membrane structure
• Ribosomes and protein synthesis machinery
• DNA as genetic material

Biogeographical Distribution

Biogeography deals with geographical distribution of organisms and provides evidence for evolution.
• Endemism of species
• Adaptive radiation (Darwin’s finches)
• Continental drift and plate tectonics

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IIT JAM Biotechnology — Short Notes Unit: Evolution

Quick Revision Summary

• Multiple independent evidences support organic evolution.
• Homologous structures indicate divergent evolution.
• Fossils provide direct historical records of evolution.
• Embryological similarities reflect common ancestry.
• Molecular homology strongly supports evolutionary relationships.
• Biogeography explains species distribution patterns.

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 Evolution
Fossil Evidence, Geological Time Scale
IIT JAM Biotechnology — Short Notes Unit: Evolution

Fossil Evidence and Geological Time Scale

Introduction

Fossils provide the most direct and convincing evidence for organic evolution. They repre-
sent the preserved remains, impressions, or traces of organisms that lived in the geological
past. Fossil records, when studied in relation to geological strata, reveal the sequential ap-
pearance, transformation, and extinction of organisms, thereby establishing the evolutionary
history of life on Earth.

Fossil Evidences of Organic Evolution

Fossil evidence demonstrates gradual evolutionary changes and transitional forms connect-
ing ancestral and modern organisms. The study of fossils shows that life originated in simple
forms and gradually evolved into complex organisms over millions of years.
• Older rock strata contain simpler life forms
• Recent strata contain complex and advanced organisms
• Fossils provide evidence of extinct organisms
• Transitional fossils support evolutionary continuity

Fossils

A fossil is defined as the preserved remains, impressions, or traces of organisms that lived in
the past and are usually found embedded in sedimentary rocks.

Types of Fossils

Fossils are preserved remains, impressions, or traces of organisms from the geological past.
Based on their nature and mode of preservation, fossils are classified as follows:
• Body Fossils: These are fossils of the actual hard parts of organisms such as shells,
teeth, bones, or woody tissues. They provide direct evidence of the morphology of
extinct organisms.
• Subfossils: Remains of plants or animals preserved in relatively recent geological de-
posits, usually less than 10,000 years old. They are commonly found in peat, ice, or
permafrost.
• Microfossils: Fossils of microscopic organisms or fossil fragments smaller than 0.5 mm
in size, such as foraminiferans, diatoms, and pollen grains. They are important indica-
tors in stratigraphy and paleoenvironmental studies.
• Macrofossils: Fossils larger than 1 cm in size, including leaves, stems, bones, and shells,
which can be observed with the naked eye.
• Unusual Fossils (Exceptional Preservation): Fossils formed due to a rare combination
of environmental conditions that result in preservation of the entire organism or most
of its soft tissues.

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IIT JAM Biotechnology — Short Notes Unit: Evolution

– Woolly mammoth preserved in frozen Siberian tundra

– Archaeopteryx fossil from Solnhofen limestone, Bavaria (Germany) — Jurassic de-
posits
• Trace Fossils (Ichnofossils): These include footprints, tracks, burrows, trails, or feeding
marks left by organisms in soft sediments, providing evidence of activity rather than
body structure.
• Coprolites: Fossilized excreta or droppings of animals, which provide valuable infor-
mation about the diet and feeding habits of extinct organisms.

Formation of Fossils

Fossil formation is a rare process requiring specific environmental conditions. The major
modes of fossil formation include:

Entire Organism Preserved

In rare cases, entire organisms are preserved without decomposition.

• Freezing in ice (e.g., woolly mammoth)
• Preservation in amber or resin
• Preservation in tar pits

Petrifaction (Petrification)

Petrifaction involves replacement of organic tissues by minerals such as silica or calcium

carbonate.
• Common in bones, wood, shells
• Original structure retained
• Example: Petrified forests

Compression

Compression fossils are formed when organisms are buried under sediment and compressed
over time.
• Common in plants and soft-bodied organisms
• Carbon residue remains
• Found in sedimentary rocks

Fossil Formation

Entire Organism Compression

Petrifaction
Preserved

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IIT JAM Biotechnology — Short Notes Unit: Evolution

Determination of Age of Fossils

The age of fossils can be determined using relative and absolute dating methods.

Radiometry and Radioactive Clock Method

Radiometric dating is based on the decay of radioactive isotopes at a constant rate.

• Measures parent-daughter isotope ratio
• Uses isotopes like Uranium-238, Potassium-40
• Applicable to very old fossils

Radioactive Carbon (C-14) Method

Carbon dating is used to determine the age of recent fossils.

• Based on decay of Carbon-14
• Half-life of C-14 is 5730 years
• Useful up to 50,000 years
• Applied to bones, wood, shells

Geological Time Scale

The Geological Time Scale is a chronological framework that represents the history of the
Earth from its formation to the present. It is based on stratigraphic studies, fossil records,
and major geological and biological events. The time scale divides Earth’s history into eons,
eras, periods, and epochs, each marked by significant evolutionary changes and extinction
events.
The geological time scale provides a systematic understanding of the origin, evolution, di-
versification, and extinction of organisms through deep geological time.

Precambrian Era

The Precambrian era represents nearly 88% of Earth’s geological history and marks the origin
of life.
• Formation of Earth and oceans
• Origin of first living organisms (prokaryotes)
• Evolution of cyanobacteria and photosynthesis
• Accumulation of oxygen in atmosphere
• Appearance of simple multicellular organisms

Paleozoic Era (Age of Ancient Life)

The Paleozoic era is characterized by rapid diversification of life forms, especially in marine
environments.
• Cambrian explosion: sudden appearance of diverse marine invertebrates
• Evolution of fishes and amphibians
• Colonization of land by plants and arthropods

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IIT JAM Biotechnology — Short Notes Unit: Evolution

• Evolution of reptiles
• Ends with Permian mass extinction

Cambrian Explosion
The Cambrian period witnessed a sudden and rapid diversification of multicellular life
forms, characterized by the appearance of organisms with hard exoskeletons and com-
plex body plans. This event is known as the Cambrian Explosion.

Mesozoic Era (Age of Reptiles)

The Mesozoic era is marked by dominance of reptiles and major evolutionary transitions.
• Dominance of dinosaurs
• Evolution of first birds from reptiles
• Appearance of first mammals
• Development of flowering plants (angiosperms)
• Ends with Cretaceous mass extinction

Cenozoic Era (Age of Mammals)

The Cenozoic era represents the modern phase of evolution.

• Rapid diversification of mammals
• Evolution of modern birds
• Expansion of grasslands
• Evolution of primates and humans
• Development of modern ecosystems

Major Mass Extinction Events

• Permian Extinction (End of Paleozoic Era): Also called the “Great Dying”, it was the
largest mass extinction event in Earth’s history, causing extinction of nearly 90–96%
marine species.

• Cretaceous Extinction (K–Pg boundary): Marks the end of the Mesozoic Era and led
to the extinction of non-avian dinosaurs, probably due to asteroid impact and volcanic
activity.

Significance of Geological Time Scale

• Establishes chronological order of fossils

• Explains evolutionary progression from simple to complex forms
• Correlates extinction and radiation events
• Provides framework for studying human evolution

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IIT JAM Biotechnology — Short Notes Unit: Evolution

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IIT JAM Biotechnology — Short Notes Unit: Evolution

“Age of” Periods in Paleozoic Era

Geological Period Commonly Known As

Silurian First land plants and arthropods
Devonian Age of Fishes
Carboniferous Age of Amphibians and coal-
forming forests
Permian Early age of reptiles; ends with Great
Dying

Human Evolution

Human evolution represents gradual development from ape-like ancestors to modern hu-
mans.
• Australopithecus: Bipedal, small brain
• Homo habilis: Tool user
• Homo erectus: Upright posture, fire use
• Homo sapiens: Modern humans
Fossil evidence clearly demonstrates progressive brain enlargement, bipedalism, and cultural
evolution in humans.

Human Evolution: Cranial Capacity Trends

Hominin Cranial Capacity Key Characteristics

(cc)
Australopithecus 450–500 Bipedal; ape-like ancestors
Homo habilis 650–800 First tool maker
Homo erectus 900–1100 First use of fire; migrated
out of Africa
Homo sapiens 1350–1450 Modern humans with ad-
vanced cognition

Exam-Oriented Memory Aids

• Devonian → Age of Fishes

• Carboniferous → Age of Amphibians
• Permian extinction → Largest mass extinction (Great Dying)
• Cretaceous extinction → Dinosaur extinction (K–Pg boundary)
• Human evolution shows progressive increase in cranial capacity

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IIT JAM Biotechnology — Short Notes Unit: Evolution

Quick Revision Summary

• Fossils provide direct evidence of organic evolution.
• Different fossil types reflect different preservation methods.
• Radiometric dating determines absolute age of fossils.
• Geological time scale shows evolutionary progression.
• Transitional fossils link ancestral and modern forms.
• Fossil records strongly support evolutionary theory.

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 Evolution
Theories of Evolution
IIT JAM Biotechnology — Short Notes Unit: Evolution

Theories of Evolution

Introduction

Various theories have been proposed to explain the mechanism of evolution, i.e., how organisms
change over generations and how new species originate. These theories differ in their explanation
of the source of variation, mode of inheritance, and role of natural forces. Modern evolutionary biol-
ogy is based on the integration of classical theories with genetics and molecular biology.

Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characters (Lamarckism)

Proposed by Jean Baptiste de Lamarck (1809), this theory suggested that evolution occurs due to the
influence of environment and the inheritance of traits acquired during an organism’s lifetime.

Basic Assumptions of Lamarckism

• Internal Vital Force: Living organisms possess an inherent force that drives them towards in-
creasing complexity and perfection over generations.

• Effect of Environment and New Needs: Environmental changes create new needs, forcing or-
ganisms to modify their habits and structures.

• Use and Disuse of Organs: Organs that are frequently used become well developed, whereas
organs that are not used gradually degenerate.

• Inheritance of Acquired Characters: Characters acquired during an organism’s lifetime are

transmitted to the offspring.

Examples Supporting Lamarckism

• Long neck of giraffe due to continuous stretching to reach leaves

• Loss of limbs in snakes due to creeping habit
• Reduced wings in flightless birds

Criticism

Lamarckism was rejected because acquired characters are not inherited genetically, as demonstrated
by Weismann’s experiments.

Theory of Natural Selection (Darwinism)

Proposed by Charles Darwin (1859), Darwinism explains evolution as a consequence of differential

survival and reproduction of organisms with favorable variations.

Postulates of Darwinism (Explained)

• Overproduction: Organisms produce more offspring than the environment can support.
• Struggle for Existence: Due to limited resources, organisms compete for food, space, and mates.
• Variations: Individuals within a population show differences; some variations are heritable.

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IIT JAM Biotechnology — Short Notes Unit: Evolution

• Natural Selection: Individuals with favorable variations survive longer and reproduce more
successfully.
• Survival of the Fittest: Fitness refers to reproductive success, not physical strength.
• Origin of Species: Accumulation of favorable variations over generations leads to speciation.

Examples

• Industrial melanism in peppered moth (Biston betularia)

• Adaptive radiation in Darwin’s finches

Limitation

Darwinism could not explain the origin and inheritance of variations.

Mutation Theory (Hugo de Vries)

Proposed by Hugo de Vries (1901) based on his experiments on Oenothera lamarckiana.

Key Concepts

• Evolution occurs through sudden, discontinuous variations called mutations

• Mutations are heritable and random
• New species arise suddenly without intermediate forms

Limitations

• Ignores role of natural selection

• Cannot explain gradual evolution

Modern Synthetic Theory of Evolution (Neo-Darwinism)

The modern synthetic theory integrates Darwin’s natural selection with Mendelian genetics, popula-
tion genetics, and molecular biology.

Major Contributors

• Julian Huxley: Introduced the term “Modern Synthesis”

• H.J. Muller: Established mutation as source of variation
• Theodosius Dobzhansky: Emphasized gene pool and population genetics

Mechanism of Evolution (Explained)

• Mutation: Creates new alleles

• Recombination: Produces genetic variation
• Natural Selection: Selects favorable genotypes
• Genetic Drift: Random changes in small populations
• Gene Flow: Movement of genes between populations
• Reproductive Isolation: Leads to speciation

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IIT JAM Biotechnology — Short Notes Unit: Evolution

Conceptual Flow Map: Development of Evolutionary Theories

Lamarckism
(Inheritance of acquired characters)

Darwinism
(Natural selection)

Mutation Theory
(Sudden variations)

Modern Synthetic Theory

(Genetics + Selection)

Comparative Account of Theories of Evolution

Theory Source of Variation Inheritance Mecha- Role of Natural Selec-

nism tion
Lamarckism Environment- Inheritance of ac- Not considered
induced changes quired characters
Darwinism Pre-existing small Not explained (ge- Central mechanism
variations netics unknown)
Mutation Theory Sudden large muta- Mendelian inheri- Minor role
tions tance
Modern Syn- Mutation + recombi- Mendelian genetics Primary driving force
thetic Theory nation

Quick Revision Summary

• Lamarckism emphasized use and disuse of organs.
• Darwinism introduced natural selection.
• Mutation theory focused on sudden variations.
• Modern synthesis integrates genetics with evolution.
• Variation is the raw material of evolution.
• Neo-Darwinism is the most accepted theory.

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 Evolution
Natural Selection and Reproductive Isolation
IIT JAM Biotechnology — Short Notes Unit: Evolution

Natural Selection Reproductive Isolation

Natural Selection

Introduction

Natural selection is the primary mechanism of adaptive evolution proposed by Charles Dar-
win. It explains how organisms possessing heritable traits that increase survival and re-
productive success leave more offspring, resulting in gradual changes in allele frequencies
within populations. Natural selection does not generate variation; rather, it acts upon exist-
ing genetic variation produced by mutation and recombination. Although selection operates
on individual phenotypes, evolution is observed at the population level.

Prerequisites for Natural Selection

• Overproduction of offspring beyond environmental carrying capacity.

• Limited availability of resources leading to struggle for existence.
• Presence of heritable variation within populations.
• Differential survival and reproductive success.
• Accumulation of favorable traits across generations.

Allele
fre-
quency
change

Differential
Evolution
Survival

Natural
Selection

Selection
Variation
Pressure
Heritable Predation

Genetic Environment

Mind map: Core concept of natural selection

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IIT JAM Biotechnology — Short Notes Unit: Evolution

Examples of Natural Selection

DDT Resistance in Mosquitoes

DDT resistance in mosquitoes represents a classic example of rapid evolution driven by in-
tense human-induced selection pressure.
Initially, mosquito populations exhibited genetic variation for susceptibility to DDT. Upon
application of DDT, susceptible individuals were eliminated due to disruption of sodium ion
channels in the nervous system. Rare resistant individuals survived because of mutations
affecting target sites or enhanced detoxification mechanisms. These survivors reproduced
and passed resistance alleles to subsequent generations. Continuous DDT exposure led to a
population dominated by resistant genotypes.
Evolutionary significance:
• Demonstrates directional selection.
• Shows rapid microevolution.
• Highlights anthropogenic selection pressure.

Industrial Melanism in Biston betularia

Industrial melanism illustrates natural selection mediated by predation and environmental

change.
Before Industrialization
• Tree trunks covered with light-colored lichens.
• Light-colored moths (typica) were camouflaged.
• Dark-colored moths (carbonaria) were conspicuous.
• Predation favored light morphs.
After Industrialization
• Industrial pollution deposited soot on tree trunks.
• Lichens disappeared, trunks became dark.
• Dark moths gained camouflage advantage.
• Light moths suffered increased predation.
• Allele frequency shifted toward melanic forms.
This example demonstrates environment-dependent fitness and reversible natural selection.

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IIT JAM Biotechnology — Short Notes Unit: Evolution

Dark
moths

Dark
After
trunks

Industrial
Melanism

Light
Before
moths

Light
trunks

Environmental change alters fitness

Types of Natural Selection

Directional Selection

Directional selection favors one extreme phenotype, causing a shift in population mean.
• DDT resistance in mosquitoes.
• Antibiotic resistance in bacteria.
• Increased beak size in Darwin’s finches during drought.

Stabilizing Selection

Stabilizing selection favors intermediate phenotypes and eliminates extremes, reducing phe-
notypic variation.
• Human birth weight.
• Optimal enzyme activity under physiological conditions.

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IIT JAM Biotechnology — Short Notes Unit: Evolution

Disruptive Selection

Disruptive selection favors both extreme phenotypes over intermediates, increasing variation
and potentially leading to speciation.
• Beak size polymorphism in seed-eating birds.
• Resource specialization in insects.

Selection Type Favored Phenotype Effect on Mean Variation

Directional One extreme Shifts May decrease
Stabilizing Intermediate Constant Decreases
Disruptive Both extremes May split Increases

Reproductive Isolation

Introduction

Reproductive isolation refers to biological barriers that prevent gene flow between popula-
tions, allowing them to evolve independently. It is a critical mechanism in speciation and
maintains species integrity.

Prezygotic Isolation Mechanisms

Prezygotic barriers operate before fertilization and prevent mating or zygote formation.
Ecological Isolation
• Species occupy different habitats.

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IIT JAM Biotechnology — Short Notes Unit: Evolution

• Example: Aquatic and terrestrial insects of same genus.

Temporal Isolation
• Breeding occurs at different times.
• Example: Plant species flowering in different seasons.
Behavioral Isolation
• Differences in courtship behavior.
• Example: Species-specific bird songs.
Mechanical Isolation
• Structural incompatibility of reproductive organs.
• Example: Lock-and-key mechanism in insects.

Postzygotic Isolation Mechanisms

Postzygotic barriers operate after fertilization and reduce hybrid fitness.

Hybrid Inviability
• Zygote forms but fails to develop.
• Developmental incompatibilities cause death.
• Example: Sheep × Goat hybrid.
Hybrid Sterility
• Hybrid survives but is sterile.
• Gamete formation is defective.
• Example: Mule (Horse × Donkey).

Quick Revision Summary

• Natural selection acts on phenotypes but evolves populations.

• DDT resistance and industrial melanism demonstrate real-time evolution.
• Directional, stabilizing, and disruptive selection affect variation differently.
• Reproductive isolation is essential for speciation.
• Prezygotic barriers prevent mating; postzygotic barriers reduce hybrid fitness.

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5
Evolution
Speciation
IIT JAM Biotechnology— Short Notes Unit: Evolution

Speciation

Introduction
Speciation is the evolutionary process by which new biological species arise from existing
populations. It represents the final outcome of evolutionary divergence and occurs when
populations of a species become genetically isolated and evolve independently. According
to the Biological Species Concept, speciation is complete when populations fail to interbreed
and produce fertile offspring under natural conditions.
At the core of speciation lies alteration of the gene pool, which is the total collection of alleles
present in an interbreeding population. Restriction of gene flow allows mutation, natural
selection, genetic drift, and recombination to act independently, leading to genetic divergence
and reproductive isolation.

Key Concepts Related to Speciation

• Gene Pool: Total genetic information of a population.

• Gene Flow: Transfer of alleles between populations via migration.

• Genetic Divergence: Accumulation of genetic differences.

• Reproductive Isolation: Barriers preventing successful interbreeding.

Single population(Common gene pool)

Isolation(Geographical / Ecological)

Genetic divergenceMutation, Drift, Selection

Reproductive isolation

New species formed

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IIT JAM Biotechnology— Short Notes Unit: Evolution

Modes of Speciation
Allopatric Speciation
Allopatric speciation occurs when a population is separated by a geographical barrier such
as mountains, rivers, oceans, or glaciers. This barrier prevents gene flow, allowing isolated
populations to evolve independently. Over time, genetic divergence accumulates due to mu-
tation, natural selection, and genetic drift, eventually resulting in reproductive isolation.
Characteristics
• Complete geographical isolation
• Gene flow absent
• Strong role of genetic drift and local adaptation
Examples
• Darwin’s finches of the Galápagos Islands
• Kaibab and Abert squirrels separated by the Grand Canyon

Allopatric Sympatric
Geographical barrier Same area

SPECIATION

Parapatric Peripatric
Adjacent populations Small founder group

Sympatric Speciation
Sympatric speciation occurs within the same geographical area without physical barriers.
Reproductive isolation arises due to ecological specialization, assortative mating, or chro-
mosomal changes. Polyploidy plays a major role in plant sympatric speciation by causing
instantaneous reproductive isolation.
Characteristics
• No geographical isolation
• Strong disruptive selection
• Common in plants
Examples
• Polyploid speciation in flowering plants
• Host shift in phytophagous insects

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IIT JAM Biotechnology— Short Notes Unit: Evolution

Parapatric Speciation
Parapatric speciation occurs when populations occupy adjacent but distinct habitats. Gene
flow is limited but not completely absent. Divergence arises due to strong selection across an
environmental gradient, often producing a hybrid zone with reduced hybrid fitness.
Characteristics
• Partial geographical separation
• Limited gene flow
• Presence of hybrid zones
Examples
• Grass species adapted to heavy metal soils
• Ring species patterns

Peripatric Speciation
Peripatric speciation is a special case of allopatric speciation involving a small peripheral
population isolated from a larger ancestral population. Due to small population size, genetic
drift and founder effect play a major role, often leading to rapid divergence.
Characteristics
• Small founder population
• Strong genetic drift
• Rapid evolutionary change
Examples
• Island colonization events
• Hawaiian Drosophila radiation

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IIT JAM Biotechnology— Short Notes Unit: Evolution

Comparative Table: Modes of Speciation

Feature Allopatric Sympatric Parapatric Peripatric

Geographical isolation Complete Absent Partial Peripheral
Gene flow Absent Present initially Limited Absent
Population size Large Large Large Small
Role of drift Moderate Low Low High
Typical example Island species Polyploid plants Hybrid zones Founder populations

Quick Revision Summary

• Speciation results from genetic divergence and reproductive isolation.
• Gene pool changes are central to speciation.
• Allopatric speciation is the most common mode.
• Sympatric speciation often involves polyploidy.
• Parapatric speciation shows hybrid zones.
• Peripatric speciation is driven by founder effect and drift.

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4
 Evolution
Nature and Pattern of Evolution
IIT JAM Biotechnology — Short Notes Unit: Evolution

Nature and Pattern of Evolution

Introduction: Pattern of Evolution

Evolution refers to heritable changes in populations over generations, leading to diversity of life.
The pattern of evolution describes how evolutionary changes are expressed in lineages and
species over time. These patterns are inferred from comparative anatomy, fossils, phylogeny,
and molecular data.
Evolutionary patterns explain:

• Relationship among organisms

• Origin of biological diversity
• Direction and tempo of evolutionary change

Major Patterns of Evolution

Convergent Evolution
Convergent evolution refers to the process by which distantly related organisms independently
evolve similar functional traits as a result of adapting to similar environmental conditions or
ecological roles. In this pattern, the similarity is not due to shared ancestry but due to similar
selective pressures acting on different lineages.

Key Features

• Occurs in unrelated or distantly related taxa

• Results in the formation of analogous structures
• Similar function but different embryological and evolutionary origin

Examples

• Wings of birds, bats, and insects evolved independently for flight

• Streamlined body shape in sharks (fishes) and dolphins (mammals) for efficient swimming
• Succulent stems in cactus (New World) and Euphorbia (Old World)

Divergent Evolution
Divergent evolution occurs when organisms sharing a common ancestry accumulate differences
over time due to adaptation to different environments. This process leads to increasing dissimi-
larity among related species and often results in speciation.

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IIT JAM Biotechnology — Short Notes Unit: Evolution

Key Features

• Common ancestral origin

• Produces homologous structures
• Leads to adaptive diversification

Examples

• Vertebrate forelimbs adapted for walking, swimming, flying, and grasping

• Darwin’s finches showing variation in beak size and shape

Parallel Evolution
Parallel evolution refers to the independent evolution of similar traits in closely related species
after they diverge from a common ancestor. The ancestral forms already possess similar genetic
and developmental pathways, which predispose them to evolve similar adaptations under similar
environments.

Key Features

• Occurs in closely related lineages

• Similar ancestral condition
• Traits evolve independently but in a similar direction

Example

• Placental mammals and Australian marsupials showing similar ecological adaptations

Co-evolution
Co-evolution is the process by which two or more interacting species reciprocally influence each
other’s evolution. Changes in one species act as a selective force on the other, resulting in mutual
evolutionary adjustments.

Key Features

• Reciprocal selective pressure

• Common in species interactions

Examples

• Flower morphology and pollinator specialization

• Host–parasite relationships
• Predator–prey evolutionary arms race

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IIT JAM Biotechnology — Short Notes Unit: Evolution

Patterns of Evolution

Divergent evolution
Common ancestry, homologous structures

Convergent evolution
Different ancestry, analogous structures

Parallel evolution
Closely related lineages evolve similarly

Co-evolution
Reciprocal evolutionary change

Homoplasy
Homoplasy refers to the similarity between traits that is not derived from a common ancestor but
arises due to convergent or parallel evolution. Homoplastic traits can complicate phylogenetic
reconstruction if not identified correctly.

Key Points

• Includes convergent and parallel evolution

• Results in analogous characters
• Misleading in evolutionary inference

Examples

• Wings of insects and birds

• Camera-type eyes in vertebrates and cephalopods

Adaptive Radiation
Adaptive radiation is the rapid diversification of a single ancestral species into multiple descen-
dant species, each adapted to occupy a distinct ecological niche. This process is usually triggered
by ecological opportunity such as availability of vacant niches or major environmental change.

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IIT JAM Biotechnology — Short Notes Unit: Evolution

Conditions Leading to Adaptive Radiation

• Availability of unoccupied ecological niches
• Environmental disturbances or mass extinctions
• Evolution of key adaptive traits
• Geographic isolation preventing gene flow

Classic Examples
Darwin’s Finches of Galápagos Islands

An ancestral finch species colonized the Galápagos Islands and subsequently diversified into
several species. Natural selection acted on variations in beak size and shape, allowing different
species to exploit different food sources such as seeds, insects, and cactus nectar.

• Demonstrates divergence from a common ancestor

• Beak morphology reflects feeding specialization
• Strong evidence of natural selection

Australian Marsupials

In Australia, marsupials underwent extensive adaptive radiation due to long-term geographic

isolation. They evolved into diverse forms occupying niches similar to placental mammals in
other continents.

• Kangaroo – grazing herbivore

• Koala – arboreal herbivore

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IIT JAM Biotechnology — Short Notes Unit: Evolution

• Tasmanian wolf – carnivorous form

• Independent radiation from placental mammals

Pattern of Evolutionary Change

Cladogenesis
Cladogenesis refers to branching evolution in which a single ancestral species splits into two
or more distinct species. This process increases biodiversity and is commonly associated with
adaptive radiation.

Key Features

• Branching pattern of evolution

• Increase in number of species

Example

• Diversification of mammals

Anagenesis
Anagenesis refers to evolutionary change within a single lineage without branching. In this
process, one species gradually transforms into another over time.

Key Features

• No increase in species diversity

• One species replaces another

Example

• Evolution of the horse lineage

Tempo of Evolution

Phyletic Gradualism
Phyletic gradualism proposes that evolutionary change occurs slowly and continuously through
the accumulation of small genetic variations over long periods. Transitional forms are expected
to be common in the fossil record.

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IIT JAM Biotechnology — Short Notes Unit: Evolution

Key Features

• Continuous and slow evolution

• Gradual accumulation of changes

Example

• Gradual increase in body size of horses

Punctuated Equilibrium
Punctuated equilibrium proposes that species remain relatively unchanged for long periods (sta-
sis), interrupted by short bursts of rapid evolutionary change associated with speciation events.

Key Features

• Proposed by Eldredge and Gould

• Long periods of stasis
• Rapid evolutionary change during speciation

Mouse Example

• Chromosomal rearrangements in isolated mouse populations

• Rapid reproductive isolation

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IIT JAM Biotechnology — Short Notes Unit: Evolution

Nature of Evolution

Microevolution
Microevolution refers to evolutionary changes occurring within populations, involving shifts in
allele frequencies over generations. These changes are driven by mutation, selection, drift, and
gene flow.

Mechanisms

• Mutation
• Natural selection
• Genetic drift
• Gene flow

Macroevolution
Macroevolution refers to large-scale evolutionary changes occurring above the species level, lead-
ing to the origin of new taxa and major evolutionary trends.

Key Processes

• Speciation
• Adaptive radiation
• Mass extinction
• Origin of higher taxonomic groups

Relationship: Macroevolution is the cumulative outcome of microevolutionary processes

acting over long evolutionary time scales.

Nature of Evolution

Microevolution Macroevolution
Allele frequency changes Evolution above species level
Within populations Speciation and radiation

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IIT JAM Biotechnology — Short Notes Unit: Evolution

Quick Revision Summary

• Evolution follows distinct patterns such as convergent, divergent, parallel, and co-evolution.
• Homoplasy represents similarity not due to common ancestry.
• Adaptive radiation results in rapid diversification under ecological opportunity.
• Cladogenesis increases species number, while anagenesis modifies a lineage.
• Phyletic gradualism and punctuated equilibrium explain different evolutionary tempos.
• Microevolution drives allele frequency change; macroevolution explains large-scale diver-
sity.

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8
 Evolution
Phylogenetic Classification
IIT JAM Biotechnology— Short Notes Unit: Evolution

Phylogenetic Classification

Introduction
Phylogenetic classification is a system of biological classification that reflects the evolutionary
relationships among organisms. It is based on the principle of common ancestry and repre-
sents the evolutionary history of organisms in the form of phylogenetic trees. Unlike artificial
or natural classification, phylogenetic classification incorporates information from morphol-
ogy, embryology, paleontology, and molecular data such as DNA and protein sequences.
The primary objective of phylogenetic classification is to reconstruct evolutionary pathways
and depict patterns of descent with modification.

Phylogenetic Tree: Basic Components

A phylogenetic tree is a branching diagram that represents evolutionary relationships among
organisms or genes.

Root

The root represents the most recent common ancestor of all taxa included in the tree. It
indicates the direction of evolutionary time.

Branches

Branches represent evolutionary lineages. Their length may or may not correspond to evolu-
tionary change or time depending on the type of tree.

Nodes

• Internal nodes: Represent hypothetical common ancestors.

• External (terminal) nodes: Represent existing taxa or operational taxonomic units (OTUs).

Outgroup

An outgroup is a taxon that is known to be less closely related to the ingroup taxa. It is
used to root an unrooted phylogenetic tree and to identify ancestral and derived character
states.

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IIT JAM Biotechnology— Short Notes Unit: Evolution

Branch Length and Tree Scaling

Unscaled (Cladogram)

In unscaled trees, branch length has no evolutionary meaning. Only the branching order
(topology) is significant.

Scaled Trees

• Phylogram: Branch length represents amount of evolutionary change.

• Chronogram: Branch length represents time.

Molecular Clock Hypothesis

The molecular clock hypothesis proposes that mutations in DNA or protein sequences ac-
cumulate at an approximately constant rate over time. By comparing sequence divergence,
the time of evolutionary separation between taxa can be estimated.
Molecular clocks are used to construct chronograms, where branch lengths represent evo-
lutionary time.
Exam Trap: Molecular clocks are not perfectly constant across all genes or lineages.

Topology and Branching Pattern

Topology refers to the branching order of taxa and is independent of branch length or orien-
tation.

Dichotomy

A dichotomous branching pattern where one ancestral lineage splits into exactly two descen-
dant lineages.

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IIT JAM Biotechnology— Short Notes Unit: Evolution

Polytomy

A node giving rise to more than two descendant lineages, indicating either rapid radiation or
unresolved relationships.

Types of Evolutionary Groupings

Monophyletic Group (Clade)

A monophyletic group includes a common ancestor and all of its descendants. This is the
only group accepted in true phylogenetic classification.

Paraphyletic Group

Includes a common ancestor but not all of its descendants.

Polyphyletic Group

Includes taxa with different ancestors and does not include their most recent common ances-
tor.

Ancestor Concept in Phylogeny

Ancestors in phylogenetic trees are represented as internal nodes. They are hypothetical
constructs inferred from available data and represent populations rather than individual or-
ganisms.

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IIT JAM Biotechnology— Short Notes Unit: Evolution

Genes in Phylogenetic Analysis

Role of Genes in Phylogeny
Genes serve as molecular markers to infer evolutionary relationships. Sequence comparison
allows estimation of divergence and ancestry.

Types of Homologous Genes

Orthologous Genes

Genes in different species that evolved from a common ancestral gene due to speciation. They
retain similar functions.
Example: Hemoglobin genes in humans and chimpanzees.

Paralogous Genes

Genes related by duplication within the same genome. They may evolve new functions.
Example: α and β globin genes.

Analogous Genes

Genes or traits with similar function but different evolutionary origins. They are not useful
for phylogenetic reconstruction.
Example: Wings of birds and insects (functional analogy).

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IIT JAM Biotechnology— Short Notes Unit: Evolution

Orthologous
Paralogous
Analogous

Molecular Basis
DNA / Protein sequences
Homologous genes
Root
Branches
Nodes
(Internal & External)

Phylogenetic Tree Phylogenetic Classification

Graphical representation Evolutionary relationships

Topology
Branching pattern
Dichotomy / Polytomy

Evolutionary Groupings

Monophyletic Paraphyletic Polyphyletic

(True clade)

Types of Phylogenetic Groups

Feature Monophyletic Paraphyletic Polyphyletic

Common ancestor Present Present Absent
All descendants included Yes No No
Accepted in phylogeny Yes No No

Homologous vs Analogous Genes

Feature Homologous Analogous

Common ancestry Yes No
Function similarity May vary Similar
Phylogenetic utility High None

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IIT JAM Biotechnology— Short Notes Unit: Evolution

Root

Internal node Internal node

Taxon A Taxon B

Basic structure of a phylogenetic tree

Quick Revision Summary

• Phylogenetic classification reflects evolutionary history.
• Tree topology shows branching relationships.
• Only monophyletic groups are valid.
• Polytomy indicates unresolved or rapid evolution.
• Orthologs are best for phylogenetic inference.
• Analogous traits mislead phylogenetic analysis.

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 Evolution
Population Genetics
IIT JAM Biotechnology — Short Notes Unit: Evolution

Population Genetics

Introduction to Population Genetics

Population genetics is the branch of evolutionary biology that studies the distribution of genetic
variation within populations and the mechanisms that cause changes in allele frequencies over
generations. It provides the genetic basis of evolution by integrating Mendelian inheritance with
evolutionary forces such as natural selection, mutation, migration, and genetic drift. Evolution
at the population level is defined as a change in allele frequencies with time.

Gene Pool, Allele and Allele Frequency

A population possesses a collective reservoir of genetic information known as the gene pool.
Evolutionary forces act on the gene pool rather than on individuals.
• Gene pool refers to the total set of all alleles present in a population at a given time.
• An allele is an alternative form of a gene present at the same locus.
• Allele frequency is the relative proportion of a particular allele among all alleles of that
gene in the population.
For a gene with two alleles A and a:

p = frequency of A, q = frequency of a, p+q =1

Hardy–Weinberg Principle
The Hardy–Weinberg principle serves as a null model for evolution. It states that allele and
genotype frequencies remain constant from generation to generation in a population that is not
evolving. Any deviation from Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium indicates the operation of one or
more evolutionary forces.

Assumptions of Hardy–Weinberg Equilibrium

• Infinitely large population

• Random mating
• No mutation
• No migration or gene flow
• No natural selection
• Equal allele frequencies in both sexes

Genotype Frequencies and Mathematical Model

For a diploid organism with two alleles A and a, random mating results in the following genotype
frequencies:
(p + q)2 = p2 + 2pq + q 2 = 1

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IIT JAM Biotechnology — Short Notes Unit: Evolution

• p2 represents homozygous dominant genotype (AA)

• 2pq represents heterozygous genotype (Aa)
• q 2 represents homozygous recessive genotype (aa)

These frequencies remain constant across generations under equilibrium conditions.

Non-random Mating and Population Deviation

Non-random mating alters genotype frequencies but does not immediately change allele frequen-
cies. The biologically important forms include inbreeding and outbreeding.

Inbreeding

Inbreeding involves mating between genetically related individuals. It increases homozygosity

and reduces heterozygosity, thereby exposing deleterious recessive alleles.

• Increase in homozygous genotypes

• Reduction in genetic variation
• No direct change in allele frequencies

Outbreeding

Outbreeding occurs between genetically unrelated individuals and promotes heterozygosity, often
increasing genetic diversity and population fitness.

Inbreeding Coefficient
The inbreeding coefficient F represents the probability that two alleles at a locus are identical
by descent.
He − Ho
F =
He
where He is expected heterozygosity and Ho is observed heterozygosity.

Inbreeding Depression
Inbreeding depression refers to the reduction in biological fitness due to increased homozygosity
of harmful recessive alleles.

• Reduced survival
• Reduced fertility
• Increased disease susceptibility

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IIT JAM Biotechnology — Short Notes Unit: Evolution

Genetic Drift
Genetic drift is the random fluctuation of allele frequencies due to chance events associated with
finite population size. It is a non-adaptive evolutionary force and operates independently of
natural selection. The effects of genetic drift are strongest in small populations, where random
sampling can significantly alter allele frequencies across generations.

Characteristics of Genetic Drift

• Changes in allele frequencies are random and unpredictable

• Stronger effects in small populations
• Leads to fixation or loss of alleles
• Reduces genetic variation within populations
• Increases homozygosity
• Can cause divergence among isolated populations

Types of Genetic Drift

• Founder effect occurs when a small number of individuals establish a new population.
The new population carries only a subset of alleles from the original population, leading
to altered allele frequencies. Example: High frequency of certain genetic disorders in the
Amish population due to founding by a limited number of individuals.
• Bottleneck effect occurs when a population undergoes a sudden and drastic reduction in
size due to environmental disasters or human activities. The surviving population retains
only a small fraction of the original genetic [Link]: Northern elephant seals
experienced severe loss of genetic diversity due to excessive hunting in the nineteenth
century.

Consequences of Genetic Drift

– Random loss of alleles

– Reduced adaptive potential
– Increased inbreeding
– Genetic differentiation between populations
– Possible role in speciation

Founder Effect and Bottleneck Effect Comparison

Feature Founder Effect Bottleneck Effect
Population size Initially small Suddenly reduced
Cause Colonization Environmental disturbance
Genetic diversity Limited subset Severely reduced

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IIT JAM Biotechnology — Short Notes Unit: Evolution

Conceptual Diagram of Genetic Drift

Large Population
High Genetic Variation

Random Sampling

Small Population
Reduced Genetic Variation

Quick Revision Summary

– Evolution occurs through changes in allele frequencies.
– Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium represents a non-evolving population.
– Inbreeding increases homozygosity and may cause inbreeding depression.
– Genetic drift is a random, non-adaptive force strongest in small populations.
– Founder and bottleneck effects reduce genetic diversity.
– Loss of variation limits future evolutionary potential.

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