MODULE 3 — TRANSFORMERS

Exam Preparation: Question & Answer Guide

SECTION A: THEORY QUESTIONS

Q1. Define a transformer. Discuss the principle of operation of a single-phase
transformer. [2 Marks]
Definition: A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or
more circuits through electromagnetic induction, without any electrical contact between them. It can
step up or step down AC voltage and current.

Principle of Operation:

• It works on the principle of Mutual Induction.

• When AC is applied to the primary winding, it creates an alternating magnetic flux in the core.
• This alternating flux links with the secondary winding and induces an EMF in it (by Faraday's
Law).
• If secondary circuit is closed, current flows and power is transferred from primary to secondary.
• Turns ratio: V1/V2 = N1/N2

Q2. Distinguish between core type and shell type transformer. Why is the low voltage
winding placed near the core? Why is the core laminated? [5 Marks]

Feature Core Type Shell Type

Core shape Simple rectangular core Core surrounds the windings
Winding Windings surround the core Core surrounds windings
Flux path Single magnetic circuit Double magnetic circuit
Cooling Better cooling of windings Less efficient cooling
Repair Easy to repair/dismantle Difficult to repair
Use High voltage applications Low voltage, high current use

Why LV winding is placed near the core?

• LV winding requires less insulation than HV winding.

• Placing LV near core reduces insulation cost and thickness.
• It also reduces leakage flux and improves efficiency.
Why is the core laminated?

• To reduce Eddy Current Losses.

• Eddy currents are induced in the core due to alternating flux. Laminating the core (thin sheets
with insulation between them) increases resistance to eddy currents, reducing energy loss as
heat.

Q3. Derive an expression for the EMF induced in a transformer winding. [5 Marks]
Derivation of EMF Equation:
 Let: N = number of turns, Φm = maximum flux (Wb), f = frequency (Hz)
• Flux varies sinusoidally: Φ = Φm sin(2πft)
• Rate of change of flux = dΦ/dt = 2πf Φm cos(2πft)
• Instantaneous EMF: e = N × dΦ/dt = N × 2πf Φm cos(2πft)
• Maximum EMF: Emax = 2πf N Φm
• RMS EMF: E = 4.44 × f × N × Φm
So: E1 = 4.44 f N1 Φm and E2 = 4.44 f N2 Φm
The constant 4.44 = 2π/√2 = 4.44 (form factor for sine wave)

Q4. Define an ideal transformer. Draw and explain the no-load phasor diagram of an ideal
single-phase transformer. [5 Marks]
Ideal Transformer: A transformer with no losses, no leakage flux, and infinite permeability of core.

Assumptions:

• No copper loss (zero winding resistance)

• No iron/core loss
• 100% flux linkage (no leakage flux)
• Infinite permeability of core
No-load Phasor Diagram (Ideal):

• V1 (applied voltage) is taken as reference phasor.

• Φ (core flux) lags V1 by 90° (in ideal case).
• E1 (primary induced EMF) is 180° opposite to V1.
• E2 (secondary induced EMF) is in phase with E1.
• Magnetizing current Im is in phase with Φ (lagging V1 by 90°).
• At no load: I1 = I0 (small magnetizing current only)

Q5. Draw the exact equivalent circuit of a transformer and describe briefly the various
parameters involved. [5 Marks]
The exact equivalent circuit refers all quantities to one side (usually primary) and includes:

Series Parameters (Winding Resistance & Leakage Reactance):

• R1, X1 = Primary winding resistance and leakage reactance

• R2', X2' = Secondary resistance and reactance referred to primary
R2' = a2R2, X2' = a2X2 where a = N1/N2 (turns ratio)
Shunt (Parallel) Parameters (Representing Core):

• R0 = Core loss resistance (accounts for hysteresis + eddy current losses)

• Xm = Magnetizing reactance (accounts for magnetizing current)
• These are connected in parallel across the primary terminals.
Total equivalent resistance referred to primary: Req = R1 + a2R2
Total equivalent reactance referred to primary: Xeq = X1 + a2X2
Q6. Draw and explain the phasor diagram of a single-phase transformer under lagging p.f.
[5 Marks]
For lagging power factor load (inductive load):

• V2 = Secondary terminal voltage (reference phasor)

• I2 = Secondary current, lags V2 by angle φ2 (lagging pf)
• E2 = V2 + I2(R2 + jX2) → E2 leads V2 slightly
• Φ (flux) lags E2 by 90°
• I0 = no-load current (has two components: Iw in phase with E1, Im lags E1 by 90°)
• I1 = I0 + I2' (where I2' = I2/a, referred to primary)
• V1 = E1 + I1(R1 + jX1)
• The angle between V1 and I1 gives the primary power factor angle φ1.

Q7. Define voltage regulation. Develop an expression for voltage regulation under (i)
lagging pf, (ii) unity pf, and (iii) leading pf. [10 Marks]
Voltage Regulation (VR): The change in secondary terminal voltage from no-load to full-load,
expressed as a percentage of full-load voltage.

Formula: % VR = (VNL - VFL) / VFL × 100

Where VNL = No-load secondary voltage, VFL = Full-load secondary voltage

Approximate Expression (referred to secondary):

% VR = εr cosφ ± εx sinφ
Where: εr = per unit resistance drop = I2Req/V2, εx = per unit reactance drop = I2Xeq/V2

(i) Lagging pf (+ sign):

% VR = εr cosφ + εx sinφ → Positive (voltage drops on load)

(ii) Unity pf (sinφ = 0):

% VR = εr cosφ = εr → Positive but smaller

(iii) Leading pf (− sign):

% VR = εr cosφ − εx sinφ → Can be negative (voltage rises on load)

Key Point: For lagging pf, VR is highest. For leading pf, VR can be negative meaning secondary
voltage is higher at full load than no load.

Q8. What are the different types of losses in a transformer? Write an expression for
efficiency and develop a condition for maximum efficiency. [5 Marks]
Types of Losses:

1. Core (Iron) Losses — Constant Losses:

• Hysteresis Loss: Due to repeated magnetization and demagnetization of core. Ph ∝ f × Bm1.6

• Eddy Current Loss: Due to currents induced in core. Pe ∝ f2 × Bm2
• These losses are constant at fixed voltage and frequency. (Pi = core loss)
2. Copper (I2R) Losses — Variable Losses:
 • Due to resistance of windings: Pcu = I12R1 + I22R2
• Varies with load (proportional to square of current)

Efficiency Expression:

η = Output / Input = Output / (Output + Losses)

η = x × S × cosφ / (x × S × cosφ + Pi + x2 × Pcu)
Where: x = fraction of full load, S = rated kVA, cosφ = power factor

Condition for Maximum Efficiency:

Differentiate η with respect to x and set to zero:

Core loss (Pi) = Copper loss (x2 × Pcu)
i.e., Iron losses = Copper losses at maximum efficiency
Load for max efficiency: x = √(Pi / Pcu(FL))

Q9. Explain why: (i) OC test at rated voltage, (ii) LV side excited for OC test, (iii) OC test
gives core loss & SC test gives copper loss, (iv) LV shorted and HV excited for SC test.
[10 Marks]
(i) OC test conducted at rated voltage:

• Core losses depend on flux density, which depends on applied voltage.

• At rated voltage → rated flux → actual core losses are measured accurately.

(ii) LV winding excited for OC test:

• LV side has lower voltage rating → safer and easier to supply rated voltage.
• Instruments on LV side are standard range (cheaper, practical).
• HV side is open — no risk of high voltage on measuring instruments.

(iii) OC test → Core loss; SC test → Copper loss:

• OC Test: Secondary is open, so no load current flows. Primary carries only the small no-load
current I0. Copper loss = I02R ≈ negligible. Wattmeter reads only core loss.
• SC Test: A small voltage (5–10% of rated) is applied to circulate full-load current. Since voltage
is low, flux is very small → core loss is negligible. Wattmeter reads only copper loss (I2R loss).

(iv) LV shorted and HV excited for SC test:

• HV side has more turns → impedance is higher → only a small voltage (safe to handle) is
needed to circulate full-load current.
• LV is short circuited to allow current to flow without needing a load.
• This way, full-load copper loss is measured at a safely low voltage.

Q12. What is an auto transformer? State its merits and demerits over a two-winding
transformer. What are its applications? [5 Marks]
Auto Transformer: A transformer with a single winding, part of which is common to both primary
and secondary circuits. It has electrical as well as magnetic connection between primary and
secondary.
Merits over Two-Winding Transformer:

• Less copper required → lower cost and lighter weight

• Higher efficiency (less copper loss)
• Better voltage regulation
• Smaller in size for same kVA rating
• Variable output voltage possible (variac type)

Demerits over Two-Winding Transformer:

• No electrical isolation between primary and secondary (safety risk)

• If common winding breaks, full HV appears on LV side (dangerous)
• Not suitable where isolation is necessary (e.g., medical equipment)
• Short circuit current is higher

Applications:

• Starting of induction and synchronous motors (reduced voltage starting)

• Laboratory variacs (variable AC voltage supply)
• Power transmission interconnecting systems of slightly different voltages
• As a booster to raise voltage in AC feeders
• In audio amplifiers for impedance matching

Best of luck for your exam! — Module 3 Transformers Summary