MODULE 2 — BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

AC Circuits, Waveforms, Resonance & Three Phase — Exam Q&A; Guide

SECTION A: AC FUNDAMENTALS — DEFINITIONS & THEORY

Q1. Explain with the help of a diagram how alternating current is generated. [2 Marks]
Generation of AC:
• A rectangular coil is rotated in a uniform magnetic field between two poles (N and S).
• As the coil rotates, the flux linking the coil changes continuously.
• By Faraday's Law, an EMF is induced: e = NBAω sinωt = Em sinωt
• When coil is parallel to field → max EMF. When perpendicular → zero EMF.
• This produces a sinusoidal (alternating) voltage/current that reverses direction every half cycle.

Q2. Define: (a) Amplitude, (b) Instantaneous value, (c) Frequency, (d) Phase, (e) Phase
difference, (f) Time period. [2 Marks]
(a) Amplitude (Peak Value): The maximum value reached by an alternating quantity in either
direction. Denoted as Vm or Im.
(b) Instantaneous Value: The value of an alternating quantity at any particular instant of time.
e.g., v = Vm sinωt
(c) Frequency (f): Number of complete cycles completed per second. Unit: Hertz (Hz). f = 1/T
(d) Phase: The position of the waveform with respect to a time reference. Indicates how far the
wave has progressed in its cycle.
(e) Phase Difference: The angular difference between two sinusoidal quantities of the same
frequency. If v = Vmsin(ωt+φ), then φ is the phase difference.
(f) Time Period (T): Time taken to complete one full cycle. T = 1/f seconds.

Q3. Define RMS and Average value of an alternating quantity. Explain how these values
can be obtained. [2 Marks]
RMS (Root Mean Square) Value:
The RMS value is the equivalent DC value that produces the same heating effect. It is the square
root of the mean of the squares of all instantaneous values over one cycle.
For a sine wave: Vrms = Vm / √2 = 0.707 Vm
Average Value:
The average of all instantaneous values over one half cycle (full cycle average = 0 for sinusoid).
For a sine wave: Vavg = 2Vm / π = 0.637 Vm
How to obtain: RMS = √(average of squared values over full cycle). Average = area under curve
/ base length (over half cycle for sine).

Q4. Define Form Factor and Peak Factor of an alternating quantity.

Form Factor (Kf): Ratio of RMS value to Average value.
Kf = RMS Value / Average Value = 0.707 Vm / 0.637 Vm = 1.11 (for sine wave)
 Peak Factor (Kp) / Crest Factor: Ratio of Peak (maximum) value to RMS value.
Kp = Peak Value / RMS Value = Vm / 0.707 Vm = √2 = 1.414 (for sine wave)
• Form factor indicates the shape of the waveform.
• Peak factor is important for insulation design (must withstand peak voltage).

Q5. Explain with diagrams: In phase, Lagging and Leading as applied to sinusoidal
quantities. [2 Marks]
In Phase: Two quantities are in phase when they reach their maximum and zero values at the
same time. Phase difference = 0°.
e.g., v = Vmsinωt and i = Imsinωt → both peak together.
Lagging: Current lags voltage when it reaches its peak AFTER the voltage.
e.g., i = Imsin(ωt − φ) → current lags voltage by φ degrees. (Inductive circuits)
Leading: Current leads voltage when it reaches its peak BEFORE the voltage.
e.g., i = Imsin(ωt + φ) → current leads voltage by φ degrees. (Capacitive circuits)
Phasor Diagram: Lagging phasor is drawn clockwise (behind); Leading phasor is drawn
anticlockwise (ahead) of reference.

Q6. Define power factor as applied to AC circuits. What do you mean by active power,
reactive power and apparent power? [2 Marks]
Power Factor (p.f.): Cosine of the phase angle between voltage and current.
p.f. = cosφ = Active Power / Apparent Power = R / Z
Range: 0 to 1. Unity pf = purely resistive. Zero pf = purely reactive.

Power Type Symbol Formula Unit Meaning

Active (Real) Power P VI cosφ Watt (W) Actual power consumed

Reactive Power Q VI sinφ VAR Power stored/released (no work done)

Apparent Power S VI VA Total power supplied by source

2 2 2
Relation: S = P + Q

Q7. Explain the meaning of: inductance, capacitance, reactance, impedance, admittance,
susceptance, conductance. [2 Marks]
(a) Inductance (L): Property of coil to oppose change in current. Unit: Henry (H). VL = L di/dt
(b) Capacitance (C): Property of capacitor to store charge. Unit: Farad (F). IC = C dv/dt
(c) Reactance (X): Opposition to AC due to L or C (no energy consumed).
• Inductive Reactance: XL = ωL = 2πfL (Ω) • Capacitive Reactance: XC = 1/ωC (Ω)
(d) Impedance (Z): Total opposition to AC flow. Z = R + jX. |Z| = √(R2+X2) (Ω)
(e) Admittance (Y): Reciprocal of impedance. Y = 1/Z (Siemens, S). Measures ease of current
flow.
(f) Susceptance (B): Imaginary part of admittance. B = X/Z2 (Siemens). Reciprocal of reactance.
(g) Conductance (G): Real part of admittance. G = R/Z2 (Siemens). Reciprocal of resistance.

Q8. Show that power consumed in a purely inductive and purely capacitive circuit is zero.
[2 Marks]
 Purely Inductive Circuit:
• Applied voltage: v = Vm sinωt
• Current lags voltage by 90°: i = Im sin(ωt − 90°) = −Im cosωt
• Instantaneous power: p = v × i = Vmsinωt × (−Imcosωt)
• p = −(VmIm/2) sin2ωt → Average over full cycle = ZERO
• Energy stored in magnetic field during first half cycle is returned to source in second half.

Purely Capacitive Circuit:

• Current leads voltage by 90°: i = Im sin(ωt + 90°) = Im cosωt
• Instantaneous power: p = Vmsinωt × Imcosωt = (VmIm/2) sin2ωt
• Average over full cycle = ZERO
• Conclusion: p.f. = cos90° = 0, so P = VI cos90° = 0 for both L and C.

Q9. Explain with the help of a diagram the phenomenon of resonance in series R-L-C
circuit. [2 Marks]
Series Resonance: Occurs when inductive reactance equals capacitive reactance.
Condition: XL = XC → ωL = 1/ωC
Resonant Frequency: fr = 1 / (2π√LC)
At Resonance:
• Net reactance = 0, so Z = R (minimum impedance)
• Current is maximum: I = V/R
• Voltage and current are in phase (pf = 1, unity)
• Voltage across L and C can be very large (Q × Vsupply)
• Power consumed is maximum
Graph shows: Current peaks sharply at fr; Z is minimum at fr; circuit is called ACCEPTOR circuit
(accepts maximum current).

Q11. Derive the quality factor of a series R-L-C circuit at resonance. [2 Marks]
Quality Factor (Q): Measure of sharpness of resonance. Ratio of energy stored to energy
dissipated per cycle.
Q = (Voltage across L or C) / (Supply Voltage)
At resonance: VL = IXL = (V/R) × ωL
Q = ωL/R = 1/(ωCR) = (1/R)√(L/C)
• High Q → sharp resonance peak → more selective circuit
• Low Q → broad resonance → less selective

Q12. Define quality factor in series R-L-C. Determine the half power frequencies in terms
of Q factor and resonant frequency. [2 Marks]
Q Factor: Q = fr / Bandwidth = fr / (f2 − f1)
Half Power Frequencies (f1 and f2): Frequencies at which power = half of maximum power
(current = Imax/√2).
 Bandwidth: BW = f2 − f1 = fr/Q = R/(2πL)
Lower half-power frequency: f1 = fr − BW/2 = fr(1 − 1/2Q)
Upper half-power frequency: f2 = fr + BW/2 = fr(1 + 1/2Q)
Also: fr = √(f1 × f2) (geometric mean of half-power frequencies)

Q13. Why is a series resonant circuit called an acceptor circuit and parallel resonant
circuit a rejector circuit? [2 Marks]
Series Resonant Circuit = Acceptor Circuit:
• At resonance, impedance is MINIMUM (Z = R only).
• Current is MAXIMUM at resonant frequency.
• Circuit 'accepts' maximum current at fr → called ACCEPTOR circuit.

Parallel Resonant Circuit = Rejector Circuit:

• At resonance, impedance is MAXIMUM.
• Current drawn from supply is MINIMUM at resonant frequency.
• Circuit 'rejects' current at fr → called REJECTOR circuit.
• Used in radio tuners to reject unwanted frequencies.

SECTION B: THREE PHASE CIRCUITS

Q26. Derive the relationship between line current and phase current for Delta connected
3-phase load. [5 Marks]
Delta (∆) Connection:
• Each phase winding is connected between two lines.
• Line voltage = Phase voltage: VL = VPh
Line Current vs Phase Current:
• Each line carries currents from two phase windings.
• Using KCL at each node and phasor addition:
IR = IRY − IBR (phasor difference)
• Since phase currents are 120° apart:
|IL| = √3 × |IPh|
• Line current lags corresponding phase current by 30°.
Summary for Delta: VL = VPh, IL = √3 × IPh

Q27. Derive the relationship between line voltage, phase voltage, line current and phase
current in 3-phase Star and Delta connected circuits. [5 Marks]
Star (Y) Connection:
• Each phase winding is connected between one line and the neutral point.
• Phase current = Line current: IL = IPh
• Line voltage is phasor difference of two phase voltages (120° apart):
VL = √3 × VPh (Line voltage leads phase voltage by 30°)
 Delta (∆) Connection:
• Phase voltage = Line voltage: VL = VPh
• Line current is phasor difference of two phase currents:
IL = √3 × IPh (Line current lags phase current by 30°)

Parameter Star (Y) Delta (∆)

Line Voltage V_L = √3 × V_Ph V_L = V_Ph
Phase Voltage V_Ph = V_L / √3 V_Ph = V_L
Line Current I_L = I_Ph I_L = √3 × I_Ph
Phase Current I_Ph = I_L I_Ph = I_L / √3
3-Phase Power P = √3 V_L I_L cosφ P = √3 V_L I_L cosφ

SECTION C: ADDITIONAL THEORY QUESTIONS

Q. Derive an expression for the instantaneous value of alternating sinusoidal EMF in
terms of maximum value, angular frequency and time. [5 Marks]
Derivation:
• A coil of N turns rotates at angular speed ω in a uniform magnetic field B.
• At any instant t, flux linking the coil: Φ = NBAcosωt
• By Faraday's Law: e = −dΦ/dt = NBAω sinωt
• Let Em = NBAω = maximum EMF
∴ e = Em sinωt
Where:
• Em = maximum (peak) EMF in Volts
• ω = 2πf = angular frequency in rad/s
• t = time in seconds
• If initial phase angle is φ: e = Em sin(ωt + φ)

Q. Prove that average power consumption in a pure inductor is zero when AC voltage is
applied. [5 Marks]
Proof:
• Let applied voltage: v = Vm sinωt
• In pure inductor, current lags voltage by 90°:
i = Im sin(ωt − 90°) = −Im cosωt
• Instantaneous power: p = v × i = Vmsinωt × (−Imcosωt)
p = −(VmIm/2) × sin2ωt
• Average power over one full cycle:
Pavg = (1/2π) ∫ p d(ωt) = 0
∴ Average power = ZERO
• During first quarter cycle, energy is stored in the magnetic field of inductor.
• During next quarter, same energy is returned to supply.
• Net energy consumed = 0. Power factor of pure inductor = cos90° = 0.
Q5. Define and explain: (i) Time period, (ii) Amplitude, (iii) Phase difference. [5 Marks]
(i) Time Period (T):
Time required to complete one full cycle of an alternating quantity.
T = 1/f seconds (e.g., for 50 Hz supply: T = 1/50 = 0.02 s)

(ii) Amplitude (Peak Value):

The maximum positive or negative value attained by an alternating quantity during one cycle.
Denoted as Vm (for voltage) or Im (for current). It is the height of the waveform.

(iii) Phase Difference:

The angular difference (in degrees or radians) between two sinusoidal quantities of the same
frequency.
If v = Vmsin(ωt) and i = Imsin(ωt − φ), then φ is the phase difference.
• φ > 0 → current lags voltage (lagging) | φ < 0 → current leads voltage (leading)

Q6. What is the RMS value of an AC quantity? Obtain expression for RMS value of a
sinusoidal current in terms of its maximum value. [5 Marks]
RMS (Root Mean Square) Value:
The RMS value is that steady DC current which produces the same heating effect in a given
resistance as the AC current over one complete cycle.
Derivation for sinusoidal current i = Imsinωt:
• Mean of squared values over one cycle:
Irms2 = (1/2π) ∫ i2 d(ωt) from 0 to 2π
= (1/2π) ∫ Im2sin2ωt d(ωt)
= (Im2/2π) × π = Im2/2
• Taking square root:
Irms = Im / √2 = 0.707 Im
Similarly: Vrms = Vm / √2 = 0.707 Vm
• All AC meters (voltmeter, ammeter) read RMS values.

Q7. Deduce an expression for average power in a single-phase series R-L circuit and
explain the term power factor. [5 Marks]
Series R-L Circuit:
• Let: v = Vmsinωt, and current lags by φ: i = Imsin(ωt − φ)
• Instantaneous power: p = v × i = Vmsinωt × Imsin(ωt − φ)
• Expanding using trig identity:
p = (VmIm/2)[cosφ − cos(2ωt − φ)]
• Averaging over one cycle: cos(2ωt−φ) averages to zero
Pavg = (VmIm/2) cosφ = Vrms × Irms × cosφ
∴ P = VI cosφ Watts

Power Factor (cosφ):

• The factor cosφ is called the power factor of the circuit.
• It is the ratio of active power to apparent power: cosφ = P / S = R / Z
• Unity p.f. (cosφ=1): all power is active (purely resistive)
• Zero p.f. (cosφ=0): no active power consumed (purely reactive)

All the best for your exam! — Module 2 AC Circuits & Three Phase Summary