Department Metallurgical Engineering

Subject Introduction to Hydrometallurgy

Level NQF level 8

Tutorial Questions
Examiner: Mr. P. Chamboko

Question 1
A copper heap leach operation processes 500,000 tonnes of oxide ore at 0.45% Cu. The leach
solution contains 15 g/L H₂SO₄ and circulates at 800 m³/h.

a) Calculate the theoretical maximum copper that can be extracted per day if leaching is 100%
efficient.

b) If actual copper recovery is 72% after 60 days, determine the actual copper production rate in
tonnes per day.

c) The mine plans to increase throughput to 750,000 tonnes. What adjustments to the leach
solution flow rate or acid concentration would you recommend to maintain the same copper
recovery? Justify your answer with calculations.

Question 2
A gold ore has 85% passing 75 μm after grinding. The dissolution rate of gold in cyanide is 3.25
mg/cm²·hr. A native gold particle has a surface area of 0.25 cm².

a) Calculate the time required to completely dissolve this gold particle.

b) If the particle is flattened with two sides exposed, what would be the total dissolution time for
a particle initially 25 microns thick?

c) The mill superintendent suggests reducing grind size to 90% passing 53 μm. Evaluate the
impact on energy consumption versus gold recovery. What would you recommend and why?

Question 3
The shrinking core model is applied to a chalcopyrite particle leaching with ferric sulfate.
a) Derive the expressions for time to complete conversion when the rate is controlled by: (i)
diffusion through the product layer, and (ii) chemical reaction at the particle surface.

b) For a particle radius of 150 μm, a chemical reaction rate constant of 2.5×10⁻⁵ m/s, and diffusion
coefficient of 3×10⁻⁹ m²/s, determine which mechanism is rate-controlling.

c) The ore mineralogy shows that chalcopyrite is disseminated within a pyrite matrix. How would
this affect your leaching strategy? Propose modifications to the leach conditions.

Question 4
A nickel laterite ore contains 1.8% Ni as NiO and 45% Fe as Fe₂O₃. You are designing an
atmospheric leach using sulfuric acid.

a) Write the balanced reactions for NiO and Fe₂O₃ dissolution.

b) If acid consumption is 0.5 tonnes H₂SO₄ per tonne of ore, calculate the acid required for a 200
tpd operation and the amount of iron that will report to solution.

c) The pregnant solution contains 8 g/L Ni and 35 g/L Fe. Propose a selective precipitation
method to separate nickel from iron. What pH range would you maintain and why?

Question 5
A refractory gold ore contains 6.5 g/t gold locked in pyrite and arsenopyrite. Direct cyanidation
yields only 38% recovery.

a) Explain why this ore is refractory and identify the cyanicides present.

b) Design a pretreatment flowsheet to improve gold recovery. Justify each unit operation with
thermodynamic or kinetic reasoning.

c) Calculate the expected recovery if 95% of the sulfide minerals are oxidized, and 85% of the
liberated gold is leached.

Question 6
In a zinc leaching plant, 300 tonnes/day of concentrate (55% Zn as ZnS) is leached with sulfuric
acid under oxygen pressure.

a) Write the balanced reaction for pressure leaching of ZnS to produce zinc sulfate and elemental
sulfur.

b) The autoclave operates at 150°C and 700 kPa oxygen pressure. Calculate the theoretical oxygen
consumption per tonne of concentrate.

c) If the plant recovers 95% of the zinc with 98% purity, what is the daily zinc cathode production?
How does the choice of elemental sulfur versus sulfate production affect the economics?

Question 7
You are evaluating two leaching lixiviants for a copper oxide ore: H₂SO₄ at 20 g/L
costing 120/tonne, an dNH3/NH4CO3 solution costing 120/tonne, and NH3/NH4CO3 solution
costing 250/tonne.

a) Write dissolution reactions for malachite (Cu₂CO₃(OH)₂) with both lixiviants.

b) Acid consumption is 0.8 tonnes H₂SO₄ per tonne of copper extracted. Ammonia consumption
is 0.35 tonnes NH₃ per tonne of copper. Calculate reagent cost per tonne of copper for each option.

c) Which would you choose if the ore also contains 8% acid-soluble iron? Discuss selectivity and
downstream processing implications.

Question 8
The rate of gold dissolution in cyanide is given by: Rate = k[CN⁻]0.5[O₂]0.5 at 25°C.

a) What does this kinetic expression indicate about the reaction mechanism?

b) A plant operates with 0.08% NaCN and air sparging (21% O₂) at atmospheric pressure.
Calculate how the dissolution rate would change if pure oxygen is used instead of air.

c) The dissolved oxygen concentration is 7.8 mg/L at sea level. If the mine is at 1,600 m altitude
(atmospheric pressure 84 kPa), what is the new dissolved oxygen concentration? How would you
compensate for this change?

Question 9
A bioleaching operation for a chalcopyrite concentrate uses Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans at pH
1.8 and 35°C. The bacterial population is 10⁸ cells/mL.

a) Explain the role of bacteria in the oxidation of chalcopyrite, including the ferric/ferrous cycle.

b) The oxidation rate is 0.25 g Cu/L·day. If the concentrate contains 28% Cu, calculate the
retention time required for 85% extraction in a continuously stirred tank reactor (CSTR) with 15%
solids.

c) Winter temperatures drop to 12°C. What happens to the bioleaching rate? Propose two
engineering solutions to maintain production.

Question 10
A uranium ore (0.12% U₃O₈) is leached with sulfuric acid in the presence of an oxidant (MnO₂).

a) Write the dissolution reaction for UO₂ (uraninite) using MnO₂ as the oxidant.

b) The leach consumes 45 kg H₂SO₄ and 8 kg MnO₂ per tonne of ore. Calculate the uranium
extraction efficiency if the final solution contains 0.85 g/L U₃O₈ at 40% solids.

c) Manganese is a potential contaminant in the liquor. How would you remove it before ion
exchange recovery of uranium?

SECTION B: THERMODYNAMICS & POURBAIX DIAGRAMS

Question 11
Construct the Eh-pH diagram for the Al-H₂O system at 25°C using the following data:
Al³⁺ + 3e⁻ = Al, E° = -1.66 V
Al³⁺ + 3H₂O = Al(OH)₃ + 3H⁺, log K = 10.8
Al(OH)₃ = AlO₂⁻ + H⁺ + H₂O, log K = -12.3
Assume ionic activity = 10⁻⁴ M for dissolved species.

a) Identify the stability regions for Al³⁺, Al(OH)₃, AlO₂⁻, and metallic Al.

b) From your diagram, determine the pH range where aluminum is most soluble.

c) If you are leaching bauxite (Al₂O₃·3H₂O) with NaOH at pH 13 and potential -1.0 V, will
aluminum dissolve? Explain using your diagram.

d) How would you use this diagram to prevent aluminum dissolution during acid leaching of other
metals?

Question 12
The Eh-pH diagram for iron shows Fe²⁺, Fe³⁺, Fe(OH)₂, Fe(OH)₃, and metallic iron.

a) Calculate the line equations for the Fe²⁺/Fe³⁺ boundary (assume equal activities of 10⁻³ M).

b) You are treating an acid mine drainage with pH 3.2 and Eh +650 mV. What iron species
predominates? If the pH is raised to 8, what happens?

c) A plant leaches a nickel laterite with iron as the major impurity. At what pH and potential would
you operate to keep iron in solution and nickel in solution? At what pH would you precipitate iron
while keeping nickel soluble?

Question 13
For the Cu-H₂O system with Cu²⁺ activity of 10⁻² M and Cu⁺ activity of 10⁻⁴ M:

a) Calculate the equilibrium potential for Cu²⁺ + 2e⁻ = Cu at pH 0 and pH 7.

b) Construct the line for Cu₂O stability: 2Cu⁺ + H₂O = Cu₂O + 2H⁺.

c) A copper heap leach solution contains 3 g/L Cu²⁺ at pH 1.8. Is copper stable as Cu²⁺ or could it
cement as metallic copper? What would cause copper cementation in the heap?

Question 14
The S-H₂O system is important in sulfide leaching.

a) Using thermodynamic data, calculate the equilibrium potential for S + 2H⁺ + 2e⁻ = H₂S at pH
0 and pH 5 (assume H₂S activity = 10⁻³ M).

b) During pressure leaching of ZnS at 150°C (Nernst equation adjusted), would elemental sulfur
or sulfate be the stable product at pH 1.5 and Eh +0.4 V?

c) If sulfate forms instead of sulfur, how does this affect: (i) oxygen consumption, (ii) acid balance,
and (iii) downstream solution purification?

Question 15
A gold cyanidation circuit operates at pH 10.5 with [CN⁻] = 0.05% and [Au(CN)₂⁻] = 15 mg/L.

a) Write the Nernst equation for Au(CN)₂⁻ + e⁻ = Au + 2CN⁻.

b) Calculate the equilibrium potential for this half-cell (E° = -0.60 V vs SHE).

c) The measured Eh of the solution is -0.45 V. Will gold dissolve or deposit? What is the driving
force (Ecell) for dissolution with oxygen (O₂ + 2H₂O + 4e⁻ = 4OH⁻, E° = 0.401 V at pH 10.5)?

Question 16
You are extracting cobalt from a laterite ore using reductive acid leaching.

a) Construct the relevant portion of the Co-H₂O diagram showing Co²⁺, Co(OH)₂, and Co₃O₄.
Given: Co²⁺ + 2e⁻ = Co, E° = -0.28 V; Co(OH)₂ + 2H⁺ = Co²⁺ + 2H₂O, log K = 10.5.

b) From your diagram, identify the stable cobalt species at pH 4 and Eh +0.2 V.

c) If you need to precipitate cobalt as Co(OH)₂ from a solution containing 50 g/L Co²⁺, what pH
range would you maintain? Calculate the Co²⁺ concentration remaining at pH 7.0.

Question 17
A complex Pb-Zn-Ag ore is being considered for hydrometallurgical treatment.

a) Using standard potentials (Pb²⁺/Pb = -0.13 V, Zn²⁺/Zn = -0.76 V, Ag⁺/Ag = +0.80 V), determine
the sequence of metal deposition during electrowinning.

b) Calculate the cell voltage required to deposit zinc from a solution with pH 2.5, [Zn²⁺] = 40 g/L,
assuming oxygen evolution at the anode (E° = 1.23 V at pH 0).

c) If the solution contains 0.5 g/L Ag⁺, at what potential will silver begin to deposit? How would
you recover silver before zinc electrowinning?

Question 18
The Ellingham diagram for oxide and sulfide stability is used to predict reduction conditions.

a) Explain why the ΔG° vs T line for 2Zn + O₂ = 2ZnO lies below that for 2C + O₂ = 2CO above
1,100°C. What does this mean for carbothermic reduction of zinc oxide?

b) For the reaction MS + O₂ = M + SO₂, how does the stability of metal sulfides compare to their
oxides?

c) A concentrate contains both Cu₂S and FeS₂. You plan to roast before leaching. Using
thermodynamic principles, predict which sulfide will oxidize first and the product gases formed.

Question 19
The Nernst equation is critical for predicting metal solubility.

a) Derive the Nernst equation from the relationship ΔG = ΔG° + RT ln K and ΔG = -nFE.

b) For the reaction: Fe³⁺ + e⁻ = Fe²⁺ (E° = 0.77 V), calculate the potential when [Fe³⁺] = 0.01 M
and [Fe²⁺] = 0.1 M at 25°C.

c) In a copper leaching solution, the [Cu²⁺]/[Cu⁺] ratio is 100:1. If E° for Cu²⁺ + e⁻ = Cu⁺ is 0.153
V, calculate the actual potential. What does this indicate about Cu⁺ stability?
Question 20
A solution contains 0.1 M Ni²⁺, 0.01 M Co²⁺, and 0.001 M Cu²⁺ at pH 4.0.

a) Using standard reduction potentials (Ni²⁺/Ni = -0.25 V, Co²⁺/Co = -0.28 V, Cu²⁺/Cu = 0.34 V),
determine which metal will plate first during electrowinning.

b) Calculate the potential at which each metal begins to deposit (assume overpotentials are
negligible).

c) If hydrogen evolution occurs at -0.20 V at pH 4 (2H⁺ + 2e⁻ = H₂, overpotential -0.15 V), which
metals can be electrowon without significant hydrogen co-evolution? Propose a separation
strategy.

SECTION C: SOLVENT EXTRACTION

Question 21
A copper SX plant processes 1,200 m³/h of PLS containing 6.5 g/L Cu at pH 1.8. The organic
phase contains 12% v/v LIX 984 in kerosene, with a maximum loading of 5.2 g/L Cu at
equilibrium.

a) Calculate the copper extraction rate in kg/h and tonnes/day.

b) The extraction stage operates at an organic:aqueous (O/A) ratio of 1.2:1. Determine the copper
concentration in the loaded organic.

c) If the copper concentration in the raffinate must be below 0.15 g/L, calculate the number of
theoretical extraction stages required using the McCabe-Thiele method (assume distribution
coefficient D = 25 at this pH).

Question 22
A nickel-cobalt separation uses DEHPA (di-2-ethylhexyl phosphoric acid) as extractant. The
extraction reaction is: M²⁺ + 2HR(org) = MR₂(org) + 2H⁺.

a) Explain why increasing pH favors extraction and why decreasing pH favors stripping.

b) At pH 3.5, D(Ni) = 0.8 and D(Co) = 4.2. Calculate the separation factor β(Co/Ni).

c) For a feed containing 3 g/L Ni and 0.5 g/L Co, design a counter-current extraction circuit to
achieve 98% Co extraction with less than 5% Ni co-extraction. Specify pH, O/A ratio, and number
of stages.

Question 23
A uranium SX plant uses 5% Alamine 336 (tertiary amine) in kerosene with 2% isodecanol as
modifier. The extraction reaction: 2R₃NHCl(org) + UO₂SO₄²⁻(aq) = (R₃NH)₂UO₂SO₄(org) +
2Cl⁻.

a) Why is a modifier needed in the organic phase? What problems occur without it?

b) The PLS contains 2.5 g/L U₃O₈, 15 g/L H₂SO₄, and 8 g/L Cl⁻. Calculate the uranium loading
on the organic if the distribution coefficient D = 45 under these conditions.

c) You notice crud formation at the interface. Identify three possible causes and propose solutions
for each.

Question 24
A gold recovery plant uses SX to extract gold from cyanide solutions using modified amines. The
gold concentration is 25 mg/L.

a) Compared to carbon-in-pulp (CIP), what are the potential advantages and disadvantages of SX
for gold recovery?

b) The distribution coefficient for gold is D = 120 at pH 10.5. For an O/A ratio of 1:10, calculate
the extraction efficiency in a single stage.

c) If the organic phase loads to 800 mg/L Au before stripping, what is the enrichment factor? How
does this benefit downstream electrowinning?

Question 25
In a rare earth separation plant, two extractants are considered: DEHPA and Cyanex 272.

a) Compare their selectivity for separating Nd (neodymium) from Pr (praseodymium). Which

would you choose and why?

b) Given distribution coefficients: D(Nd) = 3.5, D(Pr) = 2.8 with DEHPA at pH 2.2, calculate the
number of stages needed for 99% Nd recovery with 95% purity.

c) The plant treats 500 m³/day of leach liquor. Design the major equipment sizes (mixer and
settler) assuming 3-minute mixing time and 0.5 cm/s settler rise rate.

Question 26
A copper SX-EW plant experiences poor phase separation after an organic change.

a) List five factors that affect phase disengagement time in mixer-settlers.

b) The rich electrolyte (strip solution) contains 45 g/L Cu and 170 g/L H₂SO₄. Calculate the
copper transfer from loaded organic (25 g/L Cu) to electrolyte when O/A ratio is 1.5:1 and the
copper distribution coefficient in stripping is D = 0.08.

c) Propose a troubleshooting protocol to identify whether contamination, equipment, or

chemistry is causing the problem.

Question 27
You are designing a cobalt SX circuit using Cyanex 272. The feed contains 12 g/L Co and 8 g/L
Ni at pH 4.5.
a) The extraction isotherms show that 4 extraction stages at O/A = 1:1 give 97% Co extraction with
92% selectivity (Co:Ni ratio in extract = 8:1). Calculate the nickel contamination in the final cobalt
product.

b) A scrubbing stage with pH 3.0 water is proposed before stripping. Explain the chemistry of how
scrubbing removes co-extracted nickel.

c) The strip solution will produce cobalt cathodes. If the stripping efficiency is 98% and current
efficiency is 92%, calculate the daily cobalt production and electrical energy consumption (cell
voltage 3.5 V).

Question 28
An iron removal circuit uses TBP (tributyl phosphate) to extract FeCl₃ from chloride leach
solutions.

a) Write the extraction reaction for FeCl₃ with TBP. Why is TBP called a solvating extractant?

b) The PLS contains 15 g/L Fe³⁺, 50 g/L Zn²⁺, and 2 M HCl. Calculate the number of stages
required to reduce Fe³⁺ to 0.1 g/L using D(Fe) = 35 and D(Zn) = 0.8 at O/A = 1:1.

c) The stripped organic contains 0.5 g/L Fe after stripping with water. If the organic recycle is 800
m³/h, what is the daily iron carryover to the zinc electrowinning circuit? Is this acceptable?

Question 29
A pilot plant tests a new copper extractant. Batch equilibrium tests give the following data at pH
2.0:

[Cu] aq (g/L) [Cu] org (g/L)

0.50 8.2
1.00 13.5
2.00 19.8
3.00 24.0
4.00 26.5

a) Plot the extraction isotherm and determine the maximum loading capacity and the distribution
coefficient at 2 g/L Cu.

b) For a feed of 4.5 g/L Cu and a raffinate target of 0.3 g/L Cu, determine the O/A ratio needed
for 2 stages.

c) If the organic-to-aqueous ratio is fixed at 1:1 due to equipment constraints, how many stages
are needed to achieve the same raffinate concentration?

Question 30
A vanadium SX plant uses tertiary amines for extraction from sulfate solutions. Vanadium exists
as VO²⁺, VO₄³⁻, or polyvanadates depending on pH.

a) From the VO²⁺/VO₄³⁻ speciation, at what pH range would anion exchange extraction be
effective? Explain.
b) The distribution coefficient for V at pH 2.5 is D = 50, but D for Fe³⁺ is also 15. Propose a method
to selectively strip vanadium from the loaded organic.

c) How would you recover vanadium from the strip liquor? Compare precipitation as ammonium
metavanadate versus electrowinning.

SECTION D: ION EXCHANGE

Question 31
A uranium ion exchange plant treats 2,500 m³/day of PLS containing 120 mg/L U₃O₈ at pH 1.5.
The resin has a capacity of 45 kg U₃O₈/m³.

a) Calculate the daily uranium production and the resin volume required for a 4-hour loading
cycle.

b) If the elution uses 1.5 M NaCl + 0.1 M H₂SO₄ at 50°C, and elution efficiency is 98% with 6 bed
volumes, what is the eluate uranium concentration?

c) Compare fixed-bed versus continuous ion exchange for this application. Which is more suitable
and why?

Question 32
A resin-in-pulp (RIP) circuit for gold uses strong-base anion exchange resin. The pulp contains
8 g/t Au, 45% solids, and 0.02% NaCN.

a) Calculate the gold concentration in solution assuming equilibrium and 95% gold dissolution.

b) The resin loading is 15 kg Au/t resin. If the resin inventory is 20 m³ (density 0.8 t/m³), how
much gold is loaded on the resin per cycle?

c) The resin is eluted with 0.1 M NaCN + 1 M NaOH at 60°C. What is the mechanism of elution?
Why is the high temperature beneficial?

Question 33
A water treatment plant uses cation exchange resin (strong acid type) to remove hardness (Ca²⁺,
Mg²⁺) from 500 m³/day of water containing 120 mg/L Ca²⁺ and 45 mg/L Mg²⁺.

a) Calculate the total equivalents per day that must be removed.

b) The resin has a total capacity of 2.0 eq/L. If the regeneration uses 8% NaCl solution at 150 kg
NaCl/m³ resin, calculate the daily salt consumption and brine volume.

c) The plant effluent shows calcium breakthrough after 8 hours instead of the design 12 hours.
Diagnose three possible causes and propose corrective actions.
Question 34
A nickel refinery uses ion exchange to remove copper from nickel sulfate electrolyte. The feed
contains 80 g/L Ni, 0.5 g/L Cu at pH 3.5.

a) Which type of resin (cation or anion) would be most selective for copper removal? Justify your
answer.

b) The resin has selectivity coefficients: K(Cu/Ni) = 850. Calculate the separation factor and the
theoretical purification possible in a single equilibrium contact.

c) The resin bed is 2.5 m diameter × 3.0 m height. At a flow rate of 40 m³/h, calculate the empty
bed contact time (EBCT). Is this adequate for mass transfer?

Question 35
A rare earth separation plant uses chelating ion exchange resin with iminodiacetate functional
groups.

a) Explain how the chelating mechanism provides selectivity for light rare earths (La, Ce) over
iron and aluminum.

b) The loading capacities at pH 2.0 are: La 35 g/L, Ce 32 g/L, Nd 28 g/L, Fe 2 g/L. Why is iron
loading low despite its high concentration?

c) If the resin is eluted with 2 M HCl at decreasing pH gradient, predict the elution order of La,
Ce, Nd, and explain the separation principle.

Question 36
A molybdenum recovery circuit uses weak-base anion exchange resin to adsorb molybdenum as
thiomolybdate (MoS₄²⁻) from acidic solution.

a) Write the loading and elution reactions for this process.

b) The PLS contains 800 mg/L Mo at pH 2.5. Breakthrough occurs after 1,200 bed volumes at a
flow rate of 15 BV/h. Calculate the resin capacity in g Mo/L.

c) Elution uses 2 M NH₄OH. If elution requires 8 bed volumes with 95% recovery, calculate the
eluate concentration and volume per cycle.

Question 37
You are selecting a resin for recovering cobalt from a nickel raffinate containing 2 g/L Co and 45
g/L Ni at pH 4.0.

a) Compare the performance of phosphonic resin (e.g., Diphonix) versus aminophosphonic resin
(e.g., Purolite S950) for Co/Ni separation.

b) Equilibrium data: D(Co) = 180, D(Ni) = 12 for Resin A; D(Co) = 250, D(Ni) = 35 for Resin B.
Calculate the separation factor for each and recommend one.

c) Design a column operating cycle including loading, washing, elution, and regeneration steps
for your chosen resin.
Question 38
A copper mine uses IX to recover copper from dump leach solution (0.8 g/L Cu, pH 2.0).
Competing ions: Fe²⁺ 5 g/L, Al³⁺ 1.5 g/L, Zn²⁺ 0.2 g/L.

a) Calculate the equivalent loading if an iminodiacetate resin with capacities: Cu 45 g/L, Fe 8 g/L,
Al 12 g/L, Zn 32 g/L. What percent of capacity is used by copper?

b) The plant experiences capacity loss over time. Analysis shows iron and aluminum accumulation
on resin. Propose a regeneration procedure to restore capacity.

c) Compare IX versus SX for this application. Which is more economical at this low copper
concentration?

Question 39
A nitric acid plant produces condensate containing 200 mg/L NH₄⁺ and 50 mg/L NO₃⁻. You
need to produce deionized water.

a) Design a two-bed IX system (cation then anion) showing the resins required and regeneration
chemicals.

b) Calculate the daily ion loading if flow is 800 m³/day. Determine the regeneration frequency if
cation resin capacity is 1.8 eq/L (bed volume 5 m³).

c) What problems might occur if nitrate is present with ammonium? How would you modify the
design?

Question 40
A platinum group metals (PGMs) refinery uses IX to separate Pt, Pd, and Rh from chloride
solution. The resin is a weak-base anion exchanger.

a) Explain the chemistry: why do PtCl₆²⁻ and PdCl₄²⁻ load while RhCl₆³⁻ loads differently? How
can selectivity be achieved?

b) The loading order on the resin is Pt > Pd > Rh. If you load all three and then elute with
increasing concentrations of HCl/NH₃, predict the elution order.

c) A competitor suggests using solvent extraction instead. Compare IX and SX for PGM separation
in terms of capital cost, operating cost, and product purity.

SECTION E: ELECTROMETALLURGY (ELECTROWINNING &

ELECTROREFINING)

Question 41
A copper electrowinning tankhouse has 500 cells, each with 60 cathodes (1 m × 1 m per side).
Current density is 280 A/m² at 1.8 V/cell. Current efficiency is 88%.
a) Calculate the total current per cell, total plant current, and daily copper production.

b) The electrical energy cost is $0.12/kWh. Calculate the energy cost per tonne of copper
produced.

c) If the current efficiency increases to 92%, what is the annual savings at 350 operating days?

Question 42
In zinc electrowinning, the cell voltage is 3.4 V with a current density of 500 A/m². The anode
reaction is oxygen evolution (E° = 1.23 V at pH 0). The cathode reaction is Zn²⁺ + 2e⁻ = Zn (E° =
-0.76 V).

a) Calculate the theoretical decomposition voltage.

b) The actual cell voltage is higher. Account for the difference by calculating the overpotentials
and ohmic (IR) drop if the electrolyte resistance is 0.02 Ω·m² and electrode spacing is 0.05 m.

c) Lead-silver anodes are used. Why not use inert anodes like platinum? What are the
disadvantages of lead anodes?

Question 43
A copper electrorefining circuit processes 2,500 t/month of anodes (99.2% Cu). Cathode current
density is 240 A/m², efficiency 96%. Cell voltage is 0.35 V.

a) Calculate the required current and number of cells if each cell produces 180 kg Cu/day.

b) Silver is recovered from anode slimes. If the anodes contain 850 g/t Ag and 95% reports to
slimes, calculate monthly silver production.

c) The electrolyte contains 45 g/L Cu²⁺ and 170 g/L H₂SO₄. Explain why acid concentration is
maintained at this high level. What happens if acid concentration drops to 100 g/L?

Question 44
A nickel electrorefinery uses chloride electrolyte rather than sulfate.

a) Compare the advantages and disadvantages of chloride versus sulfate electrolytes for nickel
refining.

b) The anode contains 92% Ni, 5% Cu, 2% Co, 0.5% Fe. Using standard potentials (Ni²⁺/Ni = -
0.25 V, Cu²⁺/Cu = 0.34 V, Co²⁺/Co = -0.28 V), predict which impurities dissolve anodically and
which remain as slime.

c) The cell operates at 220 A/m², 2.2 V. Calculate the energy consumption per tonne of nickel.
How does this compare with copper electrorefining? Explain the difference.

Question 45
You are designing a gold electrowinning circuit for strip solution containing 400 mg/L Au as
Au(CN)₂⁻, 15 g/L NaCN, and 20 g/L NaOH. Flow is 25 m³/day.

a) Calculate the theoretical gold production per day and the required current (Faraday's law).
b) At a current density of 50 A/m² on steel wool cathodes, what cathode area is required? Why is
steel wool used instead of flat plates?

c) The current efficiency is only 65%. List four reasons for low efficiency and propose solutions
for each.

Question 46
A lead electrowinning plant experiences rough, nodular deposits on cathodes.

a) Discuss how current density, temperature, and additives affect deposit morphology.

b) The current density is 180 A/m², temperature 40°C, and glue is added at 0.5 kg/t Pb. What
changes would you recommend to produce smooth deposits?

c) The plant manager suggests increasing current density to 250 A/m² to increase production.
Analyze the trade-offs and potential problems.

Question 47
In an aluminum smelter (Hall-Héroult process), cells operate at 4.5 V, 320 kA, 94% current
efficiency.

a) Calculate the daily aluminum production per cell and the energy consumption (kWh/kg Al).

b) The alumina concentration in the cryolite bath must be maintained at 2-4%. What happens if
the concentration drops below 1.5%? Describe the "anode effect."

c) Carbon anodes are consumed. If consumption is 0.42 kg C per kg Al, calculate daily carbon
consumption per cell and annual CO₂ emissions per cell.

Question 48
A silver refinery uses electrorefining with silver anodes (98% Ag, 1.5% Cu, 0.3% Au). Electrolyte
is AgNO₃ (40 g/L Ag) at pH 1.5, 30°C.

a) Silver anodes dissolve at 180 A/m². Calculate the anode dissolution rate and the cathode
deposition rate.

b) Copper contamination in the cathodes must be below 10 ppm. Based on standard potentials
(Ag⁺/Ag = 0.80 V, Cu²⁺/Cu = 0.34 V), can copper co-deposit? Explain.

c) The anode slimes contain gold. How would you recover the gold from the slimes?

Question 49
A manganese electrowinning plant uses sulfate electrolyte with SO₂ added to the anolyte.

a) Write the anodic and cathodic reactions. What is the role of SO₂ at the anode?

b) The cell voltage is 5.2 V at 400 A/m², current efficiency 88%. Calculate energy consumption
per kg Mn.

c) Compare electrowinning of manganese versus electrowinning of zinc. Why is manganese cell

voltage much higher even though Mn²⁺/Mn potential (-1.18 V) is more negative than Zn²⁺/Zn (-
0.76 V)?
Question 50
A copper electrorefinery experiences short circuits between anodes and cathodes.

a) Describe the causes of short circuits and how they can be detected early.

b) The current efficiency drops from 96% to 89% over three months. Calculate the production loss
per month for a 300,000 tpa refinery.

c) Propose a maintenance schedule and monitoring system to prevent short circuits and maintain
efficiency.

Question 51
You are comparing two copper electrowinning technologies: conventional (current density 280
A/m²) and high-current-density (380 A/m²) with modified electrolyte.

a) Calculate the cell area reduction possible with high-current-density for the same production.

b) Higher current density increases cell voltage from 1.9 V to 2.3 V. Calculate the energy
consumption per tonne for both options.

c) The high-current-density option requires cobalt-coated anodes costing 40% more but lasting
twice as long. Analyze the economic breakeven point.

Question 52
A nickel electrowinning pilot plant tests electrolyte with 65 g/L Ni, 50 g/L Na₂SO₄, 30 g/L
H₃BO₃ at pH 3.8, 60°C.

a) What is the role of boric acid in nickel electrowinning?

b) Hydrogen evolution is observed at current densities above 250 A/m². Calculate the hydrogen
overpotential required to suppress hydrogen if the equilibrium potential for H⁺/H₂ at pH 3.8 is -
0.22 V.

c) At 220 A/m², current efficiency is 93%. At 300 A/m², it drops to 84%. Calculate the production
increase and efficiency loss. Would you operate at 300 A/m²?

Question 53
In the electrorefining of lead, anodes are cast from bullion (96% Pb, 3% Sb, 0.5% Cu, 0.3% Bi).
Electrolyte is H₂SiF₆ + PbSiF₆.

a) Why is fluosilicic acid (H₂SiF₆) used instead of sulfuric acid for lead refining?

b) Standard potentials: Pb²⁺/Pb = -0.13 V, Sb³⁺/Sb = 0.15 V, Cu²⁺/Cu = 0.34 V, Bi³⁺/Bi = 0.32 V.
Which impurities remain in the anode slime? Which dissolve but don't deposit?

c) The slime contains antimony and bismuth. Propose a recovery process for these metals.

Question 54
A cobalt electrowinning circuit uses diaphragm cells to separate anolyte and catholyte.

a) Explain the purpose of the diaphragm. What problems occur if the diaphragm tears?
b) The catholyte contains 25 g/L Co²⁺ at pH 2.5, anolyte contains 50 g/L H₂SO₄. Current density
is 350 A/m² at 3.8 V. Calculate energy consumption.

c) Cobalt production is 8 t/month. What is the current efficiency if the plant operates at 15,000
A?

Question 55
A sodium chlorate plant uses electrolysis of NaCl solution: NaCl + 3H₂O → NaClO₃ + 3H₂.

a) Write the anodic and cathodic reactions. Why is temperature controlled at 60-80°C?

b) The cell operates at 6,000 A, 3.2 V, 92% current efficiency. Calculate daily NaClO₃ production.

c) The plant manager wants to increase production by 20% by raising current to 7,200 A. What
are the risks and what other parameters must be adjusted?

Question 56
In copper electrowinning, the stripping of cathodes is automated. Some cathodes have poor
adhesion.

a) What factors affect copper deposit adhesion to stainless steel starter blanks?

b) The stripper rejects 3% of cathodes. If each cathode weighs 95 kg, calculate the annual rework
cost (melting and casting) for a 200,000 tpa plant.

c) Propose a surface preparation procedure for starter blanks to improve adhesion.

Question 57
A magnesium electrowinning plant uses molten salt electrolyte (MgCl₂ + NaCl + CaCl₂) at
700°C.

a) Why can't magnesium be electrowon from aqueous solution?

b) The cell operates at 80 kA, 8.2 V, 78% current efficiency. Calculate daily Mg production and
energy consumption.

c) Chlorine gas is produced at the anodes. Design a chlorine handling system including collection,
purification, and utilization.

Question 58
A copper refinery treats blended anodes from different smelters. Analysis shows increasing
bismuth in anodes.

a) How does bismuth affect electrolyte quality and cathode purity?

b) The refinery installs a bleed stream treatment to remove Bi. Describe the process using solvent
extraction or ion exchange.

c) Calculate the bleed stream flow required if Bi builds up at 0.5 g/day per tonne of copper
produced and the limit is 2 g/L in electrolyte (tankhouse volume 4,500 m³).
Question 59
During zinc electrowinning, manganese dioxide deposits on lead anodes.

a) Write the reaction for MnO₂ formation. Is this beneficial or detrimental? Explain.

b) The anode potential increases from 1.95 V to 2.15 V over 6 months. Calculate the additional
energy cost per tonne of zinc if current density is 500 A/m².

c) Propose an anode cleaning procedure and frequency to maintain optimal performance.

Question 60
A precious metals refinery electrorefines gold using chloride electrolyte (AuCl₄⁻). Anodes are
95% Au, 4% Ag, 0.8% Pd, 0.2% Pt.

a) Write the dissolution reaction for gold in chloride medium.

b) The cell operates at 65°C, 100 A/m², 0.8 V. Calculate the gold dissolution rate per square meter
of anode.

c) Silver and PGMs report to slimes. How are they separated? What is the final purity of gold
cathodes achieved?

SECTION F: ACID MINE DRAINAGE & ENVIRONMENT

Question 61
An abandoned coal mine produces AMD at 200 m³/day with pH 2.8, Fe²⁺ = 1,200 mg/L, Fe³⁺ =
50 mg/L, SO₄²⁻ = 4,500 mg/L.

a) Write the complete set of reactions for pyrite (FeS₂) oxidation to produce AMD.

b) Calculate the daily acid production (kg H₂SO₄ equivalent) and the mass of limestone (CaCO₃)
required for neutralization to pH 7.0.

c) If the AMD flows into a stream at 5,000 m³/day with pH 7.2 and alkalinity 85 mg/L as CaCO₃,
what is the pH after mixing? Will fish survive?

Question 62
A passive treatment system using an anoxic limestone drain (ALD) is proposed for AMD with
pH 4.5, Fe³⁺ = 350 mg/L.

a) Explain why ALDs typically cannot treat AMD containing Fe³⁺. What chemical problem occurs?

b) The AMD must first pass through a settling pond to reduce Fe³⁺. What iron species precipitates
as pH increases and how does this affect the ALD design?
c) Design a three-stage passive treatment system (ALD + aerobic wetland + anaerobic wetland)
for AMD containing 250 mg/L Fe, 50 mg/L Zn, and 5 mg/L Cu. Specify each stage's purpose and
approximate dimensions for 100 m³/day flow.

Question 63
A sulfide tailings storage facility is generating AMD with pH 3.2, containing Zn 180 mg/L, Cu 45
mg/L, Cd 8 mg/L.

a) Using the solubility product constants (Ksp Zn(OH)₂ = 3×10⁻¹⁷, Cu(OH)₂ = 2.2×10⁻²⁰,
Cd(OH)₂ = 2.5×10⁻¹⁴), calculate the pH at which each metal hydroxide precipitates from solution
(assume 90% removal).

b) Design an active treatment plant using lime neutralization. Calculate lime consumption per day
for 500 m³/day flow.

c) The sludge produced contains metal hydroxides. Propose a strategy to recover metals from the
sludge rather than landfilling.

Question 64
A mining company must remediate a 2 km stream affected by AMD. The options are: (1) In-situ
treatment using limestone beds, or (2) Collection and treatment at a central plant.

a) Compare capital and operating costs for both options for 15 years of treatment.

b) The biodiversity index of the stream has dropped from 3.2 to 0.8. What ecological recovery
would you expect after remediation? How long might it take?

c) Regulatory requirements demand that treated water meet <3 mg/L Cu, <5 mg/L Zn, <10 mg/L
Fe, pH 6-9. Design a sampling and monitoring program to demonstrate compliance.

Question 65
A novel technology called "carrier-microencapsulation" (CME) coats pyrite surfaces with silica
to prevent oxidation.

a) Explain the chemical mechanism of CME. What are the advantages over traditional coatings?

b) A test on 10,000 tonnes of tailings shows 85% reduction in acid generation over 18 months.
Calculate the avoided lime cost if untreated tailings generate acid equivalent to 25 kg CaCO₃/t·yr.

Question 66
Graphite-rich tailings from a gold mine produce ARD (acid rock drainage) with unique
characteristics.

a) Graphite can catalyze the oxidation of pyrite. Explain the electrochemical mechanism.

b) The ARD contains elevated As (25 mg/L) and Sb (8 mg/L) from arsenopyrite (FeAsS). How do
these elements behave during lime neutralization? What special precautions are needed?

c) A wetland treatment system fails during winter months. Propose modifications for cold-climate
operation with ice formation.
Question 67
A copper mine's AMD has high iron (3,500 mg/L) and low pH (2.5). A high-density sludge
(HDS) process is used.

a) Describe the HDS process and explain why it produces less sludge volume than conventional
lime treatment.

b) Calculate the sludge production (dry tonnes per day) from 1,000 m³/day AMD assuming all
iron precipitates as Fe(OH)₃.

c) The HDS process recycles sludge. How does recycling improve water quality and reduce lime
consumption? What is the optimum recycle ratio?

Question 68
An underground mine uses backfill made of cemented tailings. After 5 years, the backfill is
generating AMD.

a) Explain how cement (CaO or Ca(OH)₂) initially prevents but eventually may contribute to
AMD.

b) Core samples show pH 8.5 at the backfill surface but pH 3.2 in the interior. What is happening?

c) Propose remediation methods for in-situ backfill without removing it from the mine.

Question 69
A gold mine's tailings contain 0.8% sulfide sulfur and 0.6% carbonate carbon (as CaCO₃
equivalent).

a) Calculate the neutralization potential (NP) and acid potential (AP) using standard formulas.
Does the tailings have net acid-producing potential (NAPP)?

b) Paste pH test shows pH 6.5, but humidity cell tests predict AMD after 2 years. Explain this
discrepancy.

c) The mine plans to co-dispose tailings with waste rock. How does the ratio affect AMD
generation? Calculate the optimal blend ratio.

Question 70
A sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) bioreactor treats AMD with Zn 200 mg/L, Cu 30 mg/L,
sulfate 3,000 mg/L.

a) Write the simplified SRB reaction using ethanol as electron donor: C₂H₅OH + SO₄²⁻ →
products. Balance the equation.

b) The reactor operates at 25°C, pH 6.2. Calculate the ethanol requirement per m³ of AMD
treated.

c) The reactor effluent contains 0.5 mg/L Zn and <0.1 mg/L Cu. What forms do the metals take
in the sludge? How would you dispose of or recover the sludge?
SECTION G: INTEGRATED CASE STUDIES

Question 71
A copper-gold porphyry deposit has the following characteristics:

Ore grade: 0.35% Cu, 0.4 g/t Au

Mineralogy: 60% chalcopyrite, 25% pyrite, 10% bornite, 5% chalcocite

Gangue: quartz, sericite, clay (10% acid-consuming)

Location: arid region, 3,000 m altitude

a) Propose a complete extraction flowsheet from ore to final Cu cathode and Au dore bar.

b) The water balance is critical. Calculate the annual water requirement and propose a water
management strategy.

c) The altitude affects oxygen solubility. How does this impact your leaching design? What
modifications are needed?

Question 72
A nickel-laterite project has three ore types:

Limonite: 1.0% Ni, 45% Fe, 5% MgO

Saprolite: 2.5% Ni, 15% Fe, 20% MgO

Transition: 1.5% Ni, 30% Fe, 12% MgO

a) Compare HPAL (high pressure acid leach) versus atmospheric leach for each ore type. Which
technology suits each?

b) Design a blending strategy to treat all three ores through a single plant while maintaining stable
acid consumption.

c) Calculate acid consumption for each ore type (kg H₂SO₄ per tonne ore). If acid costs $180/t,
what is the acid cost per tonne Ni for each?

Question 73
A uranium mine in a sensitive environmental area uses in-situ leaching (ISL).

a) Describe the ISL process for uranium including lixiviant (typically NaHCO₃ + H₂O₂) and
groundwater restoration.

b) A monitoring well detects a 10% increase in uranium concentration above background 200 m
from the production area. Develop a response plan.

c) At closure, how do you restore the aquifer to baseline quality? What is the typical timeline for
natural attenuation versus active remediation?
Question 74
A zinc smelter converts from pyrometallurgy to hydrometallurgy (roast-leach-electrowin).

a) Compare the environmental footprint of both technologies including air emissions, water
discharge, and solid waste.

b) The existing roaster will remain for concentrate pretreatment. Design the new leach circuit to
treat 400 t/day calcine (72% Zn).

c) The iron residue from leaching contains 15% Zn. Propose a recovery method and calculate the
additional zinc recovery.

Question 75
You are the process engineer at a gold mine with declining ore grade and increasing cyanide
consumption.

Year Grade (g/t) Cyanide consumption (kg/t) Recovery (%)

1 4.8 0.85 92
2 4.2 1.02 90
3 3.6 1.28 87
4 3.1 1.65 83

a) Analyze the relationship between grade, cyanide consumption, and recovery. What is causing
the trend?

b) Calculate the economic breakeven point if gold price is 1,850/oz, cyanide1,850/oz, cyanide
2.50/kg, and other costs $1,200/oz produced.

c) Propose a circuit modification to reduce cyanide consumption and improve recovery for low-
grade ore.

Question 76
A bauxite refinery (Bayer process) processes 3 Mt/year of bauxite (42% Al₂O₃, 18% Fe₂O₃, 8%
SiO₂, 3% TiO₂). Digestion efficiency is 92%.

a) Calculate annual alumina production (Al₂O₃) and red mud generation (dry basis).

b) The red mud contains 40% Fe₂O₃ and 0.3% rare earths (Sc, Y, Nd). Design a process to recover
iron and rare earths from red mud.

c) The refinery was using a conventional impoundment. New regulations require dry stacking.
Compare the costs and risks of dry stacking versus wet disposal.

Question 77
A cobalt-copper tailings retreatment project processes 2,000 t/day of tailings (0.3% Co, 0.8%
Cu). The tailings are oxidized.

a) Select a leaching system (acid versus reductive acid) and justify your choice based on
mineralogy.
b) The pregnant solution contains 400 mg/L Co, 600 mg/L Cu, 8 g/L Fe, 5 g/L Mn. Design a
purification circuit to produce separate cobalt and copper products.

Question 78
A PGM (platinum group metals) refinery receives concentrate containing Pt, Pd, Rh, Au, and
base metals (Cu, Ni, Fe).

a) Design the overall hydrometallurgical flowsheet including leaching (aqua regia or chloride),
purification, and individual metal recovery.

b) The leach liquor contains 5 g/L Pt, 2 g/L Pd, 0.5 g/L Rh, 20 g/L Cu, 15 g/L Ni. Propose a
sequence of solvent extraction or ion exchange steps to separate each PGM.

c) Calculate the purity achievable for each PGM and the number of extraction stages required.

Question 79
A manganese nodule processing plant treats deep-sea nodules (24% Mn, 1.2% Ni, 1.0% Cu, 0.2%
Co, 8% Fe).

a) Evaluate three reduction methods prior to leaching: (i) carbothermic reduction, (ii) SO₂
reduction, (iii) smelting. Which is most suitable?

b) After reduction, the nodules are leached with H₂SO₄/NH₃. The liquor contains Mn²⁺, Ni²⁺,
Cu²⁺, Co²⁺. Design the metals recovery circuit.

c) Ocean mining raises environmental concerns. What monitoring and mitigation measures
would you require before approving the project?

Question 80
An integrated hydrometallurgical complex processes multiple feedstocks: copper concentrate,
copper scrap, and electronic waste.

a) Compare the leaching characteristics of each feedstock and propose a unified flowsheet.

b) E-waste contains precious metals (Au, Ag, Pd) plus Cu, Sn, Pb, and plastics. How do you handle
the plastics and what unique challenges does e-waste present?

c) The plant will produce copper cathode, gold dore, and tin-lead solder alloy. Calculate the mass
balance for processing 500 t/day of 20% concentrate, 30% scrap, and 50% e-waste (assume
representative assays). What is the overall copper recovery?

Question 81
Mhangura copper mine has rich copper sulphide ores. It was closed mainly due to low copper
prices. A hydrometallurgy processing route can be cheaper making copper mining viable for
Mhangura again. The ore is composed of copper in the minerals, chalcocite (Cu 2S), chalcopyrite
(CuFeS2) and bornite (Cu5FeS4). The ore at time of mine closure was processed via
pyrometallurgical route. If the mine is to be revived and a hydrometallurgical route was to be used
Fig 1. Pourbaix diagram of the Cu-Fe-S system
(a) Draw a flow-sheet of the process you would use to recover copper from Run Off Mine ore
(b) Write down balanced chemical reactions where chemical reactions are involved in the
above flowsheet
(c) What pH and oxidizing potential would you use to leach the ore?
(d) In what ways can the co-leaching of iron be reduced
Question 82
Tungsten is widely used in alloying and has reserves in Matabeleland South as scheelite CaWO4.
Currently, the main technologies for scheelite extraction are caustic and sodium carbonate
decomposition. Carbonate decomposition is done in an autoclave at 230°C with three to four
times the theoretical of Na2CO3.
The leaching reaction is:
CaWO4(s) + Na2CO3(aq) → CaCO3(s) + NaWO4(aq) Reaction Q2i
Trials are under study of ways to improve the rate of leaching using ultrasound, graphs Q2(a) and
Q2(b) show the results

Graph Q2(b) Scheelite leaching rate without ultrasound

Graph Q2(a) Scheelite leaching rate with ultrasound

(a) From the reaction equation and ultrasound trial results, state and describe a model that
can be used to describe the leaching kinetics of scheelite [8 marks]
(b) Using the graphs Q2 (a) and Q2(b) discuss if the use of ultrasound is effective in improving
leaching kinetics for scheelite. [5]
(c) How does the effectiveness of ultrasound depend on the particle size? Explain the
scientific basis of this observation.[5]
(d) Ultrasound trials are being carried out to improve the leaching kinetics of scheelite, state
and explain other two techniques you can implement in a mechanically agitated autoclave
with ultrasound.[6]
Question 83
Zimbabwe discovered Uranium deposits in Hwange and Binga districts. The country in 2019
joined the Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and partnered with Russian State Atomic Energy
Cooperation to look into mining and beneficiation of these deposits.
Uranium ores can be acid leached by weak sulphuric acid. Ion exchange can then be used to
recover Uranium from the pregnant solution.
(a) Considering the graphs below, which Dowex resin would choose for use amongst the three
above? Give reasons for your choice
(b) Give possible explanation for the variations in breakthrough capacities at different acid
concentration for one type of resin with the same influent concentration.
(c) What other three factors can affect the resin absorbance? Suggest how its capacity can be
improved in operation.
(d) What other three factors would you consider in resin selection over and above its
breakaway capacity?
Fig 3: The effect of H2SO4 concerntration on the breakthrough curve of uranyl ions for resins of
different cross linking: X4 (a), X8 (b) and X10 (c). Concerntration of feed solution: 20 μ[Link] -1
U𝑂22− . Column: 0.071× 5.0𝑐𝑚; 𝑡 = 20°𝐶; 𝑢 = 0.75𝑐𝑚. 𝑚𝑖𝑛−1

Question 84
As an engineer with expertise in hydrometallurgy designing a novel process for lead recovery from
battery scrap involving the following steps:
Leaching – Insoluble lead (II) sulphate is converted to lead chloride by leaching in neutral sodium
chloride brine solution
Purification – Milk of lime Ca(OH)2 and HCl is introduced to the leach solution to remove the
dissolved sulphate as insoluble gypsum (calcium sulphate dehydrate) and keep the neutral pH
Electrowinning – finally the metallic lead and oxygen is produced by electrowinning from
purified lead chloride solution.
(a) Provide the chemical reaction for each of the steps in the process
(b) Draw a flowsheet for the process above.
(c) On the flowsheet show areas of possible recycling of consumables
(d) Calculate the minimum electrowinning potential to electro win lead at pH 7. Assuming
one molar lead concentration.
(e) Calculate the maximum electrowinning potential to avoid chloride gas evolution assuming
one molar chloride concentration.
(f) Explain why this process will not work efficiently under too acidic conditions and the
process controls one need to put in place to ensure efficiency.
Pb2+ + 2e-= Pb E0 = -0.13V
 ½ Cl2 + e-= Cl E0 = +1.36V

Question 85
Zimbabwe's platinum industry is not fully beneficiating its products locally. Some of the local
mines export concentrates for smelting and some exports matte for refining. Understanding the
platinum beneficiation and possibly improving it locally will help add local value to the precious
finite resource to maximise local value. Platinum is leached by hydrochloric acid in PGM refining.
Zinc cementation can be used to recover platinum from the solution.
PtCl62- + 4e- = Pt + 6Cl- EƟ +0.74V
PdCl42- + 2e- = Pd + 4Cl- EƟ 0.64V
ZnCl34- + 2e- = Zn + 3Cl- EƟ -0.78V
(a) Write balanced chemical equations for the cementation of Pt and Pd using Zn solids from
the solution. Calculate the standard potential for the cementation.
(b) Consider the typical pregnant solution concentration of Pt 59.4mg/l, Pd 37.2mg/l and Zn
7.7mg/l, and calculate the nonstandard potential for cementation on solid zinc. Atomic
masses Pt 195 g/mol, Pd 106g/mol Zn 65 g/mol and Cl 35 g/mol, RT/F is 0.0592mV where
R is the gas constant, T the temperature and F the Faraday constant.
(c) What is the thermodynamics theoretically achievable recovery of platinum from solution
using zinc cementation for batch pregnant solutions in (b)?
(d) Nowadays resins are used to enrich the concentration of pregnant solution. Typical values
would be Pt 2430 mg/l and Pd 499 mg/l. Discuss the effects of cementation on the lean
pregnant solution or after resin concentration on the overall recovery, costs, reagent
consumption and final product quality.
(e) Another option for the recovery of Pt after ion exchange concentration is electrowinning.
How does electrowinning compare to cementation in terms of costs, product quality and
recovery?