Chapter 1 Revision Notes

Photosynthesis and the Carbon Cycle

1. What Is Photosynthesis (The Basics)

Photosynthesis is the process green plants, algae, and some bacteria use to make their
own food.
The word photosynthesis literally means "putting together with light", since photo refers
to light and synthesis means making something.
Plants are called producers because they produce their own food rather than eating
other organisms.
Photosynthesis happens mainly in the leaves of a plant, since leaves are broad and flat
to capture lots of light.
The food that plants make is a type of sugar called glucose.
Photosynthesis is considered the most important biological process on Earth because
nearly all life depends on it directly or indirectly.
Energy for photosynthesis comes from light energy, which is usually sunlight but can be
artificial light.
During photosynthesis, light energy is transferred into chemical energy stored in the
bonds of glucose molecules.
Because energy is absorbed rather than released, photosynthesis is classed as an
endothermic reaction.
This is the opposite of respiration, which is an exothermic reaction that releases energy.

2. The Word Equation and Symbol Equation

The word equation for photosynthesis is carbon dioxide plus water react to form glucose
plus oxygen.
The symbol equation is 6CO₂ plus 6H₂O react to form C₆H₁₂O₆ plus 6O₂.
The small number 6 in front of CO₂, H₂O and O₂ balances the number of atoms on each
side of the equation.
The equation must be balanced because atoms cannot be created or destroyed during a
chemical reaction.
 Above or below the arrow in the equation, "light" and "chlorophyll" are usually written to
show what is needed for the reaction to occur.
Glucose has the chemical formula C₆H₁₂O₆, meaning it contains six carbon atoms, twelve
hydrogen atoms and six oxygen atoms.
The equation shows that photosynthesis is essentially the reverse of aerobic respiration.

3. Raw Materials Needed for Photosynthesis

The two raw materials needed for photosynthesis are carbon dioxide and water.
Carbon dioxide enters the leaf from the air through tiny pores called stomata.
Stomata are mostly found on the underside of the leaf to reduce water loss from
evaporation in sunlight.
Water is absorbed from the soil by the root hair cells and transported upward through the
xylem tissue.
Root hair cells have a large surface area to increase the rate of water absorption by
osmosis.
Light energy is also required, and this is usually sunlight, though photosynthesis can
occur under artificial grow lights too.
Chlorophyll is the green pigment needed to absorb light energy, though technically it is
not a raw material that gets used up.
A suitable temperature is also needed since photosynthesis is controlled by enzymes,
which work best within a certain temperature range.

4. Products of Photosynthesis and What Happens to Them

The two products of photosynthesis are glucose and oxygen.
Oxygen is released as a waste product through the stomata back into the atmosphere.
This release of oxygen is why photosynthesis is essential for most life on Earth, since
animals need oxygen for respiration.
Glucose can be used immediately by the plant for respiration to release energy.
Glucose can also be converted into starch for storage, since starch is insoluble and does
not affect water movement in the cell.
Glucose can be converted into cellulose to build strong cell walls.
Glucose can be converted into sucrose for transport around the plant in the phloem.
 Glucose combined with minerals like nitrates can be used to make proteins for growth
and repair.
Glucose can be converted into fats and oils for long-term energy storage, especially in
seeds.
Excess glucose stored as starch in leaves is a key reason the iodine starch test can be
used as evidence that photosynthesis has occurred.

5. Where Photosynthesis Happens - The Chloroplast

Photosynthesis takes place inside small organelles in plant cells called chloroplasts.
Chloroplasts are found mostly in the palisade mesophyll cells near the top of the leaf.
Chloroplasts contain a green pigment called chlorophyll, which gives leaves their green
colour.
Chlorophyll absorbs red and blue light most strongly and reflects green light, which is
why leaves appear green.
Beyond the syllabus, chloroplasts contain stacks of membranes called grana, where the
light-dependent reactions occur.
Beyond the syllabus, the fluid surrounding the grana is called the stroma, where the light-
independent reactions (also called the Calvin cycle) occur.
Beyond the syllabus, the light-dependent reactions split water molecules, releasing
oxygen as a by-product in a process called photolysis.
Not all cells in a leaf contain chloroplasts, since cells like those in the epidermis are
transparent to let light through instead.

6. Leaf Structure and Adaptations for Photosynthesis

The leaf is often described as an organ specially adapted for efficient photosynthesis.
The upper epidermis is a transparent layer that lets light pass through to the cells
beneath.
The upper epidermis is covered by a waxy cuticle, which reduces water loss and gives
the leaf a shiny surface.
Beneath the epidermis is the palisade mesophyll, made of tall, closely packed cells full of
chloroplasts.
The palisade layer is positioned near the top of the leaf so it receives the most light first.
 Below the palisade layer is the spongy mesophyll, which has irregularly shaped cells with
large air spaces between them.
The air spaces in the spongy mesophyll allow gases like carbon dioxide and oxygen to
diffuse easily to and from the cells.
The large surface area of spongy mesophyll cells increases the rate of gas exchange.
The lower epidermis contains many stomata, tiny pores that allow gas exchange with the
atmosphere.
Each stoma is surrounded by two guard cells, which control how open or closed the pore
is.
Guard cells change shape depending on water content, opening when full of water
(turgid) and closing when short of water (flaccid).
Stomata typically close at night or in very dry conditions to reduce water loss through
transpiration.
The leaf has a network of veins containing xylem and phloem, which transport water and
food to and from the leaf.
Xylem carries water and dissolved minerals upward from the roots to the leaves.
Phloem carries sugars like sucrose from the leaves to the rest of the plant in a process
called translocation.
The broad, flat shape of most leaves increases the surface area available to absorb light.
The thinness of a leaf reduces the distance gases and light need to travel to reach the
photosynthesising cells.

7. Limiting Factors of Photosynthesis

A limiting factor is a factor that, when in short supply, restricts the rate of a process even
if other factors are plentiful.
The three main limiting factors of photosynthesis are light intensity, carbon dioxide
concentration and temperature.
As light intensity increases from zero, the rate of photosynthesis increases roughly
proportionally at first.
Beyond a certain light intensity, the rate of photosynthesis levels off because another
factor has become limiting.
As carbon dioxide concentration increases, the rate of photosynthesis increases until
another factor becomes limiting.
Temperature affects photosynthesis because the enzymes involved work fastest at an
optimum temperature.
 At very low temperatures, enzyme activity is slow, so photosynthesis proceeds slowly.
At very high temperatures, enzymes can become denatured, meaning their shape
changes permanently and they stop working.
Denaturation happens because high temperatures break the bonds holding the enzyme's
active site in shape.
In greenhouses and glasshouses, farmers often increase carbon dioxide concentration
and light artificially to boost crop yield.
Graphs of rate of photosynthesis against a factor typically rise then plateau, showing
where the limiting factor changes.
If two factors are tested together, such as light intensity at two different carbon dioxide
concentrations, the higher CO₂ line will plateau at a higher rate.

8. Investigating Photosynthesis - Key Experiments

Testing a leaf for starch is a classic experiment used to show that photosynthesis has
taken place.
First, the leaf is dropped into boiling water for about thirty seconds to break down the cell
membranes.
Then the leaf is placed into a test tube of ethanol, which is heated gently in a water bath
rather than over an open flame, since ethanol is flammable.
Heating in a water bath removes the green chlorophyll pigment, turning the leaf pale,
which makes any colour change from the starch test easier to see.
The leaf is then dipped briefly into water to soften it, since ethanol makes leaves brittle.
Finally, iodine solution is added to the leaf, and a colour change from orange-brown to
blue-black shows that starch, and therefore sugar from photosynthesis, is present.
To test whether light is needed for photosynthesis, a plant is first destarched by keeping
it in the dark for at least twenty-four hours so it uses up existing starch stores.
Part of one leaf is then covered with foil or black paper to block light while the rest of the
leaf is left exposed.
After several hours in bright light, the starch test is carried out, and only the exposed part
of the leaf should turn blue-black.
To test whether carbon dioxide is needed for photosynthesis, one destarched leaf is
enclosed in a flask with soda lime, which absorbs carbon dioxide from the air.
Another destarched leaf is enclosed in a flask with sodium hydrogencarbonate solution,
which releases carbon dioxide into the air around it.
 After exposure to light, only the leaf that had access to carbon dioxide should test
positive for starch.
To test whether chlorophyll is needed, a variegated leaf (one with green and white
patches) is used, since white areas lack chlorophyll.
After the starch test, only the parts of the leaf that were originally green should turn blue-
black.
To investigate the effect of light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis, pond weed such
as Elodea or Cabomba is commonly used.
The pond weed is placed in water with a lamp at varying distances, and the number of
oxygen bubbles produced per minute is counted.
Moving the lamp closer increases light intensity, which follows an inverse square law,
meaning intensity decreases with the square of the distance.
Alternatively, the volume of oxygen gas collected in a set time using a gas syringe can be
measured for a more accurate result than counting bubbles.
To investigate the effect of carbon dioxide concentration, sodium hydrogencarbonate
can be added at different concentrations to the water around the pond weed to release
varying amounts of CO₂.
Hydrogencarbonate indicator solution changes colour depending on carbon dioxide
levels, turning purple when CO₂ decreases, red in normal air, and yellow when CO₂
increases, which can show that photosynthesis is removing carbon dioxide.
To investigate the effect of temperature, the pond weed can be placed in water baths at
different temperatures while keeping light intensity and CO₂ constant, then measuring
bubble rate.
A fair test in all of these experiments requires controlling variables that are not being
tested, such as keeping temperature, light intensity or CO₂ constant depending on the
investigation.
Repeating each experiment and calculating an average helps to improve the reliability of
results.

9. The Carbon Cycle

The carbon cycle describes how carbon moves between the atmosphere, living
organisms, the ground and the oceans.
Carbon is constantly recycled between the biosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and
lithosphere.
Photosynthesis removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and converts it into
 carbon-containing compounds like glucose in plants.
Respiration in plants, animals and microorganisms releases carbon dioxide back into the
atmosphere.
Respiration happens continuously in all living organisms, unlike photosynthesis, which
only happens in light in green organisms.
Feeding transfers carbon compounds along food chains, from producers to consumers.
Decomposition occurs when decomposers such as bacteria and fungi break down dead
organisms and waste, releasing carbon dioxide through their own respiration.
Combustion is the burning of fuels such as wood or fossil fuels, which releases carbon
dioxide stored in these materials back into the atmosphere.
Fossilisation occurs when dead plants and animals are buried and compressed over
millions of years without fully decomposing, forming fossil fuels like coal, oil and natural
gas.
Fossil fuels store carbon that was removed from the atmosphere by ancient organisms
millions of years ago.
Carbon dioxide can also dissolve directly into oceans and lakes, forming a part of the
cycle involving the hydrosphere.
Marine organisms, including tiny algae called phytoplankton, also photosynthesise and
remove carbon dioxide from ocean water.
Some marine organisms use dissolved carbon compounds to build hard shells or
skeletons, which can eventually form sedimentary rock such as limestone.
Under natural, undisturbed conditions, the amount of carbon dioxide removed by
photosynthesis roughly balances the amount released by respiration and combustion.
This natural balance is sometimes called the carbon balance or carbon budget.

10. Human Impact on the Carbon Cycle

Human activity has disrupted the natural balance of the carbon cycle, mainly by
increasing the amount of carbon dioxide released.
Deforestation is the large-scale clearing of forests, often to make way for farmland or
urban development.
Deforestation reduces the number of trees available to remove carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere through photosynthesis.
Deforestation is often accompanied by burning vegetation, which releases even more
stored carbon dioxide immediately.
 Burning fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas for energy releases carbon dioxide
that had been locked away for millions of years.
This extra carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere faster than it can be absorbed
by natural processes.
The build-up of carbon dioxide and other gases contributes to the greenhouse effect,
where heat from the sun is trapped in the atmosphere.
Gases responsible for this effect are called greenhouse gases, and include carbon
dioxide, methane and water vapour.
An enhanced greenhouse effect caused by human activity is linked to global warming, a
long-term rise in average global temperatures.
Global warming is associated with climate change, including melting ice caps, rising sea
levels and more extreme weather events.
Beyond the syllabus, increased carbon dioxide dissolving in oceans is causing ocean
acidification, which can harm marine organisms with calcium carbonate shells or
skeletons.
Beyond the syllabus, carbon sinks are natural or artificial reservoirs that absorb more
carbon than they release, such as forests, oceans and peat bogs.
Beyond the syllabus, carbon capture and storage is a developing technology that traps
carbon dioxide from power stations and factories before it reaches the atmosphere.
Planting new trees, called afforestation or reforestation, is one strategy to help remove
extra carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
Reducing fossil fuel use through renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind and
hydroelectric power, helps to slow the rate of carbon dioxide release.

11. Application-Based Ideas and Exam-Style Scenarios

If a plant is kept in the dark for a long time, its leaves may turn yellow or pale because
chlorophyll breaks down and is not being replaced without photosynthesis occurring.
Farmers growing crops in greenhouses often burn small amounts of fuel deliberately to
raise carbon dioxide levels and boost photosynthesis, sometimes called "carbon dioxide
enrichment".
On a cloudy day, plants may photosynthesise more slowly because light intensity is a
limiting factor.
Aquatic plants like pond weed can be used to demonstrate photosynthesis visually, since
the oxygen produced can be seen and measured as bubbles.
 A plant placed near a window may grow leaves that appear angled towards the light, a
response related to maximising light absorption, though this specific growth response is
a separate topic from photosynthesis itself.
Variegated plants (with white patches on their leaves) can only photosynthesise in the
green parts, since white areas lack chlorophyll.
In an unlit cellar or cave, plants cannot survive long term because they cannot
photosynthesise without light.
During the day, a plant both photosynthesises and respires, but the rate of
photosynthesis is usually much greater, so there is a net uptake of carbon dioxide and
release of oxygen.
At night, a plant only respires, releasing carbon dioxide and taking in oxygen, since
photosynthesis requires light.
The point at which the rate of photosynthesis exactly equals the rate of respiration is
called the compensation point, where there is no net gas exchange.
Melting permafrost releasing trapped methane and carbon dioxide is an example of a
positive feedback loop, where warming causes further warming.
Questions may ask you to explain why increasing both temperature and light intensity
together increases the rate of photosynthesis more than increasing either alone, since
they act as separate limiting factors.
Questions may ask you to interpret graphs showing the rate of photosynthesis plotted
against a factor, and identify at what point a different factor becomes limiting.
Questions may ask why a plant wilts, which is often linked to water loss through
transpiration exceeding water uptake, rather than photosynthesis directly.

12. Beyond the Syllabus - Extra Depth

The overall process of photosynthesis is split into two main stages, the light-dependent
reactions and the light-independent reactions.
The light-dependent reactions occur in the thylakoid membranes and directly require light
to split water and produce energy carriers called ATP and NADPH.
The light-independent reactions, or Calvin cycle, use ATP and NADPH to convert carbon
dioxide into glucose, and do not directly require light.
Some plants, called C4 plants, have adaptations to reduce a wasteful process called
photorespiration, allowing them to photosynthesise more efficiently in hot, dry climates.
CAM plants, such as cacti, open their stomata at night rather than during the day to
reduce water loss in very dry environments, storing carbon dioxide until daytime.
The first organisms thought to carry out photosynthesis were ancient bacteria called
cyanobacteria, which are credited with producing the oxygen that transformed Earth's
early atmosphere billions of years ago in what is sometimes called the Great Oxidation
Event.
Chloroplasts are thought to have originated from ancient photosynthetic bacteria that
were absorbed by early plant cells in a process called endosymbiosis.
Photosynthesis is not limited to plants, since many algae and some bacteria also carry
out photosynthesis, contributing significantly to global oxygen production, particularly
ocean-dwelling phytoplankton.
Understanding photosynthesis and the carbon cycle underpins modern efforts to tackle
climate change, including renewable energy, reforestation projects and international
agreements to cut carbon emissions.