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MODULE 2 - BJT Biasing

Introduction: A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal semiconductor device

widely used for amplification and switching applications. However, for a transistor to operate
properly as an amplifier, it must operate in a specific region of its characteristics called the
active region. To ensure that the transistor remains in the desired region of operation,
appropriate DC voltages and currents must be applied to the transistor terminals.
This process is called transistor biasing.

Biasing is the process of applying suitable DC voltages and currents to a transistor to establish
a stable operating point (Q-point) so that it can amplify input signals effectively.

Need for Biasing in Transistors

A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is widely used in amplifier circuits to amplify weak
electrical signals. However, the transistor cannot perform amplification unless it is operated
under proper DC biasing conditions. Biasing ensures that the transistor operates in the active
region of its characteristic curves, where linear amplification is possible. Biasing refers to the
process of applying appropriate DC voltages and currents to the transistor terminals (base,

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collector, and emitter) so that the transistor maintains a stable operating point (Q-point) during
signal amplification.

Region Base-Emitter Junction Collector-Base Junction Operation

Cut-off Reverse biased Reverse biased Transistor OFF
Active Forward biased Reverse biased Amplification
Saturation Forward biased Forward biased Fully ON

For amplifier applications, the transistor must operate in the active region.

In the active region:

 The base-emitter junction is forward biased

 The collector-base junction is reverse biased

For a silicon transistor: VBE ≈ 0.7V

DC Operating Point and Load Line

In a transistor amplifier, the transistor must operate under proper DC conditions to ensure linear
amplification of the input signal. These DC conditions are established through biasing circuits.
The DC bias determines the operating point of the transistor on its output characteristics. This
point indicates the steady-state values of collector current and collector-emitter voltage when
no input signal is applied.

The concept of the DC operating point (Q-point) and DC load line helps in analyzing and
designing transistor amplifier circuits.

The DC Operating Point or Quiescent Point (Q-point) is the steady-state operating condition
of a transistor in the absence of an input signal.

It is specified by:

Q = (IC, VCE)

Where:

 IC = DC collector current
 VCE = DC collector-emitter voltage

The Q-point represents the initial bias condition of the transistor before the application of an
AC signal.

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 It determines how the transistor will respond to input signals
 It defines the linear region of operation
 It affects output waveform shape and distortion

The given figure consists of a common-emitter (CE) transistor circuit and its corresponding
collector characteristic curves, which are used to determine the DC operating point (Q-point)
using the load line method. This analysis is essential to understand how a transistor behaves
under different biasing conditions and how it can be used as an amplifier.

In the given circuit, a BJT is biased using two DC sources, namely VBB for the base circuit
and VCC for the collector circuit. The base-emitter junction is forward biased by VBB, which
establishes the base current IB. The value of base current is determined by the base resistor
RB and can be expressed as:
IB = (VBB − VBE) / RB
For a silicon transistor, the base-emitter voltage is approximately:
VBE ≈ 0.7 V

Thus, the base current is controlled by adjusting the base supply voltage VBB.

Collector Current and Current Gain

The collector current IC is controlled by the base current through the transistor current gain β.
The relationship between collector current and base current is given by:

IC = βIB

In the given circuit, β=100, which means that even a small base current produces a large
collector current. This property is the basis for amplification in BJTs.

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Collector-Emitter Voltage Equation

The collector-emitter voltage VCE is determined by applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
to the collector circuit. The equation is:

VCE = VCC − ICRC

This equation represents the relationship between collector current and collector-emitter
voltage for the given circuit and forms the basis of the DC load line.

The DC load line is a straight line drawn on the transistor output characteristics representing
all possible combinations of IC and VCE for a given VCC and RC. It is derived from the above
KVL equation and shows the constraint imposed by the external circuit on transistor operation.

Determination of Load Line End Points

To draw the load line, two extreme operating conditions are considered. When the transistor is
in cut-off, the collector current becomes zero (IC=0). Substituting this into the load line
equation:

VCE = VCC

This gives the cut-off point on the graph.

When the transistor is in saturation, the collector-emitter voltage becomes zero (VCE=0).
Substituting:

IC = VCC / RC

This gives the saturation point. A straight line joining these two points forms the DC load line.

The graph on the right side shows a output characteristic curves, where each curve
corresponds to a constant base current IB. These curves represent the variation of collector
current IC with collector-emitter voltage VCE.

As the base current increases (from 0.1 mA to 0.6 mA), the collector current also increases. In
the active region, these curves are almost horizontal, indicating that IC is nearly independent
of VCE and mainly depends on IB.

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Determination of Q-Point

The operating point (Q-point) is obtained at the intersection of the DC load line and the
transistor characteristic curve corresponding to a particular base current. It represents the actual
operating condition of the transistor under no-signal conditions.

Mathematically:

Q = (IC, VCE)

For example, if a particular base current produces a collector current of 30 mA, then using the
load line equation:

VCE = VCC − ICRC

VCE = 10 − (0.03×200) = 4 V

Thus, the Q-point is approximately:

Q = (30 mA, 4 V)

The d.c. load line gives us the information about the following two important points :

i. The load line intersects the horizontal axis at a point marked Vcc, which is equal to 10
V. This point is called transistor cut-off point or lower end of the load line. At this point,
the values of base current and collector current are zero (ideally). But actually, there is
a small value of reverse saturation current (ICBO) at cut off point as indicated in the
Fig. As a result of this, the collector-to-emitter voltage (VCE) is slightly less than the
value of Vcc.

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ii. The load line intersects the vertical axis at a point marked I equal to 50 mA. This point
is called transistor saturation point or upper end of the load line. At this point, the
collector current is maximum and the collector-to-emitter voltage is very small equal
to VCE (sat).

Simpler Way of Drawing a D.C. Load Line

Consider a common-emitter transistor circuit. Applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) to the
collector circuit, the collector current is given by:

IC = (VCC − VCE)/RC
Where:

 VCC = DC supply voltage

 VCE = Collector-emitter voltage
 RC = Collector resistance

This equation represents the relationship between IC and VCE, and it forms the basis for drawing
the DC load line.

Determination of Saturation Point

At the saturation point, the collector-emitter voltage VCE is very small and can be
approximated as zero:
VCE ≈ 0V
Substituting into the equation:
IC = VCC / RC
This current is called the saturation collector current, denoted as:
IC(sat)=VCC / RC
This value represents the maximum collector current and gives the upper end of the load line
on the graph.

Determination of Cut-off Point

At the cut-off point, the collector current becomes zero:
IC = 0
Substituting into the equation:
0 = (VCC−VCE) / RC
VCE = VCC
Thus, at cut-off:
VCE(cut−off) = VCC

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This represents the maximum collector-emitter voltage and gives the lower end of the load
line.

Drawing the DC Load Line

The DC load line is obtained by plotting two points:
1. Saturation Point (Upper End)
(VCE = 0, IC = VCC / RC)
2. Cut-off Point (Lower End)
(VCE = VCC, IC = 0)
A straight line joining these two points gives the DC load line.

Regions on Load Line

The load line divides the operation into three regions:

 Saturation Region → Near VCE ≈ 0 V
 Active Region → Middle portion (used for amplification)
 Cut-off Region → Near IC = 0

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Q-point and Maximum Undistorted Output

The given figure represents the concept of the DC load line and the position of the operating
point (Q-point) in a transistor amplifier. The DC load line is a straight line drawn on the output
characteristics of a transistor and is governed by the equation VCE = VCC − ICRC. It shows all
possible combinations of collector current (IC) and collector-emitter voltage (VCE) for a given
circuit. The two extreme points of the load line are the cut-off point, where IC = 0 & VCE = VCC,
and the saturation point, where VCE ≈ 0V and IC is maximum.

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In case (a), the Q-point is located approximately at the center of the load line, which is
considered the ideal biasing condition. When an AC input signal is applied, the operating point
swings equally towards the saturation and cut-off regions. This results in a symmetrical output
waveform, where both positive and negative halves are amplified without distortion. This
condition provides maximum faithful amplification and is therefore the most desirable
operating region for linear amplifiers.

In case (b), the Q-point is shifted towards the cut-off region. Under this condition, when the
input signal varies, the negative half cycle of the signal drives the transistor quickly into cut-
off, where the collector current becomes zero. As a result, the lower portion of the output
waveform is clipped, while the upper portion remains unaffected. This type of distortion is
known as cut-off distortion and occurs due to improper biasing that places the operating point
too close to the cut-off region.

In case (c), the Q-point is positioned near the saturation region. In this situation, the positive
half cycle of the input signal pushes the transistor into saturation, where the collector-emitter
voltage becomes very small and cannot decrease further. Consequently, the upper portion of
the output waveform is clipped, while the lower portion is properly reproduced. This leads to
saturation distortion, which again results from incorrect biasing of the transistor.

Factors Affecting Stability of Q-Point

The stability of the Q-point (Operating Point) is a critical requirement in transistor biasing. The
Q-point should remain constant despite variations in temperature, transistor parameters, and
supply voltage. Any shift in the Q-point can move the transistor out of the active region, leading
to distortion or even device failure. The main factors affecting Q-point stability are discussed
below.
(1) Inherent variations of transistor parameters
We know that the collector current for a common-emitter transistor amplifier is given by the
relation:
IC = βIB + (1+β)ICO...(i)
where,
β = common-emitter current gain,
IB = base current, and
ICO = reverse saturation current.

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The above equation contains three variables namely β, IB, and ICO. All the three variables are
found to be strongly dependent upon temperature. As the temperature increases, all the three
variables also increase. It results in the increase of collector current. This causes the operating
point to shift towards the saturation point, resulting in clipping and bad distortion of the output.
In some cases, a transistor may even burn out because of the excessive collector current.
(2) Variation in parameter values of transistors of the same type
It has been observed that in spite of the tremendous advancement made in semiconductor
device manufacturing technology, some transistors of a particular type show a large variation
in parameter values. This variability is provided by the manufacturer in the data sheet, where
minimum, maximum, and typical values of parameters are mentioned. This gives rise to
instability of the Q-point.
Condition for Proper Biasing of a Transistor
Proper biasing of a transistor refers to the application of suitable DC voltages and currents to
establish a stable operating point (Q-point) so that the transistor works efficiently as an
amplifier. The important conditions for proper biasing are as follows:
(i) Proper DC value of the collector current
(ii) Proper value of VBE = 0.7 V (for Silicon) and VBE = 0.7 V (for Germanium).
(iii) Proper value of VCE = 1 V (for Silicon) and VBE = 0.5 V (for Germanium).

Methods of Transistor Biasing

It refers to the different ways of applying DC voltages and currents to establish a proper
operating point (Q-point) in a transistor circuit. The commonly used methods are as follows:
(i) Fixed Bias (Base Bias Method), in which a resistor is connected between the base and the
supply voltage to provide base current; this method is simple but offers poor stability.
(ii) Fixed Bias (Base Bias Method) with Emitter feedback, is an improved version of the
simple fixed bias circuit, designed to provide better stability of the operating point. In this
method, a resistor is connected in the base circuit to provide the required base current, similar
to fixed bias, and an additional resistor is connected in the emitter lead. This emitter resistor
introduces negative feedback, which helps in stabilizing the collector current.
(iii) Fixed Bias (Base Bias Method) with Collector feedback (Collector Feedback Bias), is
a modified version of the simple fixed bias circuit that improves stability by introducing
negative feedback. In this method, the base resistor is connected to the collector instead of
directly to the supply voltage. This arrangement makes the base voltage dependent on the
collector voltage, thereby providing automatic control of the base current.

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(iv) Voltage Divider Bias, which uses two resistors forming a voltage divider network to
provide a stable base voltage; this is the most widely used method due to its excellent stability
against temperature and β variations.
(v) Emitter Bias (Emitter Resistor Method), where an emitter resistor is used to stabilize the
circuit by providing negative feedback and improving thermal stability.

Fixed Bias (Base Bias Method)

In this method, the base resistor RB is connected to the collector terminal instead of directly
to VCC. The emitter is grounded, and the collector is connected to the supply through RC. This
arrangement introduces negative feedback, improving the stability of the operating point.

When the transistor is biased, base current IB flows through RB, producing collector current IC.
The collector current flows through RC, causing a voltage drop across it, which reduces the
collector voltage VC. Since the base is connected to the collector, the base voltage depends on
VC. If IC increases (due to temperature or β variation), the voltage drop across RC increases,
reducing VC. This decreases base current IB, which in turn reduces IC. Thus, the circuit
automatically stabilizes the current using negative feedback.
Applying KVL in the base to emitter circuit:
VCC = IBRB + VBE
IB = (VCC - VBE) / RB
Base Current Expression
IB = VCC / RB
Since base is connected to collector:
VC = VBE + IBRB
But,
VC = VCC − ICRC

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So,
VCC − ICRC = VBE + IBRB
Collector Current Relation
IC = βIB
Substituting we get:
IC = β(VCC / RB)

Voltage Divider Bias Configuration

In the voltage divider bias circuit, two resistors
R1 and R2 are connected across the supply VCC
to form a voltage divider network. The junction
of these resistors provides the base voltage VB.
The emitter has a resistor RE for stabilization,
and the collector is connected to VCC through RC.
This arrangement ensures that the base voltage
is almost independent of transistor parameters.

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The voltage divider R1 and R2 sets a fixed base voltage VB. This voltage forward biases the
emitter-base junction and establishes emitter current IE, which in turn determines collector
current IC. The presence of emitter resistor RE provides negative feedback, stabilizing the
operating point.

If temperature increases, IC tends to increase. This increases IE, causing a larger voltage drop
across RE. As a result, the emitter voltage VE rises, reducing the base-emitter voltage VBE,
which decreases base current IB. Thus, the circuit automatically stabilizes the current and Q-
point.

Base Voltage (Voltage Divider Rule)

VB = VCC x (R2 / (R1+R2))

VE = VB − VBE (Since VBE = 0.7 V) ∴ VE = VB

Value of emitter current IE = VE / RE

Value of collector current IC = IE + IB (Since IB is 1%)

The equation can be rewritten as IC ≈ I B

The Voltage drop across collector resistance VRC = IC . RC

Voltage at collector VC = VCC – RC = VCC – IC . RC

Voltage from collector to emitter VCE = VC – VE = VCC – IC . RC – IE . RE

∴ VCE = VCC – IE (RC + RE)

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Classifications of Amplifiers

The linear amplifiers may be classified according to their mode of operation, i.e., the way they
operate on the predetermined set of values. Their descriptions are based on the following
factors:

(1) Based on the input

(a) Small-signal amplifier
(b) Large-signal amplifier

(2) Based on the output

(a) Voltage amplifier
(b) Power amplifier

(3) Based on transistor configuration

(a) Common-emitter (CE) amplifier
(b) Common-base (CB) amplifier
(c) Common-collector (CC) amplifier

(4) Based on biasing conditions

(a) Class - A
(e) Class - B
(b) Class - C
(c) Class - D
(d) Class - AB

(5) Based on nature of load resistance

(a) Untuned amplifiers (Wide-band amplifier)
(b) Tuned amplifier (Narrow-band amplifier)

(6) Based on frequency response

(a) Direct coupled (DC) amplifier
(b) Audio frequency (AF) amplifier
(c) Radio frequency (RF) amplifier
(d) Ultra high frequency (UHF) and microwave frequency amplifier

(7) Based on number of stages

(a) Single-stage amplifier
(b) Multistage amplifier
(b) R-C coupled amplifier

(8) Based on the method of coupling between the stages

(a) DC (direct coupled) amplifier
(b) Transformer Coupled amplifier
(c) Transformer coupled amplifier

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Transistor as an Amplifier – CE configuration

In the Common Emitter (CE) configuration, the emitter terminal is common to both the input
and output circuits. The input signal is applied between the base and emitter terminals, while
the output is taken from the collector and emitter terminals. This configuration is widely used
in amplification circuits because it provides high voltage gain, high current gain, and
consequently high power gain. In the CE amplifier circuit, a small alternating input signal Vs
is applied to the base through a source resistance RS. A biasing voltage VBB is provided in the
base circuit to keep the base–emitter junction forward biased. At the same time, a collector
supply voltage VCC is connected in the collector circuit through a load resistor RC. The emitter
is usually connected to ground and acts as the common terminal for both input and output
circuits.

When the AC input signal is applied at the base, it causes small variations in the base current
IB. Due to the transistor action, a small change in base current produces a much larger change
in collector current IC. The relationship between these currents is given by IC=βIB, where β is
the current gain of the transistor. The collector current flowing through the collector resistor
RC produces a voltage drop across it. As the collector current changes, the voltage drop across
RC also changes, which results in a varying output voltage VO. Thus, the small input signal
applied at the base produces a much larger output signal across the collector resistor,
demonstrating the amplification process.

During the positive half cycle of the input signal, the base becomes more positive with respect
to the emitter. This increases the base current and consequently increases the collector current.
The increased collector current produces a larger voltage drop across the collector resistor RC,
which reduces the collector voltage. During the negative half cycle, the base current decreases,

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leading to a decrease in collector current and a smaller voltage drop across RC, which increases
the collector voltage. An important feature of the CE amplifier is that the output voltage is 180°
out of phase with the input signal. This means that when the input signal increases, the output
voltage decreases and vice versa. This phase reversal occurs because the output is taken from
the collector, where an increase in collector current causes a larger voltage drop across the
collector resistor. Proper biasing of the transistor using VBB and VCC ensures that the transistor
operates in the active region, which is necessary for faithful amplification of the input signal.

Input Voltage Vin = IB . RB + VBE (Since VBE = 0.7 V <<1)

Vin = IB . RB

Output Voltage Vout = IC . RC + VCE (at VCE = 0V)

Vout = IC . RC

Voltage Gain AV = Vout / Vin

Av = (IC . RC) / (IB . RB) (Since IC = βIB)

Av = β (RC / RB)

RC Coupled Amplifier

In many practical applications, a single transistor amplifier does not provide sufficient gain.
Therefore, multiple amplifier stages are connected in cascade. In an RC coupled amplifier,
the output of the first stage is connected to the input of the next stage through a coupling
capacitor CC. Each stage amplifies the signal further, resulting in a large overall gain.

The input signal Vs is applied to the base of transistor Q1 through the input coupling capacitor
Cin. The resistors R1 and R2 form a voltage divider bias network, which provides proper
biasing to keep the transistor operating in the active region. The emitter resistor RE stabilizes
the operating point, while the capacitor CE bypasses the emitter resistor for AC signals to
increase the gain. When the input signal is applied, the base current of Q1 varies. This variation
causes a larger change in the collector current, producing an amplified voltage across the
collector resistor RC. Thus, the first stage amplifies the input signal.

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The amplified output signal from the collector of Q1 is transferred to the base of transistor Q2
through the coupling capacitor CC. The main function of this capacitor is to block DC
components while allowing AC signals to pass. This ensures that the biasing of the second
stage is not affected by the first stage.

The signal reaching the base of transistor Q2 is already amplified. This stage again operates in
the common emitter configuration, using similar biasing components R1, R2, RE, and CE. The
transistor Q2 further amplifies the signal. The final amplified output is taken from the collector
through another coupling capacitor CC and applied to the load resistance RL.

The total voltage gain of a multistage amplifier is the product of the gains of individual
stages:

Av = Av1×Av2
where

 Av1 = voltage gain of first stage

 Av2 = voltage gain of second stage

Because both stages are CE amplifiers, each stage introduces a 180° phase shift. Therefore,
after two stages, the output signal becomes in phase with the input signal.

 Numerical Gain => Av = Av1 X Av2 X Av3 X ……. Avn

 Gain in Decibels => Av = Av1 (dB) + Av2 (dB) + Av3 (dB) + ……. Avn (dB)

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Advantages of R–C Coupled Amplifier

 Provides high voltage gain

 Simple and inexpensive design
 Good frequency response in the audio frequency range
 Widely used in audio amplifiers and radio receivers

Applications

R–C coupled amplifiers are commonly used in:

 Audio amplification circuits

 Microphone and speaker amplifiers
 Radio and communication receivers

Disadvantages of R–C Coupled Transistor Amplifier

 Poor Low-Frequency Response

 Poor High-Frequency Response
 Impedance Matching Problem
 Not Suitable for Power Amplification
 Gain Variation with Frequency

Frequency Response of RC Coupled amplifier

The frequency response of an amplifier is the variation of its voltage gain with frequency of
the input signal. In an R–C coupled amplifier, the gain is not constant over all frequencies.
Instead, the response can be divided into three regions: low-frequency region, mid-frequency
region, and high-frequency region.

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a. At low frequencies (< 50 Hz), the gain of the amplifier decreases. This happens because
the reactance of the coupling capacitors and emitter bypass capacitor becomes large at
low frequencies. Due to this large reactance, only a small portion of the signal is
transferred from one stage to another. As a result, the output voltage decreases and the
gain falls.
b. In the mid-frequency range ( 50 Hz to 20 kHz), the coupling and bypass capacitors
offer very low reactance, allowing the AC signal to pass easily through the circuit. In
this region, the amplifier operates normally and provides maximum and nearly constant
voltage gain. This region is also called the flat region of the frequency response and is
the most useful range for practical amplification, especially in audio applications.
c. At high frequencies ( > 20 kHz), the gain again begins to decrease. This reduction
occurs because of internal transistor capacitances, stray capacitances, and wiring
capacitances. These capacitances provide alternate paths for the signal and reduce the
effective output voltage, causing the gain to fall at high frequencies.

The frequencies at which the gain drops to 70.7% (or −3 dB) of the maximum gain are called
the cut-off frequencies.

 Lower cut-off frequency (fL) – the frequency where the gain starts decreasing at low
frequencies.
 Upper cut-off frequency (fH) – the frequency where the gain starts decreasing at high
frequencies.

The difference between the upper and lower cut-off frequencies is called the bandwidth of
the amplifier.

Bandwidth (B.W) = fH − fL

Transformer Coupled Amplifier

In a two-stage transformer coupled amplifier, the output of the first transistor stage is connected
to the primary winding of a transformer. The transformer secondary is connected to the base
circuit of the second transistor stage. The input signal is applied to the base of the first
transistor, which operates in the common emitter configuration. When the input signal varies,
the base current changes, causing corresponding changes in the collector current. This varying
collector current flows through the primary winding of the transformer and produces a
changing magnetic flux.

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The changing magnetic flux in the transformer induces a voltage in the secondary winding
according to the principle of electromagnetic induction. This induced voltage is applied to the
base of the second transistor. Thus, the transformer transfers the amplified signal from the first
stage to the second stage while also providing impedance matching between stages.

The second transistor stage again amplifies the signal in a similar manner. The collector circuit
of the second transistor is also connected to another transformer whose secondary winding is
connected to the load. This transformer helps to match the output impedance of the amplifier
with the load impedance so that maximum power can be transferred to the load. One important
advantage of transformer coupling is efficient power transfer and good impedance matching,
which makes it suitable for power amplification stages such as audio output stages. However,
transformer coupled amplifiers also have some disadvantages such as higher cost, larger size,
and poor frequency response due to transformer losses and leakage reactance.

Thus, a two-stage transformer coupled amplifier uses transformers to couple the stages,
improve impedance matching, and deliver higher power to the load, though its frequency
response is generally not as good as that of an R–C coupled amplifier.

Frequency Response of Transformer Coupled Amplifier

The frequency response of a transformer coupled amplifier shows how the voltage gain varies
with frequency of the input signal. In a transformer coupled amplifier, the transformer plays a
major role in determining the gain at different frequencies.

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a. At low frequencies, the gain of the transformer coupled amplifier is low. This happens
because the reactance of the transformer primary winding is small at low frequencies. As a
result, a large magnetizing current flows in the primary winding, reducing the effective
signal transferred to the secondary. Due to this effect, the voltage gain of the amplifier
decreases in the low-frequency region.
b. In the mid-frequency range, the transformer operates efficiently. The inductive reactance
of the primary winding becomes sufficiently high, which allows proper coupling of the
signal between the primary and secondary windings. As a result, the amplifier provides
maximum and nearly constant gain in this region. This is the most useful operating region
for amplification.
c. At high frequencies, the gain of the amplifier again decreases. This reduction occurs due
to leakage inductance and stray capacitances present in the transformer windings. These
effects cause energy losses and reduce the signal transfer between the primary and
secondary windings, thereby decreasing the amplifier gain.
Advantages of Transformer Coupled Amplifier
1. Good Impedance Matching: The transformer can match the output impedance of the
amplifier with the load impedance, ensuring maximum power transfer to the load.
2. High Power Efficiency: Since the transformer transfers power through magnetic coupling,
power loss is relatively low compared to resistive coupling methods.
3. No DC Power Loss in Load: The transformer isolates the DC component, so DC power is
not wasted in the load, improving overall efficiency.
4. Suitable for Power Amplification: Transformer coupling is especially useful in audio
power amplifiers, where large power must be delivered to speakers.

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Disadvantages
1. Poor Frequency Response: The amplifier does not provide uniform gain over a wide range
of frequencies because of transformer losses, leakage inductance, and stray capacitance.
2. Bulky and Expensive: Transformers are generally large, heavy, and costly, which increases
the size and cost of the amplifier.
3. Magnetic Losses: Losses such as hysteresis loss and eddy current loss in the transformer
core reduce efficiency.
4. Narrow Bandwidth: Transformer coupled amplifiers usually operate effectively over a
limited frequency range, making them less suitable for wideband applications.

Applications
1. Audio Power Amplifiers: Used in the output stage of audio amplifiers to match the
amplifier impedance with speaker impedance.
2. Radio and Communication Circuits: Used in RF amplifiers and communication receivers
for signal coupling.
3. Impedance Matching Circuits: Used wherever impedance matching between stages or
loads is required.
4. Push–Pull Amplifier Circuits: Transformers are often used in push–pull power amplifier
configurations.

Direct Coupled Amplifier (Two-Stage)

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In this type of amplifier, the output of the first transistor stage is directly connected to the input
of the next stage without any coupling capacitor or transformer. Because of this direct
connection, both AC and DC components of the signal are transferred from one stage to
another.

The circuit contains two transistor stages Q1 and Q2 operating in the common-emitter
configuration. The supply voltage +VCC is connected to the collector resistors of both stages.
The first stage consists of resistors R1 and R2 forming a voltage divider bias network for
transistor Q1. The input signal Vin is applied at the base of Q1. The collector resistor R3 and
emitter resistor R4 help establish the operating point of the transistor.

The collector of Q1 is directly connected to the base of transistor Q2. This direct connection
acts as the coupling path between the two stages. The second stage consists of transistor Q2
with collector resistor R5 and emitter resistor R6. The final output voltage Vout is taken from
the collector of Q2.

When the input signal Vin is applied to the base of transistor Q1, it causes small variations in
the base current of Q1. These variations produce larger changes in the collector current of Q1
because of transistor amplification. The amplified signal appears at the collector of Q1. Since
the collector of Q1 is directly connected to the base of Q2, the amplified signal becomes the
input signal for the second stage. Transistor Q2 again amplifies this signal, producing a larger
output voltage at its collector. Thus, the signal is amplified in two stages, resulting in higher
overall gain.

Sinusoidal Oscillators – Introduction

A sinusoidal oscillator is an electronic circuit that generates a continuous, periodic sine wave
output without requiring any external input signal. It converts DC power into AC signal
energy at a desired frequency. An oscillator works on the principle of positive feedback. A
portion of the output signal is fed back to the input in such a way that it reinforces the original
signal, leading to sustained oscillations.

Oscillators are electronic circuits that generate continuous waveforms without any external
input signal. They are broadly classified based on the type of output waveform and the principle
of operation.

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The main classifications are as follows:

(i) Sinusoidal Oscillators (Harmonic Oscillators), which produce a sine wave output and
are used in communication systems; examples include RC oscillators (such as phase shift
and Wien bridge), LC oscillators (such as Hartley and Colpitts), and crystal oscillators,
(ii) Non-Sinusoidal Oscillators (Relaxation Oscillators), which generate non-sinusoidal
waveforms like square, triangular, or sawtooth waves; examples include multivibrators
(astable, monostable, and bistable)
(iii) Based on Frequency Determining Network, oscillators are classified as RC oscillators
(used for low frequencies), LC oscillators (used for high frequencies), and crystal
oscillators (used for very high stability and precise frequency)
(iv) Based on Circuit Configuration, oscillators can be transistor-based or operational
amplifier-based. Thus, oscillators are classified in different ways depending on waveform,
frequency range, and circuit design, each suited for specific electronic applications.
The applications of sinusoidal oscillators include:
(i) generation of carrier waves in communication systems such as radio and television
transmitters,
(ii) use in audio and signal generators for testing electronic circuits,
(iii) clock generation in digital systems,
(iv) use in instrumentation and control systems where stable frequency signals are
required.
Nature of Sinusoidal Oscillations
The nature of sinusoidal oscillations can be understood by studying two important types of
oscillations: damped oscillations and undamped oscillations.
1. Damped Oscillations: Damped oscillations are oscillations whose amplitude gradually
decreases with time due to the loss of energy in the circuit. In practical electrical circuits,
components such as resistors, connecting wires, and other elements cause power dissipation in
the form of heat. Because of these losses, the energy stored in the reactive components
(inductor and capacitor) decreases after every cycle. As a result, the amplitude of voltage or
current becomes smaller and smaller until the oscillations eventually die out. In an LC circuit,
energy is continuously exchanged between the electric field of the capacitor and the magnetic
field of the inductor. However, due to resistance present in the circuit, part of this energy is lost
during each cycle. Therefore, the oscillations are not maintained indefinitely and their
amplitude decays exponentially with time. Such oscillations are called damped sinusoidal

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oscillations. These oscillations are generally observed in circuits where no external energy
source compensates for the losses.
Characteristics of damped oscillations:
 Amplitude decreases gradually with time
 Energy of the system continuously reduces
 Oscillations eventually stop
 Occur in passive circuits without amplification

2. Undamped Oscillations: Undamped oscillations are oscillations whose amplitude remains

constant with time. In this case, the energy lost in the circuit due to resistance and other losses
is continuously supplied by an external source, usually through an amplifier with positive
feedback. Because the energy supplied exactly compensates for the energy lost, the amplitude
of oscillations does not decrease. In practical oscillator circuits, such as RC oscillators, LC
oscillators, and crystal oscillators, an amplifier stage and feedback network are used to supply
the necessary energy to the circuit. When the Barkhausen criterion is satisfied, the feedback
signal reinforces the oscillations and maintains a constant amplitude. Thus the oscillations
continue indefinitely without decay. These are called undamped or sustained oscillations.
Characteristics of undamped oscillations:
 Amplitude remains constant with time
 Energy losses are compensated by external power supply
 Oscillations continue indefinitely
 Produced using amplifier and positive feedback

Frequency Stability of an Oscillator: The frequency stability of an oscillator is affected by

several important factors as listed below:
1. Operating Point of the active device: The operating point (Q-point) of the transistor
determines the gain of the amplifier used in the oscillator. If the operating point shifts due to
temperature changes or component variations, the amplifier characteristics change. This affects

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the feedback conditions of the oscillator and may cause a slight change in the oscillation
frequency, reducing frequency stability.

2. Circuit Components: The values of inductors, capacitors, and resistors in the oscillator
circuit determine the oscillation frequency. Any variation in these component values due to
temperature changes, aging, or manufacturing tolerances can change the resonant frequency of
the circuit. Therefore, high-quality and temperature-stable components are required to maintain
good frequency stability.

3. Supply Voltage: Variations in the DC supply voltage can affect the transistor biasing
conditions and amplifier gain. When the supply voltage changes, the operating conditions of
the oscillator circuit also change, which may lead to a small shift in the oscillation frequency.

4. Output Load: Changes in the load connected to the oscillator output can influence the
effective impedance seen by the oscillator circuit. This may alter the feedback conditions and
the resonant characteristics of the circuit, resulting in slight variations in the output frequency.

5. Interelement Capacitance and Stray Capacitance: In practical circuits, there are

interelectrode capacitances within the transistor and stray capacitances between circuit wiring
and components. These unwanted capacitances add to the circuit capacitance and can modify
the effective capacitance of the tank circuit. As a result, the frequency of oscillation may shift,
affecting the frequency stability.

Barkhausen criterion

The Barkhausen criterion states that for sustained oscillations the loop gain of the system must
be equal to unity, and the total phase shift around the closed feedback loop must be either 00 or
3600. The loop gain is defined as the product of the amplifier gain A and the feedback factor β
of the feedback network. This condition can be written mathematically as

|Aβ = 1|
Where,

 A = voltage gain of the amplifier stage

 β = feedback fraction (portion of output signal fed back to the input)
 Aβ = loop gain of the oscillator circuit.

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For oscillations to start initially, the loop gain must be slightly greater than unity, that is
Aβ>1. At the moment when the circuit is powered on, there is no external input signal.
However, small random noise voltages generated by electronic components or thermal effects
exist in the circuit. These small signals are amplified by the amplifier stage and fed back
through the feedback network. If the loop gain is greater than unity, the amplitude of these
signals gradually increases and oscillations start building up. As the amplitude grows, nonlinear
characteristics of the active device (transistor or amplifier) automatically reduce the effective
gain until the condition Aβ=1 is satisfied. At this stage the oscillations reach a steady and
constant amplitude and are maintained continuously.

The second requirement of the Barkhausen criterion is the phase condition. For positive
feedback to occur, the feedback signal must arrive at the input in phase with the original signal
so that it reinforces it rather than cancelling it. Therefore, the total phase shift introduced by
the amplifier and the feedback network together must be an integer multiple of 3600. This
condition can be expressed as

∠(Aβ) = 00 or 3600

In many transistor oscillator circuits, the amplifier itself introduces a phase shift of 1800. For
example, a common-emitter amplifier produces a 1800 phase reversal between input and
output signals. The feedback network is therefore designed to provide an additional 1800 phase
shift so that the total phase shift around the loop becomes

1800 + 1800 = 3600

which satisfies the Barkhausen phase condition. When both the magnitude condition (|Aβ=1|)
and the phase condition (3600 phase shift) are satisfied simultaneously, the feedback becomes
positive feedback, and the circuit produces sustained oscillations.

The Barkhausen criterion forms the theoretical foundation for all types of electronic oscillators,
including RC oscillators, LC oscillators, and crystal oscillators. In RC oscillators, the
feedback network uses resistors and capacitors to provide the required phase shift. In LC
oscillators, inductors and capacitors determine the oscillation frequency through resonance. In
crystal oscillators, a quartz crystal provides extremely high frequency stability due to its high
quality factor (Q). Regardless of the type of oscillator, the basic operating principle always
follows the Barkhausen conditions for sustained oscillation.

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Tuned oscillators
Tuned oscillators are sinusoidal oscillators that use a tuned circuit (LC circuit) consisting of
an inductor (L) and a capacitor (C) to generate oscillations at a desired frequency. These
oscillators operate on the principle of resonance, where energy is continuously exchanged
between the magnetic field of the inductor and the electric field of the capacitor.
The important features of tuned oscillators are:
(i) they generate high-frequency sinusoidal signals,
(ii) the frequency of oscillation is determined by the resonant frequency of the LC circuit
given by f=1/2π√LC
(iii) they provide high efficiency and low losses,
(iv) they are widely used in radio frequency applications.
The working of a tuned oscillator involves an amplifier and an LC feedback network; when
the Barkhausen criterion is satisfied, oscillations are produced and sustained at the resonant
frequency. Common types of tuned oscillators include Hartley oscillator (uses tapped
inductor), Colpitts oscillator (uses split capacitors). Thus, tuned oscillators are essential for
generating stable high-frequency signals in communication systems.

BJT Hartley Oscillator

The given circuit represents a BJT-based Hartley oscillator, which is a type of tuned oscillator
that uses an LC tank circuit to generate high-frequency sinusoidal oscillations. The circuit
consists of a transistor amplifier (usually in common emitter configuration), a feedback
network (inductive divider using L1 and L2), and biasing components. The transistor provides

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180° phase shift, while the tank circuit provides another 180° phase shift, satisfying the
condition for positive feedback.

The biasing network is formed by resistors R1 and R2, which provide the required base voltage
to operate the transistor in the active region. The emitter resistor RE provides thermal stability,
and the capacitor CE acts as a bypass capacitor, allowing AC signals to pass while stabilizing
DC conditions. The RFC (Radio Frequency Choke) allows DC supply to pass to the collector
but blocks AC signals, ensuring that oscillations are not lost through the power supply.

The tank circuit is the most important part of the oscillator and consists of a capacitor C
connected in parallel with two series inductors L1 and L2 (or a tapped inductor). Energy is
continuously exchanged between the magnetic field of the inductors and the electric field of
the capacitor, producing oscillations at the resonant frequency. The frequency of oscillation is
given by:

f=1/2π√(L1+L2)C

The feedback mechanism is achieved through the tapped inductor. A portion of the output is
fed back from the junction of L1 and L2 to the input. The ratio of L1 and L2 determines the
amount of feedback. This feedback signal is in phase with the input due to the combined 360°
phase shift (180° from amplifier + 180° from tank circuit), satisfying the Barkhausen
criterion.

The coupling capacitors CC1 and CC2 are used to block DC and allow AC signals to pass
between stages. The output is taken from the collector, where a continuous sinusoidal
waveform is produced. Thus, the Hartley oscillator works on the principle of positive feedback
and resonance, where the transistor amplifies the signal and the LC tank circuit determines the
frequency, resulting in sustained sinusoidal oscillations.

Colpitts Oscillator

The given circuit represents a BJT-based Colpitts oscillator, which is a type of tuned
oscillator that uses a capacitive voltage divider (C₁ and C₂) along with an inductor L to form
the tank circuit. The transistor is connected in common emitter configuration, which provides
amplification and introduces a 180° phase shift between input and output.

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The biasing network consists of resistors R1 and R2, which establish the required base voltage
to keep the transistor in the active region. The emitter resistor RE provides thermal stability,
and the bypass capacitor CE allows AC signals to pass while maintaining DC stability. The
RFC (Radio Frequency Choke) supplies DC to the collector while blocking AC signals,
preventing signal loss through the power supply.

The tank circuit consists of an inductor L and two capacitors C1 and C2 connected in series.
These capacitors act as a capacitive voltage divider, and the junction between them provides
the feedback signal. The tank circuit produces an additional 180° phase shift, so along with
the transistor’s 180°, the total phase shift becomes 360°, satisfying the Barkhausen criterion
for sustained oscillations.

The frequency of oscillation is determined by the resonant frequency of the tank circuit and is
given by:

f=1/2π√L⋅Ceq
where,
Ceq = (C1*C2 ) / (C1+C2)

The feedback mechanism is controlled by the ratio of C1 and C2, which determines the fraction
of output signal fed back to the input. The coupling capacitors CC1 and CC2 are used to block
DC and allow AC signals to pass. The output is taken from the collector, producing a
continuous sinusoidal waveform.

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Thus, the Colpitts oscillator works on the principle of positive feedback and resonance, where
the amplifier provides gain and the LC tank circuit determines the frequency, resulting in stable
high-frequency oscillations.

BJT-based crystal oscillator

The circuit shown is a crystal oscillator using a Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) in common-
emitter configuration, commonly known as a Pierce crystal oscillator. The purpose of this
circuit is to generate a very stable sinusoidal signal at a precise frequency, which is determined
mainly by the quartz crystal (Y). The resistors R₁ and R₂ form a voltage divider bias network
that provides a stable base bias voltage to keep the transistor operating in the active region. The
emitter resistor RE provides thermal stability by controlling the emitter current and preventing
excessive current flow due to temperature variations. The emitter bypass capacitor CE offers a
low reactance path for AC signals, thereby increasing the AC gain of the amplifier while
maintaining DC stability.

The RF choke (RFC) connected between the collector and the supply voltage VCC acts as a
high impedance for high-frequency AC signals and a low resistance path for DC. This prevents
the RF signal generated in the collector circuit from being lost into the power supply and helps
maintain oscillations within the circuit. The collector output is connected to a feedback network
consisting of capacitors C1 and C2 and the quartz crystal (Y). These components form the
frequency determining network of the oscillator. The quartz crystal operates based on the
piezoelectric effect, meaning it mechanically vibrates when an electrical voltage is applied
across it. The crystal behaves like a very high-Q resonant circuit and allows oscillations only
at its natural resonant frequency, thereby ensuring extremely high frequency stability compared
to LC or RC oscillators. The capacitors C1 and C2 form a capacitive voltage divider, which
provides the necessary positive feedback from the collector to the base of the transistor.

When the circuit is powered, small electrical noise present in the circuit is amplified by the
transistor. A portion of this amplified signal is fed back through the crystal and capacitive
network to the transistor input. The crystal selects only the signal at its resonant frequency and
suppresses other frequencies. If the Barkhausen criterion is satisfied meaning the loop gain
is equal to or greater than unity and the total phase shift around the loop is 360 0 the feedback
signal reinforces the input signal and continuous oscillations are sustained. In this
configuration, the common emitter amplifier introduces a phase shift of 1800, and the feedback

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network provides an additional 1800 phase shift, resulting in a total phase shift of 3600. The
output signal is taken from the collector through a coupling capacitor, which blocks DC
components and allows only the AC oscillation signal to reach the load or next stage.

Crystal oscillators are widely used in digital electronics, microprocessors, communication

systems, radio transmitters, and clock generation circuits because they provide excellent
frequency accuracy, high Q factor, very low drift, and high stability over temperature and time.
Compared to LC oscillators, crystal oscillators offer much better precision, making them ideal
for applications where an exact timing or frequency reference is required.

Numericals:

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