Chapter 2 Flight Principle

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 Content
 Basic Concepts and Theorems
 Mechanism of Lift and High-Lift
Devices
 Drag and Measures to Reduce It
 Aerodynamic Configuration
 Flight Performance
 Stability and Control
 Flight principle of spacecraft

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Key Points
1．Characteristics of Operation Environments
2．Viscosity, Compressibility, Sound Speed
and Mach Number
3．Continuity Equation
4．Bernoulli's Equation
5．Principle of Lift
6．Drags and Drag-Reducing Measures
7．Difference in Shape between Low Speed Aircraft
and Supersonic One
8．Sound Barrier and Thermal Barrier
9．Main Performance Parameters of Flight
10．Definition of Stability and Control
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 Elementary Knowledge

1．The Law of Flow in Tube

2．Characteristics of Aerodynamic
Configuration of Aircraft
3．Factors influencing stability
4．Layout of Helicopter
5．Knowledge about Spaceflight

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 2.1 Fight Environment

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Four fundamental quantities

 Density is the amount of mass per unit volume

Air is composed of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and very
small amounts of other gases. On a molecular level, the mass
of air in a given space is the number of the various types of
molecules in the volume multiplied by their molecular masses.
 Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic
energy of the air molecules as they move and collide
with each other

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 Pressure is the force exerted by a fluid (liquid or gas)
per unit area
 Velocity is the net motion of the air. While density,
temperature, and pressure are scalars, velocity is a
vector. It has both a magnitude and a direction
Velocity is relative. That is to say, the velocity of any object, air for
instance, is measured relative to some frame of reference.

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NOTE:
The four properties just mentioned can be used to
describe the average conditions of any size volume of
air. Because the values of these properties are not
very uniform in the atmosphere, especially in the
vicinity of a moving aircraft, it is useful to consider
the limit of these values as the size of the volume
being considered shrinks to zero. These limit values
are called point properties. Point properties can have
different values at every point in a volume.

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 2.1.1 Atmosphere Environment
According to the
variation of
temperature with
altitude, the
atmosphere can be
partitioned into five
layers
• Troposphere
• Stratosphere
• Mesosphere
• Thermosphere
• Exosphere

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1 Troposphere

The temperature
decreases as the
altitude increases.

（0 ～18 KM）

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2 Stratosphere
The air flows in
horizontal direction.
There exists no air
convection in vertical
direction.

（18～50 KM）

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3 Mesosphere
The temperature
decreases as the
altitude increases,
and there is
intense air flow
along the vertical
direction.

（50～80 KM）

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4 Thermosphere
The density of air is very low. The air
is in the state of ionization. The
temperature increases as the altitude
increases. （80～800 KM）
5 Exosphere
It is the outmost layer of atmosphere. In
the layer the air is extremely rarefied.
Because of the low G-force the air
molecules escape into the star space.

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2.1.2 Space Environment ▲

The space environment of

flight mainly indicates the
operation environment
composing of
• vacuum
• electromagnetic radiation
• energetic particle radiation
• plasma
• micro meteoroid
etc.

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2.1.3 The Standard Atmosphere
To accurately characterize the flight
performance of flying vehicle, a
uniform standard should be set up,
that is the standard atmosphere.

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 The standard atmosphere table
Relative Density
H（m） P（Pa） T( K ） a (m/s)
Density (kg/m3)

-1000 113937 294.50 1.0992 1.3465 345

0 101325 288.15 1.0000 1.2250 341
1000 89876 281.65 0.9073 1.1117 337
2000 79501 275.15 0.8215 1.0066 333
3000 70121 268.66 0.7420 0.9092 329
4000 61660 262.17 0.6685 0.8194 325
5000 54048 255.68 0.6007 0.7364 321
6000 47217 249.19 0.5383 0.6601 317
8000 35651 236.22 0.4284 0.5258 309
9000 30800 229.73 0.3804 0.4671 304
10000 26499 223.25 0.3366 0.4135 300
11000 22699 216.77 0.2968 0.3648 296
12000 19339 216.65 0.2535 0.3119 296
13000 16579 216. 65 0.2165 0.2666 296
15000 12111 216. 65 0.1579 0.1948 296
16000 10352 216. 65 0.1349 0.1665 296
17000 8849.7 216. 65 0.1153 0.1423 296
18000 7565.2 216. 65 0.0984 0.1217 296
19000 6467.4 216. 65 0.0841 0.1040 296
20000 5529.3 216. 65 0.0720 0.0889 296
21000 4728.9 217.58 0.0614 0.0757 296
22000 4047.5 218.57 0.0523 0.0645 296
24000 2971.7 220.56 0.0382 0.0469 298
25000 2549.2 221.55 O.0326 0.0401 299
26000 2188.3 222.54 0.0275 0.0343 299
28000 1616.1 224.53 0.0198 0.0251 301
29000 1390.4 225.52 0.0168 0.0215 301
30000 1197.0 226.51 0.0144 0.0184 302

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 2.1.4 The Characteristics
of The Atmosphere
1 State Parameters and Equation of State
Pressure P
Temperature T
Density

P = ρ RT

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2 Continuity
Distance among molecules can be neglected
when we consider the relative motion between
flying vehicle and atmosphere.
That is to say that the fluid can be regarded as
the continuous medium.

This is the continuity assumption employed in

aerodynamics.

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3 Viscosity ▲

Viscosity in a liquid results from strong intermolecular

forces which resist the motion of molecules relative to
each other. The intermolecular forces between faster-
moving molecules and slower-moving ones cause
velocity differences to be quickly equalized in a viscous
liquid.

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 Viscosity and friction drag
Viscous effects are most important when a
fluid is in contact with and moving relative to
a solid body such as an aircraft. Several
viscous effects in the boundary layer are very
important. The first is the production of
viscous drag, which is also called skin
friction drag.
 Ideal fluid
A flow where viscosity is neglected is called
ideal fluid or inviscid flow.

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4 Compressibility ▲

Fluid is the common name of gas and liquid.

Compressibility designates the property that
the density and volume change while the
pressure changes.
The compressibility should be considered for
high speed flow.
It can be neglected for low speed flow.

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liquid-incompressible gas-compressible

Water Air

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5 Sound speed ▲
The velocity that the sound wave propagates in
material substances.
The sound speed is related to the medium. Generally
speaking, the higher the compressibility of the
medium, the smaller the sound speed, and vice versa.
It is about 1440m/s in water and 341m/s in
the air at the standard state of sea level.

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6 Mach Number ▲
Definition
v
Ma =
where a
v is the velocity of flight
a is the local sound speed

Click to play

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 Flight regime described by Ma
hypersonic

supersonic

transonic

subsonic

low speed

0 0.4 0.85 1.3 5.0 Ma

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 2.2 Basic Law of Flowing Gas

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 2.2.1 The Principle of Relative
Motion
• For example, if you stand facing a 10
m/s breeze and hold up your hand,
the air has the same velocity relative
to your hand as if you were riding a
bicycle at 10 m/s in still air (or for
that matter if you rode a bicycle at 5
m/s directly into a 5 m/s breeze.) In
each case, the frame of reference is
fixed to your hand and the air velocity
is 10 m/s relative to it.
• When a aircraft is in the state of
straight-level-flight, the aerodynamic
force effect is the same if we fixed the
aircraft and let the far front air flows
past it at the same velocity. This is the Click to play
principle of relative motion.

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 2.2.2 Conservation of Mass and the
Continuity Equation
1 2 3
Observing a flow in a contraction
cone, we found that
1) No mass can pass through
the cone walls;
2) v1<v2<v3;
3) The flow is steady, no mass
accumulating there. 1 2 3

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 1
2

v1 v2
2
1
In unit time, mass which flows into a variable-section
tube at section 1 must equal the mass which flows out
at section 2, that is
ρ=
1v1 A1 ρ=2 v2 A2 ρ=
3v3 A3 常数
constant
The above equation is called the continuity equation. It
is a statement of the law of conservation of mass for
compressible fluid flows.
▲

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 If the gas flows at low speed, we can assume that
the gas is incompressible, i.e. density is constant,
and then the previous equation can be rewritten
as
v=
1A1 v=
2A2 v=
3A3 常数
constant
This equation is called the continuity equation
for incompressible fluid flows.

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The continuity equation for
incompressible flow makes
it obvious that the reduction
in stream tube area will
produce an increase in the
velocity of flow.

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 2.2.3 Bernoulli's Equation ▲

The law of conservation

of energy depicts the
relation between flow
velocity and pressure of
fluid.

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 For a steady flow along a tube of an
incompressible ideal fluid, the sum of the
static pressure and the dynamic pressure
holds as a constant everywhere, that is
1 1
P1 + ρV1 =
2
P2 + ρV2 =
2
常数
constant
2 2 1 2
where P is static pressure, ρ v is dynamic
2
pressure. The Equation is known as
Bernoulli’s equation.

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 Together with the continuity equation,
Bernoulli’s equation provides the key to
understanding such diverse concepts as
how wings generate lift and how
airspeed indicating systems work.

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 With the continuity
equation and Bernoulli’s
equation, we know that
when fluid flow in a
variable section tube the
flow velocity is higher and
the pressure lower at a
position with small cross
section; the velocity lower
and the pressure higher at Analyze why the two boats
a position with large cross come close automatically .
section.

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 2.2.4 Characteristics of Low
Speed Flow

Contraction tube Expansion tube

When the tube is contractive the flow velocity increases

and the pressure decreases.
When the tube is expansive the flow velocity decreases and
the pressure increases.
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 2.2.5 Characteristics of High
Speed Flow

(a) Contraction tube (b) Expansion tube

Flow in a variable section tube of supersonic airflow

The characteristics of supersonic flow in a variable

section tube is contrary with that of low speed flow. The
contraction tube forces the fluid to decelerate and to
increase pressure, and the expansion one forces the fluid to
accelerate and to reduce pressure.

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 2.3 Principles and Effects of
Aerodynamic Forces Acting on Aircraft

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 2.3.1 Lift of Wing and High-
Lift Devices
1 Airfoil
The shape of wing cross section sliced by a
cutting plane parallel to the symmetrical plane
of a aircraft.

Airfoil
V

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2 Chord and angle of attack
The most front end of airfoil is called the leading
edge. The most rear end of airfoil is called the
trailing edge.
The connecting line Lower
between the leading pressure Angle of
attack
edge and the trailing
edge is called the chord Pressure difference produces lift
line.
chord line
The angle between the heading
chord line of airfoil and
the direction of relative
velocity is called the Higher
pressure
angle of attack.
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 3 Producing of Lift

Observe
on which side the airflow move faster
10-30/2014

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 When the airflow flows past
the upside of the airfoil
• the stream channel becomes
constricted,
D
• and then the flow must
accelerate,
• consequently the pressure
decreases.
On the underside of the airfoil,
• the stream channel becomes Schematic of Producing Lift
wide,
• so the flow decelerates and This pressure difference
the pressure increases. produces lift
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 Animation of Lift Producing（click to play）

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 4 Factors Influencing Lift
（1）wing planform area
the larger area the larger lift.
（2）relative velocity
the higher the velocity the larger lift.
（3）density of air
the larger the density the larger lift.

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（4）shape of cross section of wing and
angle of attack
The lift is greatly related to the
airfoil.
Within a certain range, lift
increases with the increase of angle
of attack. When the increase of angle
of attack is up to a certain value, lift
decreases drastically, and the
phenomenon is called stall.
Click to play

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 The Lift Formula
The lift formula is written as
1
Y= C y ρV S
2

2
Where the effect of airfoil and angle of
attack on the lift can be represented with
the coefficient of lift, Cy.

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5 High-Lift
Devices B-747

Leading -Edge Flaps

Trailing-edge Flaps

Click to play

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2.3.3 Producing of Drag and Measures to
Reduce It ▲

1 Friction Drag
The friction drag is produced due to
viscosity.

Viscous friction drag

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 Measures to reduce the friction drag
The friction drag lies on viscosity of air,
roughness of surface, and the area of surface.
1) Make the surface smooth
2) Reduce the area of surface exposed to the air

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2 Pressure Drag
The pressure difference between the front end and aft
end of airfoil produces pressure drag.
Measures: (1) reduce the maximum upwind area of
aircraft (2) install fairing, usually in a stream line shape.

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3 Induced Drag
The Induced drag is the
concomitancy of lift.
A downward velocity called
downwash velocity, is produced
when airflow flows past airfoil.
This velocity is the direct cause to
produce induced drag.

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 Induced drag is related to the planform shape of
wing, shape of airfoil, and aspect ratio, etc.
Induced drag can be decreased through selection
of appropriate planform such as tapered wing,
adding of winglet, etc.

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4 Interference Drag
When assemble components
together, the drag of the
combination is not equal to
the summation of drag of F-84 fighter
each component. The former
is usually greater than the
latter. There exists an extra
drag and it is called the
interference drag.

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 2.4 Characteristics of High
Speed Flight

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2.4.1 Propagation of Weak Perturbation Wave

v=0

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2.4.2 Shock Wave

The shock wave is a

thin layer of air that is
strongly compressed.

点击播放
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 Schematic of Shock Wave
Shock wave
Ma >1

（Click to Play）

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 Normal Shock Wave and
Oblique Shock Wave
The wave front is nearly vertical to the direction
of the airflow. It is the most intense shock wave.
The wave front inclines to the direction of the
airflow. It is a weak shock wave.

Ma >1 Ma >1

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2.4.3 Critical Mach Number
Vc
Mac =
a
V∞
Ma =
a
We call the Ma the critical
Mach number when the
Mac equals to 1, and note
it as Mac

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 2.4.4 Aerodynamic Appearance and
Characteristics of Supersonic Flight
1 Aerodynamic High Wing Middle Wing Low Wing

Appearance of
Aircraft
Wing with dihedral
Wing with anhedral angle
angle

One-finned tail Twin-finned tail V-tail

Normal configuration Canard configuration Tailless configuration

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 Observing the layouts of the following
aircrafts

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 A

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 B

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 C

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 D

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 E

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 F

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 G

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 H

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 I

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2 Geometry and Parameters of Aircraft
The geometry of an aircraft is mainly
composed of the appearance of the
fuselage, the wing, and the
empennage.

Wing geometry:
wing planform
airfoil
Wing planform: Click to play
spanwise
swept angle
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Wing Span：the distance between the left wing tip and the right
wing tip.
Chord line：the connecting line between the leading edge and the
trailing edge.
Sweepback Angle of Leading Edge：the angle between the line of
leading edge and the line perpendicular to the symmetrical plane at
the wing root.

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3 Characteristics of Appearance of
Supersonic Aircraft
（1）Sweptback Wing
Mig-15
Increases the Mac, and
postpones the yielding of
local shock wave compared
with the straight wing.
Deceases wave drag when
speed exceeds Mac. vt
v v vn
The effective velocity can v
be decreased due to the
sweptback angle. D D Dn
D

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（2）Delta Wing
For supersonic flight the wing
should be sweptback, however,
excessively large sweptback
angle would worsen the capacity
of load bearing for wing root
structure and lead to increase of
Large sweptback angle
structural weight. Moreover, the of leading edge
aerodynamic characteristics
would also go worse for low
Small aspect ratio
speed flight, decreasing lift and
increasing drag. Under this
Small relative thickness
circumstance the delta wing
would be appropriate to be used.
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（3）Variable Swept Wing
The variable swept wing
aircraft can solve the
conflictive requirements for
high speed flight and low
speed flight through changing
the sweptback angle. Mig-23
A smaller sweptback is used
to enlarge the aspect ratio to
get higher cruise In the range of Ma the
performance for low speed
variable swept wing aircraft
flight and larger lift for
takeoff and landing. possesses good aerodynamic
performance, and then meet
For supersonic flight a well the requirements for
larger sweptback angle is used
to reduce the drag. flight states.

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（4）Strake Wing
Strake wing proposal is
another way to solve the
conflictive requirement
between high speed flight and
low speed flight for supersonic
aircraft. This wing employs a
hybrid planform shape,
combining of strake, also The strake wing could
called the front wing, and aft decrease the wave drag
wing, also called the basic effectively, and reduce the
wing. induced drag for low
subsonic flight and
transonic flight.
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（5）Canard Wing
Horizontal tail is
located in the front of
wing.
This configuration
could play a role of lift
augmentation

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 （6）Tailless
Aircraft
This kind of
configuration is
usually employed
in supersonic
airliner.
Concorde airliner

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 （7）Small Aspect Ratio Wing

Smaller Wave drag

Larger Induced drag

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 2.4.5 Differences in Appearance of
Supersonic Aircraft and Low Speed one ▲
The larger Aspect ratio and the taper
ratio, for low speed and subsonic
aircraft.
The smaller aspect ratio and taper ratio
for supersonic aircraft.
For low speed aircraft straight wing or P51
tapered wing with small sweptback
angle is usually employed.
For subsonic aircraft the sweptback
angle is small.
For supersonic aircraft the large
sweptback wing or delta wing is usually
employed. Su30

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 2.4.6 Sonic Boom and Thermal
Barrier in Supersonic Flight ▲
1 Sonic Boom
Detonation just like thunder
produced by propagating
shock wave toward the
ground while supersonic 增压和减压
flight. The phenomenon is 逐渐变小

sonic boom. 增压

Intense sonic boom would

harm residenter and
building. Shock wave binges sonic boom

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2 Thermal Barrier ▲
Mig-25
The thermal barrier is the
result from the aerodynamic
heating. While supersonic
flight air in the boundary
layer on the surface of the
aircraft would be intensely The aerodynamic heating
retarded due to friction and would
be compressed. This greatly  weaken the strength and
decreases the velocity of in- rigidity;
layer air, and then drastically  change the aerodynamic
appearance;
raises the surface
 endanger the flight safety.
temperature with
transforming the kinetic The dangerous barrier due to
aerodynamic heating is called
energy into internal energy. the thermal barrier.

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 Ablation method
Because of its extremely high speed, the thermal
barrier is more severe for spaceflight than for aircraft.
The ablation method is usually used to prevent the
spacecraft from thermal failure.
The ablation method chooses the ablative material,
which has good thermal-absorption capacity during its
phase change, to cover a flying vehicle on its surface to
prevent it from burnout.
Obviously, this method cannot be employed for the
reusable spacecraft and the hypersonic aircraft, because
their appearance need to be strictly controlled.

End 1
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2.5 Flight Performance, Stability
and Control

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 2.5.1 Flight Performance
1 Flight Speed
（1）Minimum level-flight speed
The minimum speed to maintain
straight level flight at a certain altitude.
（2）Maximum level-flight speed
The maximum speed for aircraft for
straight level flight with the maximum
thrust in a distance. It is the index to
measure how fast an aircraft can fly.
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（3）Cruise speed
The speed where the Boeing747
fuel consumption per
kilometer is the minimum.
Vmin<Vcruise<Vmax
The aircraft flies at
Vcruise is the most
economical.
（airliners usually fly at this
speed.）

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2 Range
The farthest distance an aircraft flies over at the cruise
speed with certain fuel load. It is the index to measure how
far an aircraft can fly.
3 Service ceiling
Ceiling is the index to measure how high an aircraft can
reach. There are different definition for ceiling. The service
ceiling designates the maximum altitude at which an aircraft
can sustain straight level flight.

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4 Takeoff and landing
performance
（1）Takeoff performance
Takeoff process includes
two phases, i.e., ground run
acceleration and climb
acceleration to the safe
altitude.
The shorter the distance
of takeoff run the better the Click to play
takeoff performance.

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（2）Landing performance
The landing of aircraft is a
process of deceleration of
flight. It includes five phases
of glide, flare, float,
touchdown, and landing run.
The lower the landing speed
and shorter the landing
distance, the better the
landing performance. Click to play

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 2.5.2 Maneuverability
Capability to change
flight state within a
time interval.
Very high maneuver is
required for fighter,
and low for transport
aircraft.
Cobra maneuver (click to play)

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 1 Level Turn Vertical component
of lift

Horizontal component
of lift

Centrifugal force

weight

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 2 Dive, Loop and Zoom

End zoom

Enter dive
Loop

Straight Straight
∆H
segment segment
Zoom

Dive

Enter zoom
End dive

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3 Combat Turn and Hovering

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 2.5.3 Stability ▲
Stability is the tendency of a system, when disturbed
from an equilibrium condition, to return to that
condition. There are two types of stability which must
be achieved in order to consider a system stable.
• The first is static stability, the initial tendency or
response of a system when it is disturbed from
equilibrium.
• The second type of stability which a stable system
must have is dynamic stability. Dynamic stability
refers to the response of the system over time.
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1 Three Types of Motions

Airplane controls, movement,

axes of rotation, and type of
stability

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• Rotation of the aircraft about
the lateral axis is called
pitching.
• Rotation of the aircraft about
the vertical axis so that the
nose moves left or right is
called yawing.
• Rotation of the aircraft about
the longitudinal axis is called
rolling.
Click to play
• There are three types of
corresponding stability, the
longitudinal stability, the
directional stability, and the
lateral stability.
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2 Longitudinal Stability
The longitudinal stability lies on the aircraft’s
center of gravity. Only if the C.G. locates on the
front of the focus the aircraft is longitudinally
stable, otherwise it is longitudinally unstable.

Stable 稳定力矩
moment 不稳定力矩
Unstable moment

C.G. focus focus C.G.

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3 Directional Stability
If the aircraft tends to return to
original condition when disturbed
from directional equilibrium
condition, it is directionally stable.

Twin-finned tail on F15

When design a supersonic fighter, the area of vertical

tail should be large enough to ensure the directional static
stability at the maximum Mach number for straight level
flight. Sometimes ventral fin as well as twin-finned tail are
used to augment it.

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 Directional Stability Schematic

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 3 Lateral Stability
If the aircraft tends to return to original
condition when disturbed from lateral equilibrium
condition, it is lateral stable.
The rolling moment restoring the aircraft’
lateral equilibrium condition mainly produces
from the functions of the dihedral angle, the
sweptback angle, and the vertical tail.

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 （右） （左）

（左）

（右）

Lateral Stability Schematic

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 2.5.4 Control of Aircraft ▲

Control system
pedal Control column Rudder

Elevator

Inboard flap
Spoiler
Outboard flap

Aileron

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 1 Longitudinal Control
Operation of elevator yields
pitching around the lateral axis.
Pulling the control stick
backward deflects the elevator
upward so that it generates an
additional lift force downward
which also creates a pitching
moment and makes the aircraft
nose up. Elevator

Control stick
Pushing forward the
control stick deflects the
elevator downward and makes
the nose down.
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 2 Lateral Control
Controlling aileron yields
rolling around the longitudinal
axis.
Pushing left the control stick
deflects the left aileron up and
the right one down so that it Right aileron
creates less lift on the left wing,
more on the other, and
therefore a net rolling moment, Control stick

and then inclines the aircraft to

Left aileron
the left side.
Pushing right the control stick
inclines the aircraft to the right
side.
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 3 Directional Control
Controlling the rudder yields
yawing around the vertical axis.
Pressing down the left pedal lZ
deflects the rudder left so that it
ΔZ
generates an additional side force Left pedal Right pedal

toward right, and therefore a

yawing moment, and then turns
the nose to the left.
Pressing down the right pedal Rudder

turns the nose to the right.

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 Analyze how the
pilot controls the
aircraft.

Click to Play

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 2.6 Flight Principle of Helicopter

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 2.6.1 Operation Principle of
Rotor

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 2.6.2 Characteristics of
Helicopter Layout
1 Single-Rotor
Helicopter
A pair of main rotor
produces the lift.
Tail rotor balances the
anti-torque. Click to play

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2 Coaxial Twin Rotor
Helicopter
Two pairs of rotor
installed along a same
shaft and rotating in
contrary direction, and
therefore counteracting
点击播放
anti-torque of each other.

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3 Tandem Twin Rotor
Helicopter

Two pairs of rotor installed

one behind another along
the longitudinal direction
of body and rotating counter
to counteract the anti-torque
of each other.
Click to play

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4 Transverse Twin Rotor
Helicopter
Two pairs of rotor
installed side by side along
the lateral direction of
body and rotating counter
to counteract the anti-
torque of each other. 点击播放

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5 Winged Helicopter
An auxiliary wing is
installed to provide
portion of lift to drop the
load on the rotor while
forward flight. This
improves the speed, range,
and performance.
点击播放

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 2.6.3 Controllability of Helicopter
1 Collective-Pitch Control
The rotor thrust can be changed through the
collective-pitch control. The helicopter ascends when the
thrust is greater than the weight of helicopter, and
descends when less.
2 Cyclic Pitch Control
Pushing forward the control stick inclines the axis of
rotor disk forward and then the helicopter flies forward.
Pulling back the control stick makes the helicopter fly
backward.
3 Foot Control
The collective-pitch of tail rotor changes when depress
down the pedal, and changes therefore its thrust so that
the helicopter yaws.
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 2.7 Flight Principle of Spacecraft

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2.7.1 Kepler's Three Laws
The First Law：
reveals that “captive”
satellites (those with
closed orbital paths)
will travel around
the earth in elliptical
(or circular) paths
with the center of the
earth located at one
of the foci.

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The Second Law：
reveals that a
line drawn
between the two
bodies will
sweep out the
same amount of
area during the
same time
period anywhere
along the orbital
path.

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 The Third Law：reveals that a relationship exists
between the semi-major axis and period of an orbit.
Stated mathematically:

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2.7.2 Orbital Equation and cosmic velocity
1 Orbital Equation of Spacecraft
General equation for conic curve:
p
=r =
1 + e cos f f

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 f

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Type of conic curve can be determined by
eccentricity

e=0，r=p， circle；
0<e<1， ellipse；
e=1 and f=180 degree， parabola；
e>1， hyperbola.

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2 The Cosmic Velocity
（1）v=7.91km/s,the first cosmic velocity, circular
orbit.
（2）v=11.8km/s,the second cosmic velocity,
parabolic orbit, escaping the earth.
（3）v=16.6km/s,the third cosmic velocity, hyperbolic
orbit, escaping the solar system.
（4）7.91km/s<v<11.18km/s,elliptical orbit, flight
around the earth.
（5）11.8km/s<v<16.6km/s, parabolic orbit, escaping
the earth.

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 2.7.3 Orbital Elements and Satellite
Trajectory
1 Orbital Elements
To completely describe the shape and
orientation of an orbit around the earth, six
quantities must be specified. They are call the
orbital elements.

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 or true anomaly f f

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 2 Satellite Trajectory
（1）Circular Orbit and
Elliptic Orbit

space station and

space shuttle

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（2） Prograde Orbit and Retrograde Orbit

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（3）Geostationary
Orbit
Geosynchronous orbit
Geosynchronous satellite

（4）Sun-synchronous Orbit
The sun synchronous orbit can be considered a
special type of polar orbit.

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 （5）Polar Orbit
Polar orbits are orbits with an inclination
about 900. Each orbit would pass over the earth’s
poles.
（6）Tropical Orbit

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 2.7.4 Perturbation to Orbit and
Orbital Maneuvers
1 Perturbation to Orbit

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（1）Perturbation from
Atmospheric Drag

Atmospheric Disturbance

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（2）Perturbation
from the Earth Shape

The earth is not a

perfect sphere

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（3）Perturbation from the
Gravitation Forces of Celestial Bodies

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（4）Perturbation
from Pressure Due to
Solar Radiation

The effect of solar wind on the

spacecraft

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2 Orbital Maneuvers

Start rocket engine to maneuver

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（1）Orbit Changing
（2）Orbital Transfer

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（3）Orbital Rendezvous

rendezous docking

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（4）Reentry Orbit
（5）Orbit Maintenance and Orbit
Adjustment

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 2.7.5 Entry into Orbit of
Spacecraft Launch

Launch Demonstration

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 2.7.6 Lunar Orbit

launch

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 2.7.7 Stabilization and Control
for Spacecraft Attitude

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  Spin Stabilization：satellite unceasingly
rotates around its axis to keep attitude.

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  Gravity Gradient Method
 Magnetic Stabilization Method
 Three-axis Stabilization Method

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Shape and size： e a
υ N.P.
Orientation： i Ω T

Direction in plane： ω
Position： T or υ i
ω
Ω

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