Unit-3

Lesson - 9
Denudation
Landforms on the earth surface changes of soluble minerals are affected more by chemical
constantly. The endogenetic forces forms the weathering. The rocks with vertical layers undergo
asymmetrical landforms (mountains, plateaus, mechanical weathering and the rocks with
plains etc.) and the Exogenetic forces work horizontal layers undergo chemical weathering.
constantly on these landforms to erode them to flat 2. Slope of the land
surfaces. The process through which the lowest Weathering is comparatively lesser in the
rocks on the earth's surface are exposed is called areas of gentler or negligible slope than in the areas
denudation. There are different processes involved of steeper slopes.
in denudation which are as follows- 3. Difference in climate
Tropical and humid areas undergo more of
1. Weathering- chemical weathering whereas tropical and dry areas
It is a static process in which the rocks undergo more of mechanical weathering.
broken down through disintegration and 4. Effect of vegetation
decomposition. Vegetation marginally act as a factor that
causes weathering as well as it marginally also
2. Erosion- inhibits weathering. The areas which are not
It is dynamic process , in which the rocks are covered with vegetation undergoes more of
moved through the processes of attrition, abrasion weathering.
and are shifted or transported to other places.
Types of weathering
3. Mass movement- On the basis of the factors that contribute in
The movement of the eroded material under the disintegration and decomposition the rocks are
the impact of gravity along the slope is called mass classified under the following different categories-
movement. 1. Physical weathering
The process of the disintegration of rocks
Weathering due to solar radiation, water and frost is called
The breakdown of rocks because of physical weathering.
mechanical and chemical activities through the A) Block disintegration
processes of disintegration and decomposition is In the desert areas, when the rocks
called weathering. undergoes disintegrated into large pieces due to
high daily range of temperature it is called block
The factors affecting weathering - disintegration. ( Fig No 9.1)
1. Structure and composition of the rocks B) Exfoliation
The Rocks which are porus and are composed When the outer layers of the rocks are peeled

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 water it is called hydration. Rocks like Bauxite,
Feldspar etc aborbs water, as a result it becomes
heavier and later the rocks are further broken down.
E) Solution
When the rainwater dissolves many acids
and carbonic elements it becomes a chemical
mixture. This process is called hydrolysis.
3. Biological Weathering
Many Plants and animals contribute in
biological weathering on the earth surface.
A) Weathering caused by vegetation
The roots of many trees enters the rocks and
loosen the rocks particles, further causing the
Fig 9.1 : Physical weathering breakdown of rocks.
B) Weathering by animals
off because of constant heating and cooling, it is The rodents like rats or other creatures like
called exfoliation. Termites, Earthworms disintegrates the rocks.
C) Frost weathering C) Weathering by humans
The repetitive freezing and melting of the Human activities like agriculture, mining
water in the cracks of the rocks exerts tremendous and construction also causes weathering.
pressure and physically breaks the rocks, this type
of weathering is called Frost weathering. Erosion
D) Pressure release Erosion is derived from the Latin word
Whenever the excess pressure is released by 'Erodere' meaning wearing or tearing . Erosion is a
the upper layers of the rocks, the lower rocks cracks continuous process in which, the rocks are worn
due to this release of pressure. off, eroded and transported by the work of agents of
2. Chemical weathering erosion like glaciers, underground water, waves,
The disintegration, solution decomposition winds and rivers. The rivers, glaciers , wind , waves
and formation of new compounds due to the action erodes the rocks in following ways:-
of chemical processes of water and gases on the 1. Abrasion
rocks is called chemical weathering.
When the agents of denudation (Rivers,
A) Oxidation
Glaciers, Wind, Waves) carries the rock boulders,
The atmospheric oxygen dissolves in water
pebbles cobbles, along with them , the valley floors
and convert the minerals present in the rocks into
are eroded. This process is called Abrasion.
oxides, this process is called oxidation. Oxidation
increases the rate of weathering. The minerals that 2. Attrition
contain iron are more affected. Attrition is the process of collision of the
B) Carbonation boulders, cobbles and pebbles against each other
The atmospheric carbon dioxide mixes with resulting in their fragmentation in the course of
the oxygen in water and forms carbonic acid. This action of Wind, River and Waves.
carbonic acid is a strong solvent for limestone rocks. 3. Hydraulic Action
C) Desilication
The removal of silica from the rocks is The erosion of the rocks due to excess of
called Desilication process. In humid areas , due to water pressure exerted by the river is called
the work of water, silica is separated from igneous hydraulic action.
rocks and the rocks further undergoes weathering. 4. Corrosion or Solution
D) Hydration Due to the chemical action of the water,
When the minerals of the rocks absorbs rocks get dissolved in water, this process called

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solution or corrosion. the rock waste is accumulated in form of a cone it is
5. Deflation called Talus cone. Mass translocation is classified
under three different categories on the basis of speed
The process of the lifting and blowing away
and quantity of loosened rock material.
of sand particles from the rocks by the action of
wind is termed as deflation.
6. Cavitation 1) Slow speed mass translocation
The waves generated in the river whirls, Due to the lesser moisture content
often drill deep holes in the floor of the river valleys disintegrated rock waste slides slowly.
. Riverine caves and pools are examples of this The process of slow drifting is more
type of erosional work. frequent in subpolar areas. This slow drift also
includes processes like Solifluction, Rock creep,
7. Plucking
Talus creep, Soil creep.
The process in which the debris along the
course of glacier is extracted from the valley floor
2) High speed mass translocation
and is transported along with the glacier is called
plucking. Due to abundance of water the drift of rock
waste is at very high speed. High speed drift
includes Earthflow, Mudflow and Sheet Wash. The
The eroded material is transported in 3 ways- sliding mudflow can easily be visible on the slopes
1) Solution of the valleys.
The materials are dissolved and transported
along the water. 3) Very high speed mass translocation
2) Suspension In this type of drift availability of moisture
is not important. Huge boulders suddenly fall down
The eroded material remains floating in the under the impact of gravity. It includes landslides,
water and is transported along with the course of rockslide, rockfall, debris slide, debris fall and
water. slump processes.
3) Traction
The gravels, pebbles, cobbles and boulders Cycle of Erosion
travel along with the water by leaping and jumping
along the valley floors, this is called traction. American geologist William Morris Davis
proposed the theory of cycle of erosion in 1899. He
Deposition described
"The cycle of erosion is a period of time
As the speed and slope gradient reduces, the during which an uplifted landmark undergoes its
capacity to carry the debris by the agents of transformation by the process of land sculpture
denudation also reduces. The deposition of the ending into a low featureless plain"
eroded material results in formation of sedimentary
rocks. David further described that
"Landscape is a function of structure process and
Mass translocation stage"
(i) Structure - On any part of the earth's surface,
The transportation of rock material in huge the structure of the rocks are first to be formed,
quantities under the impact of gravitational force formation of other landforms occurs later.
along the slope gradient is called mass
translocation. Rock wastes get accumulated along (ii) Process- The Process refers to the formation
the bottom , after being slided from the slopes. or lowering or erosion of landforms through agents
this accumulated rock waste is called Talus. When of denudation (like river, winds, waves, glaciers,

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underground water etc.) One of these processes
somehow plays an important part in the
transformation of landforms.

(iii) Stage- Similar to the life span of human beings,

the cycle of erosion involves three stages like stage
of youth, stage of maturity and stage of old age. The
duration of these three stages depends on the
mobility of the processes and the composition of Fig. 9.3 : Cycle of Erosion of Penck
rocks.( Fig. No. 9.2)
2. Second Phase
During this phase, the processes of upliftment
and erosion occurs simultaneously, as a result the
valleys get broader and more deeper.

3. Third Phase
In this phase, due to the competitive state
between the processes of upliftment and erosion, the
difference between the upper and the lower curves
Fig. 9.2 : Cycle of Erosion of Davis remains same, from the base level.

4. Fourth Phase
1. Youthful stage
In this phase the rate of upliftment is reduced
During this stage the rivers deepens the
whereas erosion is progressive with the same rate as
valleys with vertical erosion
it was in the previous phase. This results into the
deepening of the valleys and lowering of Doabs.
2. Mature stage
In this stage the rivers broadens the valleys
5. Fifth Phase
through lateral erosion.
The rate of upliftment as well as erosion
becomes slower and weaker. The difference of both
3. Old age stage the curves from base level is also reduced.
In this stage the topographic regularities are
reduced and the entire region is turned into a
Difference between the view points of Davis and
Peneplain.
Penck
1. According to Davis the erosion starts after
Penck's cycle of erosion the upliftment of the landform but according
A German geographer, Walter Penk, has to Penck the upliftment and erosion of
proposed the cycle of erosion as sum total of landforms starts simultaneously.
interactions between the phases of development, 2. Davis beleives that the upliftment takes
rate of a upliftment and the degradation of place in very short period of time where as
landforms.( Fig No.9.3) Penck believes that the upliftment takes
longer period of time.
1. First Phase 3. The cycle of erosion as proposed by David
According to Penck, upliftment and involves youth stage, mature stage and old
erosional processes occurs at the same time. stage whereas the Penck cycle of erosion
There is more of upliftment in comparison to describes Aufsteigende pertaining to
erosion. increase in rate, Gleichfermige meaning

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 uniform rate, and Absteigende meaning 3. The process of exfoliation is mostly found in
reduced rate. these regions in which -
4. According to Davis, the cycle of erosion A) Higher annual range of temperature
describes landform as the work of structure, B) Higher temperature
process and time. Penck proposes C) Lower temperature
formation of landforms as the result of rate D) Higher daily range of temperature
of upliftment and degradation.
5. The cycle of erosion as proposed by Davis 4. Which place undergoes accelerated rate of
completes in three stages where as the cycle chemical weathering?
of erosion proposed by Penck undergoes A) Tropical and dry
through 5 phases. B) Polar regions
C) Tropical and humid
D) Cold and humid
Important points

1. Denudation is the sum total of activities of 5. The transportation of huge rock debris under
erosion , weathering and mass movement. the impact of gravitation, along the slope is
2. The disintegration and decomposition of rocks called...
at their own place is called weathering. A) erosion
B) weathering
3. The word erosion is derived from latin word C) mass translocation
Erodere meaning wearing or tearing. D) transportation
4. The process of collision of boulders, pebbles,
and rock particles against each other which are Very short type questions-
being transported by rivers or waves is called 6. Which kind of weathering is oxidation?
Attrition. 7 What do you mean by erosion?
5. The process of removing or blowing of loose 8. Attrition takes place in erosion or in
particles of sand or dust by the action of the weathering?
wind is termed as deflation. 9. Which kind of weathering is block
6. According to William Morris Davis landscape disintegration?
is a function of structure, process and stage. 10. Which kind of weathering is carbonation?
7. According to Penck the process of upliftment
and erosion start simultaneously. Short type questions-
11. Describe briefly the meaning of denudation.
Exercise 12. Write the types of weathering.
Multiple choice questions 13. What is plucking?
1. The disintegration and decomposition of rocks 14. What do you mean by solution?
is called 15. Explain physical weathering.
A) Denudation
B) Erosion Essay type questions
C) Weathering 16. Clarify the meaning of weathering and describe
D) Solution its different types.
17. Explain denudation and describe its different
2. What is Denudation? types in detail.
A) erosion and transportation 18. Explain the concept of cycle of erosion.
B) erosion and deposition
C) erosion weathering and mass transportation Answer Key -
D) erosion and solution 1.C. 2. C. 3. D. 4. C. 5. C

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 Unit-3

Lesson - 10
Agents of Erosion

Indogenetic and exogenetic forces form

different landforms on the earth surface. The
exogenetic forces (weathering, erosion and mass
translocation) tranforms the outer layers of the
rocks. The structure of landforms constantly
undergoes changes due to these exogenetic forces
and new landforms are also formed.
Erosion is a static process. The forces which
contribute in erosion like rivers ,sea waves, winds
,glaciers and underground water are called the
agents of erosion. It is not always necessary that
these agents of erosion work in the same way and at
the same speed, the other factors like climate and Fig 10.1 : Fluvial Topographies
composition of rocks and their structure also affects
erosion. A) Erosional topographies
The factors which play an important role in 1. Gorge - It is a narrow deep valley with almost
the erosional and depositional work of different vertical sides.
landforms, on the earth's surface are as follows:- 2. Canyon- These are comparatively more
1. River - Fluvial topographies narrower and more deeper valleys than Gorges.
2. Sea Waves - Coastal topographies 3. Waterfalls - When the river water plunges
3. Wind - Arid Topographies almost vertically from a higher level to lower
4. Glacier -Glaciated tomographies level it forms water fall. ( Fig 10.2)
5. Underground water - Karst topographies 4. Rapids - The river appears to be jumping over
the hard rocks which leads to the formation of
River -Fluvial topographies rapids. (Fig 10.3)
The flowing water in the valley, erodes the 5. Pot Holes - The holes created in the bottom of
valley bottom and its sides and carries the eroded the valleys as the result of the drilling action of
material along with it and deposit it at some other water are called pot holes.
places. This process of erosion and deposition gives 6. Structural benches- When the hard and the soft
birth to many landforms. rocks are arranged horizontally in the course of
the river differential erosion results in the
formation of structural benches.

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 B) Depositional topographies
1. Alluvial cone - When the rivers progresses
from the mountain slopes towards the valley
floors, the deposition of eroded material in form
of cone is called Alluvial cone. (Fig 10.4)
2. Alluvial fan - The deposition of sediments
brought by the river on the foothills of the
mountains in the form of fans, are called Alluvial
fans. (Fig 10.4)
3. Delta - The triangular shape deposition of
sediments at the mouth of the river is called delta.
(Fig 10.1)
4. Natural Levees- The sand materials deposited
at the banks of the river on both of its sides are
called natural levees.
5. Flood plain- The part of the river where it
deposits all the sediments during the floods leads
to the formation of floodplain.
6. Oxbow lake- When the rivers follow a straight
course leaving behind its meanders, these
meanders are filled with water, these are called
oxbow lakes. (Fig 10.1)

Fig 10.2 : Waterfall

Fig 10.3 : Rapids

7. River meanders - The river bends in the latter

stages of fluvial erosion in a serpentine manner,
which are called meanders.
8. Peneplain - This is a featurless plain formed by
the river with a very gentle slope.
Fig 10.4 : Alluvial Cone and Fans

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Sea waves- Coastal topographies is called spit.
The movement of the water under the impact of 4. Bars- The elongated depositions of shingles
the wind is termed as a wave. The sea waves forms much parallel to the coastline are called bars.
many erosional and depositional landforms in the 5. Offshore bars- When the bars are formed away
coastal regions through the erosion and deposition from the coastline but parallel to it, its called
of sediments, resulting from the processes of Offshore bars.
abrasion, attrition and hydraulic action. 6. Hook - The semi circular depositional spits are
called hooks.
A) Erosional topographies 7. Loop- The land along the growth of the hook
1. Cliff- The formation of vertical coast due to the are called loop.
hydraulic action of the sea waves are called 8. Connecting bars- When the spits joins or
Cliffs. connects two headlands or islands it is termed
2. Caves- The formation of oval shaped cavities as connecting bars.
parallel to the coast due to the erosion of hard 9. Lagoon and Bay Bars- When the two edges of
and soft rocks are termed as Caves. a bay are connected by a wall or a barrier formed
3. Sea Caves- In the coastal areas when the of deposits , it is called Bay bars and the closed
grooves are constantly eroded by the sea waves, bay is called Lagoon.
it results into formation of sea caves. 10. Tombolo- The bar that connects the islands
4. Blowout- When the sea waves forms a hole on with the mainland is called Tombolo.
the roof of the sea caves, it is called as
blowout.(Fig.10.5) Wind - Arid Topographies
5. Arches - In the coastal regions, when the two The erosional and depositional work of the
caves are formed adjacent to each other, arches wind forms many landforms in the desert regions.
are formed.( Fig. 10.5) Wind through the process of attrition, ablation and
6. Stack- Due to the collapse of arches stacks are abrasion erodes the rocks and then transport the
formed. ( Fig. 10.5) eroded material extensively in the desert region this
7. Wave cut platform - These platforms are results in formation of many erosional and
formed as the Cliffs and they constantly recedes depositional landforms.
backward from the coast.
A) Erosional Topographies
1. Blow out - The troughs or trenches which are
formed due to the ablation of the wind are called
blowout.
2. Inselbergs - These are steep sided hills of hard
Rocks rising from a plain region in the vast
deserts. They often resemble like an island or a
mountain.( Fig. 10.6)
Fig. 10.5 : Coastal Topography 3. Mushroom rock - These are actually residual
of the hard rocks which takes the shape of a
B) Depositional topographies mushroom. ( Fig. 10.6)
1. Beach - The deposition of the marine sediments 4. Demoisells- These are earth pillars which are
on the sea coast forms the sea coast. protected by hard rocks as a outer cover. (Fig.
2. Cusp beach- A triangular beach which is 10.6).
formed of cobbels, boulders and sand and that 5. Dreikanter- A rock piece which is braided and
extends seaward is called cusp beach. polished by wind blown sands in the deserts is
3. Spit- The formation of an embankment due to called Dreikanter.
deposition along the coast line towards the sea 6. Stone lattice- The pitted and fluted rock

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