CHAPTER 9

Sheet Metal Forming

9.1 INTRODUCTION
Product made by sheet metal forming process are seen every were all around us. They
include file cabinets, metal desks, home appliances such as kitchen equipments, hoppers,
cannisters, pipes, duct, boxes, funnels in automobile, carbodies and aircraft fuselages.
Sheet metal forming is very important for every industrial or non-industrial work. It is
generally regarded as the working of metal from 16 gauge to 30 gauge (1.612 mm to 0.399
mm thickness) with the help of hand tools and simple sheet metal machines. Compared to
casting and forging sheet metal parts have the number of advantages of being light in weight
and versatile in shape, whereas low cost and generally good strength etc, also accompany.
Sheet metal is simply metal formed into thin and flat pieces. It is one of the fundamental
forms used in metal working, and can be cut and bent into a variety of different shapes.
Countless everyday objects are constructed of the material. Thicknesses can vary
significantly, although extremely thin thicknesses are considered foil or leaf, and pieces
thicker than 6 mm (0.25 in) are considered plate.
Sheet metal is available as flat pieces or as a coiled strip. The coils are formed by running
a continuous sheet of metal through a roll slitter.
A sheet metal processing system consists of two systems, called first and second. Each in
turn contains
1. Sheet metal processing machine
2. Sheet metal processing machine terminal for controlling the operations of sheet
metal processing machine.
3. Measuring apparatus for measuring dimensions of product or part.
4. Display apparatus to display the sites of part to be measured.

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The cold forming of sheet makes formed part resistant to corrosion, since the preformed
material has good surface finish due to treatment such as pickling. Application of protective
layer like paint, plastic coating or galvanizing is easy on such surfaces. The cold formed
sheet material maintains good dimensional qualities except in regions of transition where
radius is given. In such locations the formed sheet is likely to strain harden but strength is
not reduced due to severe strain hardening occuring in transition areas.
Shearing, bending, spinning, stretching and drawing are the basic processes to which
sheets are subjected. They produce a wide range of sections and shape and products having
domestic (cookers, panels, refrigerator bodies, washing machines, shower cabinets) and
industrial (computers, nuclear, aircraft, can and food industry) applications.
A person to work in sheet metal shop requires a thorough knowledge of projective
geometry particularly the development of surfaces, mensuration, sheet metals etc. Sheet
metal field is concerned mostly with the building trade.
There are many different metals that can be made into sheet metal, such as black iron,
galvanized iron, aluminium, copper, brass, stainless steel, zinc, tin and titanium. The sheet metal
forming uses various hand tools, such as measuring tools, straight edge, square stake, scriber,
divider, trammel points, punches, chiesels, hammers, groovers, rivet sets and soldering irons.

9.2 SHEET METAL TOOLS

The tools commonly used in sheet metal work are as follows:

1. Rules
Rules are used for measuring and laying out work:
Steel rule: The steel rule (30 cm long) as shown in Fig. 9.1 is particularly useful in
measuring and laying out small work.
Folding rules: Folding rule (2 metres long) is useful in measuring large work. It can
be folded into shorter length as shown in Fig. 9.2.
Steel tape: It is also used for measuring large work. It is coiled in a small size box. It is
shown in Fig. 9.3.

Fig. 9.1 Steel Rule

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Fig. 9.2 Folding Rule

Fig. 9.3 Steel Tape

2. Steel Square
It is an L shaped piece of hardened steel with graduation marks on the edges for measuring.
The narrow arm of the square is called the tongue and the wide part is known as body.
3. Straight Edge
It is a flat bar of steel with a bevelled edge. This bar comes in a variety of lengths ranging
from 1 metre to 3 meters. It is useful for drawing long lines.
4. Vernier Caliper
This is used for measuring the dimensions. For further detail refer Sec. 4.5.10.
5. Micrometer
It is also used for measuring the thickness of metal sheets. For further detail refer
Sec. 4.5.11.

Fig. 9.4 Steel Square

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6. Swinging Blade Protractor

The swinging blade protractor as shown in Fig. 9.5 is used in sheet metal work for marking
and measuring of angles. It is made of steel.

Fig. 9.5 Swinging Blade Protractor

7. Dividers
The dividers are made with each leg tapered to a needle point. The dividers are of two
types. Spring divider and wing divider. The legs of the spring divider are adjusted by
turning the knurled nut. The leg adjustment on the wing divider is made by the screw of
the wing and the knurled nut on the end of the wing. The spring action is provided by the
ring which joins two thick sides of legs. It is used for drawing circle, arc on sheet metal,
transferring the dimensions, or dividing the distances into equal parts.

(a) Spring Divider (b) Wing Divider

Fig. 9.6 Dividers
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8. Trammel points
The trammel points as shown in Fig. 9.7 also called a beam compass consists of two straight,
removable legs tapered to needle points and attached to separate heads. These heads slide
on the beam and are locked at that place by thumbscrews. A special clamp for a pencil can
be attached to one of the points. It is used to draw large arcs and circles that are beyond the
limit of dividers.

Fig. 9.7 Trammel Points

9. Scribers
It is used to scribe or mark line on a metal surface for a variety of purposes. It is a metal
worker’s pencil.

Fig. 9.8 Scriber

10. Punches
Punches are used in sheet metal work for marking and locating centres in a more permanent
manner. Various types of punches are:
Prick punch: The prick punch as shown in Fig. 9.9(a) is used to make small marks on
layout lines. The point angle is 30 degree (30°).
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Solid punch: The solid punch as shown in Fig. 9.9(b) is used for punching small holes in
thin metal sheets.
Centre punch: The centre punch as shown in Fig. 9.9(c) is used to mark the centres of
holes to be drilled. The point angle is 90 degree (90°).

(e) Hand lever punch

Fig. 9.9 Punches

Hollow punch: The hollow punch as shown in Fig. 9.9(d) is used for punching holes in
the sheets. The inner and outer faces of the punch meet at an angle of 40 degree (40°).
Hand lever punch: It is sometimes used for making holes with a punch and die incorporated
in the tool when a large number of holes are to be punched. Refer Fig. 9.9(c).
11. Chisels
In sheet metal work, cold chisels are used. These are used for cutting thick sheets, rivets,
bolts and chipping operations. Flat chisels and round chisels are mainly used in sheet
metal work.

Fig. 9.10 Chisels

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12. Snips
A snip also called a hand shear is similar to a pair of scissors. It is used to cut thin and soft
metal (upto 20 gauge thickness only). Most commonly used snips are straight snip and
curve snip. Straight snip is used for straight cutting while curved snip is used for circular
cuts. The heavier classes are bench shears and block shears, which are used to cut thick
sheets (Fig. 9.11).

Fig. 9.11 Snips

13. Hammers
Hammers are used for forming shapes by hollowing, raising, stretching or throwing off.
Various types of hammers used are:
Ball peen hammer: It has a round, slightly curved face and a round head. It is a general
purpose hammer.

Fig. 9.12 Hammers

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Riveting hammer: It has a square, slightly curved face. It is used for spreading rivets and
for hammering a rivet set.
Setting hammer: It has a square, flat face and a tapered peen with bevelled end. The flat
face is used for flattening seams while peen end is used for peening operation.
Raising hammer: It has an oblong flat face with corners slightly rounded off. It is used in
raising circular dies and many other raising operations used to form saucer, bowl, tray or
spoon.

Fig. 9.13 Mallet

14. Mallets
The mallet may be made from hide, fibre or wood. It is used to strike a soft and light blow in
the metal.
15. Pliers
Pliers are used for holding, cutting and bending work. Different types of pliers used are:

Fig. 9.14 Pliers.

16. Stakes
Stakes are the sheet metal anvils used for bending, seaming and forming by using a hammer
or mallet. They work as the supporting tool as well as the forming tools. They are made in
different sizes and shapes depending upon the job requirement. Commonly used stakes
are:
 SHEET METAL FORMING 169

Fig. 9.15 Stakes

Blow horn stake: It is used in forming, riveting or seaming tapered objects such as funnels
etc.
Beak horn stake: It is used to bend the sheet metal into cylinders and conical shapes. The
squared end is used for bending and truing straight sided work.
Hollow mandrel stake: It is used for riveting and seaming pipes.
Solid mandrel stake: It has a double shank so can be used to perform operations similar
to hollow mandrel stake.
Bevel edge stake: It is used for double seaming. It also has an offset shank, which permits
the work to clear the bench.
Double seaming stake: It is used for double seaming large work.
17. Stake Holder
The stake holder used in sheet metal shop is a rectangular bench plate as shown in
Fig. 9.16.

Fig. 9.16 Stake Holder

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18. Hand Groover

The hand groover also called seam set is used for grooving a seam by hand as shown in
Fig. 9.17.

Fig. 9.17 Hand Groover Fig. 9.18 Rivet Set

19. Rivet Set

Rivet set is used in riveting operation.
20. Soldering Irons
These are used to join two pieces of metal by means of an alloy of tin and lead (known as
soft solder).
The solder is usually transferred to the joint by means of a soldering iron. The iron can
be heated in a furnace or by passing electric current.

Fig. 9.19 Soldering Irons

21. Folding Bars
They are used for bending and folding straight materials. Various types are shown in
Fig. 9.20.
 SHEET METAL FORMING 171

Fig. 9.20 Folding Bars

22. Wire Gauge
It is a circular plate with holes along circumference. The wire gauge is measured by passing
wire through a hole. Note the size is apposite of gauge. See Fig. 9.21

Fig. 9.21 Wire Gauge

9.3 SHEET METAL OPERATIONS

The art of sheet metal lies in the making of different shapes by adopting different operations.
The various sheet metal operations are:
1. Measuring and marking
2. Cleaning
3. Laying out
4. Cutting and Shearing
5. Bending
6. Riveting
7. Soldering
8. Folding edges
9. Seam making
10. Hollowing or blocking
11. Sinking
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12. Raising
13. Planishing
14. Grooving
15. Stretch forming
16. Deep drawing

9.4 MEASURING AND LAYOUT MARKING

In order to cut the required size of a sheet from the standard available in the market,
measuring and marking is done at first i.e., how much size of sheet is required is marked.
Measuring is done with the help of steel rule, steel tape, folding rule, steel circumference
rule etc. After measuring the various dimensions, marking is done with the help of scribers,
punches etc. While doing the marking, little allowances for cutting is always added to the
overall size, sometimes, the sheets are coated with a colouring media, so that the scribed
lines are clearly visible.
Before marking operation is carried out, the paper or metal pattern of the object is
prepared, but many simple objects can be laid out directly on the sheet metal. It is better for
the beginner to prepare a paper pattern for objects of complicated design rather than to
layout directly on the sheet metal. Since the paper pattern may be checked by folding it
into the required shape. The procedure for marking straight lines, curved lines, indentation
marks and transferring a pattern are as follows:
1. Marking straight lines: The straight edge or steel square is used to draw straight
lines as discussed below.
When straight edge or steel square is used, a sharp pointed scriber is held in one
hand at an angle against the edge of the straight edge or steel square, then the lines
are drawn by applying a little pressure to the scriber.
2. Marking circles and arcs: The circles and arcs are marked on the surface of a
sheet metal with the help of divider or a trammel point one leg of the divider is placed
at the centre of the circle or arc, the other end is moved with a little pressure on the
divider to mark the circle or arc.
3. Marking irregular curves: Curves are drawn with the help of French curves. The
French curve is set in such a way that at least three points coincide with the curve, it
is then moved to coincide next three points. This process is repeated till the whole
curve is marked.
4. Marking indentation marks: The indentation marks for drilling are made with a
centre punch, whereas marks for centres for dividers or for transferring a pattern etc
are made with a prick punch. While using punches, the location of punch is marked
with two intersecting lines, then the punch is held at the point and head of the
punch is given a light blow with the hammer.
 SHEET METAL FORMING 173

9.5 SHEET METAL LAYOUT PROCEDURES WHEN USING THE

TRANSFER PROCEDURE
1. Development of the pattern:
(i) On a piece of paper, cardboard or whatever medium you have chosen to prepare
the pattern, draw the part to full scale.
(ii) Cut out the part.
(iii) If there are bends in the part, fold up the part into its final shape.
Note that there will be more than one sequence of folding up the completed part—
it is likely that one sequence is preferable in order to minimize interference.
(iv) Label the order of the bends on the folded up layout sheet.
2. Transfer of the pattern to the sheet metal:
(i) Using a spray can of layout fluid, “blue” a piece of sheet metal is sprayed (note
that it will dry in a minute or two).
(ii) Transfer (re trace) the paper layout onto the piece of sheet metal.
In some cases it may be easiest to place a dot from each corner of the pattern on
the blued sheet metal and then do a “connect-the-dot” to draw in the lines.
(iii) Using a cutting device (shears, sabre saw, a chisel, etc.), cut out the pattern.
(iv) Form the sheet metal into its final shape using either the finger break, hammer,
vise and bending pieces, or an anvil, etc.

9.6 SHEARING
Before a sheet metal part is made, a blank of suitable dimensions is first removed from a
large sheet, usually from a coil by shearing. Basically shearing is a process for cutting
sheet metal to size out of a large stock by two parallel cutting edges moving in opposite
direction manually. In other words, shearing is the mechanical cutting of materials without
the formation of chips or the use of burning. When the two cutting blades are straight, the
process is called shearing. When the blades are curved, the processes have been called by
the different names such as blanking, piercing, notching and trimming. The clearance
between the two tools is small, usually between 5 and 10% of the thickness of the metal
being cut, the deformation being in the form of highly localized shear.
If the shearing is performed in a compressive environment, fracture is suppressed and
the relative amount of smooth edge is increased. Above a certain pressure, no fracture
occurs and the entire edge is smooth. Normally shearing is done by hand shears or snips or
by means of machines. Shearing action has three basic stages.
1. Plastic deformation
2. Fracture
3. Shear
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When the metal is placed between the upper and lower blades of the shear and the
pressure is applied, plastic deformation takes place. This extends into the interior of the
metal from 5 to 40 percent of its thickness. As continued pressure is applied to the cutting
blade, the fracture starts at the cutting edge of each blade at the points of the greatest
stress concentration. As the blade descends further, the small fractures meet and the metal
is then sheared. The same shearing action takes when a punch and die are used as shown
in Fig. 9.22.
In this process, the sheet is cut by subjecting it to shear stresses typically between a
punch and die. The major processing parameters in shearing are the shape and materials
the punch and die, the speed of punching, lubrication and the clearance between the punch
and die. The clearance is a major factor in determining the shape and quality of the shear
edge. As the clearance increases the shear edge becomes rougher and the zone of
deformation become large.

Fig. 9.22

The various shearing operations based on the shearing processes are as follows:
1. Cutting off, no material is removed or wasted.
2. Parting
3. Blanking is shearing in enclosed contour and part required is enclosed in contour.
4. Punching is operation in which part enclosed in contour is discarded and punched
sheet is required.
5. Notching is removing a small triangular portion from sheared edge.
6. Slitting, does not remove any material.
7. Lacing
8. Showing is removal of material from cut edges to make edges squire to axis.
9. Trimming is finishing previously sheared part to required size.
 SHEET METAL FORMING 175

9.4.1 Punching
The forces required to punch is basically the product of the shear strength of the sheet
metal and the area being sheared. But, the friction between the punch and the work piece
can increase this force.
Punching is the operation of producing circular holes in a sheet metal by punch and
die. The material punched out is removed as waste and the sheet, having holes, is our
objective as shown in Fig. 9.23. The punch and die are made of carbon steel, high chromium
oil hardened steel and tungsten carbide.
A punch may have a flat bottom or with inclined edges, as shown in Fig. 9.23(c) and
(d). The force on punch is reduced by providing shear (inclined edges) which is normally
equal to sheet thickness. Choosing clearance is a complex function which depends upon
type of material, its temper, sheet thickness, size of hole or blank and its proximity to the
edges of the sheet. Larger clearance is provided for softer material, thicker sheet and holes
small in terms of sheet thickness. Larger clearance require careful alignment of punch and
die and rigid holding of sheet. The clearance normally varies between 8% to 10% of thickness
for soft metal and upto 12% for hard metal but it can be as low as 1% or as high as 30%.

Fig. 9.23 Punching operation

If proper clearance is provided the force on the punch reduces after half thickness
otherwise it reduces slowly to zero. Fig. 9.24 compares three conditions.
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Fig. 9.24
As pointed out already the operation is used for either creating a punched sheet (the
desired product) or the circular blank (the desired product). In the first case the hole diameter
is important whereas in the second case the blank diameter is important. In case the hole
diameters is important the punch should be of desired diameter and clearance should be
added to the die diameter. However, if blank diameter is important, the die and blank
diameters are same and clearance is subtracted from punch diameter.

9.4.2 Blanking
It is basically the same operation as punching but the object of process is the blank or that
part which is enclosed in curves and not the punched sheet. In this case shear is not provided
in the punch but in die.

9.4.3 Piercing
It is a similar to punching but in punching, circular holes are produced in a sheet where as
in piercing, holes other than circular are produced in a sheet. The sheet, which is having
the holes of desired shapes is our requirement as shown in Fig. 9.25.

Fig. 9.25 Piercing

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9.4.4 Forming
In forming process, forming occurs when complete items or parts are shaped. Forming
strains the metal beyond the elastic limit to give the workpiece a permanent set. Two methods
are used in forming are:
(i) Form block method
(ii) Movable jaw method
In form block method, grips are stationary and the form block moves upward to provide
the necessary tension and motion. In movable jaws method, the jaws first stretch the work
and then wrap it around the form block. In this machine, the jaws close in proximity to the
form block, edges are trimmed to eliminate excessive material waste.

9.5 BENDING
Bending is one of the most common operations of sheet metal forming. Bending has the
application in automobile, paper clip, file cabinet etc. Bending is used not only to form parts
such as seams, flanges and corrugations, but also to improve stiffness of the part as in
Fig. 9.26 by increasing its moment of inertia. Basically, bending is the plastic deformation
of metals about a linear axis with little change in the surface area.

Fig. 9.26

The bending of sheet metal may be done over stakes blocks of wood, pieces of angle
iron or the edges of bench top. It may be done by a tube bending machine press with v-
dies or several other means. Multiple bends can be made simultaneously, but to be classified
as true bending, and treatable by simple bending theory, each axis must be linear and
independent of the others. When multiple bends are made with a single die, the process
is known as forming. Bending occurs when forces are applied to localized areas, as in
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bending a piece of metal into right angle. In all metal bends, the metal is stressed beyond,
the elastic limit in tension on the outside and in compression on the inside of the bend.
The location that is neither stretched nor compressed is known as the neutral axis of the
bend. The neutral axis is generally located between one third or one half of the way
from the inner surface, depending on the bend radius and material being bent.
Metal sheets are bent in specially profiled rolls into simple or complex shapes to serve as
structural components in the car and aircraft industries. Bending is carried out in machine
incorporating roll trains and idle tools which can produce long length of suitable profiled
components in which thickness does not changes. Aluminium and steel (cold or hot rolled)
components of length 30 m are produced.
The final degree of bending depends on the material used. The fracture (instability) of
part and surface finish are two important factors that determine the degree of bending.
The common defects that may arise in bent parts are: indentation, galling, wrinkling,
necking fracture and folding. They are shown in Fig. 9.27.

Fig. 9.27 Defects in bending of sheet metal

9.6 JOINING PROCESS

Joining processes is an important part of sheet metal processes. There are different types of
joining processes:
1. Riveting: Engineering structural practice often requires plates or sheets to be joined
permanently. Riveted joints are such permanent joints produced by inserting rivets
into the holes made into two plates and upsetting the end to form a head. Fig. 9.28(a)
shows a rivet inserted into hole and Fig. 9.28(b) shows how it is upset by a die to form
a second head to obtain a permanent connection between two plates.
Riveted joints have been extensively used in steel structures, pressure vessels, storage
tanks, boilers, ships and aeroplanes. However, development in welding technology
during last century has considerably lessened the riveted joint applications. Yet there
remain certain areas, particularly depending upon material of sheet or plate, where
welding can not be used, and the riveted joints have to be used. Duralumin is one
SHEET METAL FORMING 179

Fig. 9.28 Typical head forming of rivets

such material which is used in air craft structures and is not amenable to good welding.
Also the low temperature failures, extensively faced by welded ship structures have
reopened the possibilities of riveted joint applications.
The upsetting of cylindrical portion of the rivet [Fig. 9.28(b)] can be done cold or hot.
When diameter of rivet is 12 mm or less generally cold riveting is adopted. For larger
diameters entire length of rivet is first heated to a light red, then inserted in the hole.
The upsetting can be either manual or by machine. In hot riveting, the rivet
completely fills the hole, its length projecting out of the plates varies between 0.7 to
1.3 times the diameter of the rivet [as in Fig. 9.28(a)], depending upon the type of
rivet head. The hot worked rivets contract in length on cooling thus causing plates to
compress against each other. Such compression between plates induces friction which
acts against the applied load, thus increasing the strength of the joint. Also for hot
worked rivets certain clearance will occur between the rivet and hole surface because
cross-section of rivet will reduce after cooling. Such clearance does not occur in cold
worked rivets.
2. Soldering: Soldering is the process of metal joining, which makes use of heat and a
filler metal whose melting point is lower than the melting point of metals or alloys
being joined. Soldering uses filler metals which melts below 450°C. The filler for
soldering is known as solder and is alloy of Sn and Pb. In fine solder it is 60% Sn
while in coarse variety Sn and Pb are of equal amounts. Materials like cast iron, mild
steel, wrought iron, galvanized steel, brass, copper, Zn, Sn can be soldered. Flux in
each case may be different but Zinc chloride and weak hydrochloric acid are used in
most of the metals except for Zn, Sn, Pb and their alloys.
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9.7 SHEET METAL JOINTS

The most common methods of joining sheet metals are as follows:

9.7.1 Seam joint

Seaming is the process of joining two metal sheets by making grooves at the joining, edges.
Then the two edges are locked together to obtain a permanent joint as shown in Fig 9.29.

(a)

(b)
Fig. 9.29 Joint, seams, and edges
 SHEET METAL FORMING 181
Seaming is a bending operation that can be used to join the end sheet metal to form
containers such as cans, drums etc. The seams are formed by a series of small rollers on
seaming machines that range from small hand operated types to large automatic units
capable of producing 100 seams per minutes.

9.7.2 Hems
The edges of the sheet metal may be folded to strengthen the edges and eliminate the
sharp edges. The common types of folded edges are as:
(a) Single hem
(b) Double hem
(c) Wired edges
The single hem is made by turning the edge over the hatchet stake and then complete
it with a mallet over a flat stake. The double hem is a single hem with its end bent under as
shown in Fig. 9.30.

Fig. 9.30

The wired edges are made by bending the sheet with a mallet over a length equal to 2½
times the diameter of wire as shown Fig. 9.31.

Fig. 9.31
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9.8 SHEET METAL DEVELOPMENT

Surface development sometimes referred to as pattern drawing, because the layout, when
made on heavy cardboard, thin metal or wood, is used as a pattern for tracing out the
developed shape on flat material. Such patterns are used extensively in sheet-metal shops.
When making a development drawing of an object which will be constructed of thin
metal, such as a tin can or a dust pan, the drafter must be concerned not only with the
developed surfaces but also with the joining of the edges of these surfaces and with exposed
edges. An allowance must be made for the additional material necessary for such seams
and edges. The drafter must also indicate where the material is bent. If the finished part is
not shown with the development drawing, then bending instructions such as bend up 90º,
bend down 180º, bend up 45º are shown beside each bend line. Seams are used to join
edges. The seams may be fastened together by lock seams, solder, rivets or welds. Exposed
edges are folded or wired to give the edge added strength and to eliminate the sharp edge.
The following exercise can be performed by the students in the laboratory.
1. Straight line development: This is the term given to the development of an object that
has surfaces on a flat plane of projection. The true size of each side of the object is known,
and these sides can be laid out in successive order. Fig. 9.32 shows the development of a
simple rectangular box having a bottom and four sides. In the development of the box, an
allowance is made for lap seams at the corners and for a fold edge. The fold lines are shown

Fig. 9.32 Development of a rectangular box

 SHEET METAL FORMING 183
as thin unbroken lines. Fig. 9.33 shows a development drawing with a complete set of
folding instructions. Fig. 9.34 shows a letter box development drawing where the back is
higher than the front surface.

Fig. 9.33 Development drawing with a complete set of folding instruction

Fig. 9.34 Development drawing of a letter box.

2. Packaging Industry: Packing involves the principles of surface development. It is one

of the largest and most diversified industries in the world. Most product, are packaged in
metal, plastic or cardboard containers. Small products, from candy-coated gum to large
television sets, are packaged in cardboard containers. Such containers, often referred to as
cartons, in many instances must be attractive as well as functional as shown in Fig. 9.35.
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They may be designed for sales appeals as well as for protection against contamination,
shipping and handling. They are also designed for temporary or permanent use.

Fig, 9.35 Development of a one-piece carton with fold-down corners

3. Development of a transition piece: The development of the transition piece is created
in Fig. 9.36. In order to construct the development, the true length of the edge line 0-1, 0-2,
etc. must first be found. The true length of the edge lines would be equal to the hypotenuse
of a right-angle triangle, having one leg equal in length to the projected edge line in the top
view and the other leg equal to the height of the projected edge line in the front view.

Fig. 9.36 Development of a transition piece

 SHEET METAL FORMING 185
4. Parallel line development: The drawing of closed bottom cylindrical containers from
metal sheet is one of the most important and widely used manufacturing processes. The
lateral or curved surface of a cylindrically shaped object, such as a “tin” can is developable
since it has a single curved surface of one constant radius. The development technique
used for such object is called parallel line. Fig. 9.37 shows the development of the lateral
surface of a simple hollow cylinder. The width of the development is equal to the height of
the cylinder, and length of the development is equal to the circumference of the cylinder (d)
plus seam allowance.

Fig. 9.37 Development of cylinder

5. Radial line Development of Conical Surface: The surface of cone is developable,

because a thin sheet of flexible material can be wrapped smoothly about it. Two dimensions
necessary to make the development of the surface are the slant height of the cone and the
circumference of its base. For a right circular cone, the developed shape is a sector of a
circle. The radius for this sector is the slant height of the cone, and the length around the
perimeter of the sector is equal to the circumference of the base.
The development of a funnel is shown in Fig. 9.37.

9. QUESTIONS
1. Give examples of sheet metal formed parts. What qualities can be obtained in sheet metal
parts?
2. Make a list of operations in sheet metal working.
3. How do you mark (i) indentation (ii) lines (iii) circles and (iv) irregular curves on sheet?
4. What are different shearing operations?
5. Describe punching of sheet for obtaining circular blanks and holed sheet.
6. Distinguish between piercing and punching?
7. Describe the defects likely to occur when sheet metal is bent.
8. How does the force on punch vary when cutting a hole for obtaining circular disc or punched
sheet?
186 MANUFACTURING SCIENCE

9. Where do you provide clearance while punching and blanking—in punch or die? Which
clearance added and which is subtracted? Which metal will require higher clearance—
softer or harder?
10. Show that surface development for a box which is taper on top and larger size while the
bottom is flat and smaller by 20% on all sides.
11. Why is the cutting edge of shear inclined and how much is this inclination in comparison to
sheet thickness?