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CHAPTER 1
THE MEANING OF HISTORY, SOURCES OF HISTORICAL DATA, AND HISTORICAL
CRITICISMS

LESSON 1: THE MEANING OF HISTORY

I. THE MEANING OF HISTORY

Definition of History

The term "history" derives from the Greek word "historia," which means learning
through inquiry.

Additional Description

The word inquiry means asking questions, investigating, examining evidence, and
searching for facts in order to gain knowledge. Thus, history is not merely the
memorization of dates and events. Rather, it is a disciplined process of investigating the
past to understand what happened and why it happened.

History seeks to reconstruct past human experiences through the careful examination of
evidence. It is both a body of knowledge and a method of investigation.

Aristotle's View of History

Aristotle, a Greek philosopher, viewed history as the systematic account of natural

phenomena, considering the chronological arrangement of events.

Example:

Year Event

1861 Jose Rizal was born

1887 Noli Me Tangere was

published
1896 Jose Rizal was executed

By arranging events chronologically, historians can identify patterns, causes, and

consequences of historical developments.

Aristotle emphasized that knowledge is obtained through investigation and observation

rather than assumptions.

History as a Narrative Account

Generally, history refers to the narrative account of phenomena, particularly human

affairs, arranged in chronological order.

Additional Description

Human affairs refer to activities involving people and societies, including:

 Politics
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 Government
 Religion
 Culture
 Economics
 Education
 Wars
 Revolutions
 Social movements

History records these activities to help people understand the development of societies
and civilizations over time.

II. TYPES OF HISTORY

Historians develop theories to investigate and understand history.

History is commonly divided into two forms:

1. Factual History
2. Speculative History

A. FACTUAL HISTORY

Definition

Factual history focuses on presenting basic and straightforward information to the

reader.

It answers:

 Who?
 What?
 When?
 Where?

It establishes the fundamental details of an event without necessarily explaining its

causes or significance.

Example
Questio Answer
n
Who? Jose Rizal

What? Published Noli Me Tangere

When? 1887

Where? Berlin, Germany

These facts serve as the foundation of historical knowledge.

Importance of Factual History

Factual history is important because:

 It provides accurate information.

 It establishes historical truth based on evidence.
 It serves as the basis for interpretation.
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 It prevents historical distortions.

Without factual history, meaningful historical analysis cannot occur.

B. SPECULATIVE HISTORY

Definition

Speculative history goes beyond mere facts and explores:

 How?
 Why?

events occurred.

It seeks to explain historical developments rather than simply describe them.

Example

Factual History

"Jose Rizal published Noli Me Tangere in 1887."

Speculative History

"Jose Rizal published Noli Me Tangere to expose social injustices and encourage
reforms during Spanish colonial rule."

The first statement tells what happened.

The second explains why it happened.

Importance of Speculative History

Speculative history allows historians to:

 Understand motivations.
 Analyze consequences.
 Identify patterns.
 Explain social change.
 Develop deeper interpretations.

It transforms history from a simple record of facts into a meaningful explanation of

human experiences.

III. HISTORIANS AND THEIR ROLE

Who Are Historians?

Historians are individuals who study, analyze, interpret, and write about the past.

Their goal is to gain insights into the present by studying what occurred in the past.

Responsibilities of Historians

Historians:

 Gather historical evidence.

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 Analyze sources.
 Interpret information.
 Construct historical narratives.
 Explain the significance of events.

They attempt to reconstruct a meaningful and organized representation of the past.

Determining Whose History Is Being Studied

Historians must determine whose experiences they are investigating.

Possible perspectives include:

 Political leaders
 Common citizens
 Women
 Indigenous groups
 Religious communities
 Workers
 Minority groups

The perspective chosen influences the questions asked, sources consulted, and
conclusions reached.

Historical Significance

Historical significance refers to the importance assigned to historical events.

Historians determine significance by asking:

 Why is the event important?

 How did it affect society?
 What lessons can be learned?

Historical significance helps connect the past to the present.

IV. HISTORIOGRAPHY

Definition

The practice of documenting history is referred to as historiography.

Additional Description

Historiography is both:

1. The writing of history.

2. The study of how history has been written.

It involves transforming evidence into an organized and meaningful historical account.

Traditional Historiography

Traditionally, historians gathered information from:

 Libraries
 Archives
 Manuscripts
 Government records
 Letters
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 Diaries

These materials served as evidence for writing historical narratives.

Modern Historiography

Modern historical writing extends beyond document analysis and incorporates methods
from related disciplines.

Archaeology

The study of human history through material remains.

Examples:

 Pottery
 Buildings
 Weapons
 Tools
 Jewelry

Geography

The study of places and environments.

Geography helps historians understand:

 Settlement patterns
 Trade routes
 Migration
 Environmental influences

These disciplines provide additional evidence for reconstructing the past.

V. THE LIMITATIONS OF HISTORICAL KNOWLEDGE

Definition

The incompleteness of historical records poses a significant challenge to our knowledge

of history.

Reasons for Historical Incompleteness

1. Lack of Documentation

Many events were never recorded.

Large portions of the population throughout history could not read or write, causing
many experiences to go undocumented.

2. Destruction of Evidence

Historical records may be lost through:

 Wars
 Fires
 Floods
 Earthquakes
 Human neglect
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3. Selective Preservation

Not all records survive equally.

Some records are preserved while others disappear, creating gaps in historical
knowledge.

Surviving Records

Historians rely on surviving evidence such as:

 Letters
 Diaries
 Government records
 Newspapers
 Photographs
 Artifacts

These records provide only a partial view of the past.

Bias in Historical Records

Historical records may be:

 Biased
 Incomplete
 Selective

The people who created records often had their own beliefs, interests, and
perspectives.

Therefore, historians must critically evaluate all sources.

VI. HISTORY-AS-ACTUALITY AND HISTORY-AS-RECORD

History-as-Actuality

History-as-actuality refers to everything that actually happened in the past.

It includes all actions, events, experiences, and thoughts that occurred throughout
human history.

Because not everything was recorded, historians can never completely know history-as-
actuality.

History-as-Record

History-as-record refers to the surviving evidence of the past.

Examples include:

 Documents
 Diaries
 Artifacts
 Photographs
 Government records

Historians study these records to reconstruct the past.

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Relationship Between the Two

History-as-record is only a small portion of history-as-actuality.

Thus, historians use surviving evidence to understand what actually happened.

VII. HISTORY AS THE SUBJECTIVE PROCESS OF RE-CREATION

Definition

History is considered a subjective process of re-creation because historians reconstruct

the past using available evidence and interpretation.

Why History Is Subjective

Unlike scientists who can directly observe many natural phenomena, historians cannot
directly observe the past.

They must rely on:

 Documents
 Artifacts
 Testimonies
 Inferences

Because evidence is incomplete, interpretation becomes necessary.

Human Experiences Across Time

Historians recognize that human experiences may be:

Comparable

People across different periods may share similar experiences such as:

 Family life
 Work
 Conflict
 Cooperation

Different

Experiences may vary according to:

 Culture
 Religion
 Politics
 Economics
 Time
 Place

These differences must be considered when interpreting history.

The Role of Inference

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An inference is a logical conclusion drawn from available evidence.

Historians use inference when direct evidence is unavailable.

Inference helps fill gaps in historical records.

VIII. VERISIMILITUDE

Definition

Verisimilitude refers to the quality of being realistic, believable, and close to historical
reality.

Purpose of Verisimilitude

Historians aim to produce accounts that are:

 Accurate
 Credible
 Logical
 Evidence-based

Although complete certainty is impossible, historians strive to achieve the closest

possible representation of the past.

IX. HISTORICAL METHOD

Definition

The historical method is the systematic process used to investigate, evaluate, and
reconstruct the past.

It involves the careful examination and analysis of historical documents and artifacts.

Purpose of the Historical Method

The historical method helps historians:

 Gather evidence.
 Verify information.
 Analyze sources.
 Construct historical narratives.
 Produce reliable interpretations.

X. HISTORICAL ANALYSIS

Definition

Historical analysis is a vital component of the historical method.

It involves the systematic examination, evaluation, interpretation, and organization of

historical evidence.

Purpose of Historical Analysis

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Historical analysis helps historians:

 Understand historical events.

 Determine causes and effects.
 Evaluate evidence.
 Distinguish facts from opinions.
 Construct reliable interpretations.

Without historical analysis, history would simply be a collection of disconnected facts.

Steps in Historical Analysis

Step 1: Choosing a Subject for Investigation

The historian selects a topic or historical problem to study.

Examples:

 Jose Rizal's Life

 The Philippine Revolution
 World War II

Step 2: Gathering Potential Sources of Information

The historian collects evidence related to the topic.

Examples:

Primary Sources

 Letters
 Diaries
 Speeches
 Government records

Secondary Sources

 Textbooks
 Research articles
 Historical analyses

Step 3: Scrutinizing the Authenticity of Sources

The historian examines whether sources are genuine and reliable.

Questions include:

 Who created the source?

 When was it created?
 Why was it created?
 Can it be trusted?

Step 4: Extracting Reliable and Significant Information

The historian identifies useful information from verified sources.

Examples:

 Names
 Dates
 Locations
 Causes
 Consequences
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Only reliable information is used in historical interpretation.

Importance of Historical Analysis

Historical analysis:

 Promotes accuracy.
 Strengthens historical interpretations.
 Ensures evidence-based conclusions.
 Forms the foundation of historiography.

XI. SYNTHESIS AND HISTORIOGRAPHY

Synthesis

Synthesis refers to combining information from multiple sources into a coherent

explanation.

Historians organize facts, interpretations, and evidence to create a complete

understanding of historical events.

Relationship Between Analysis and Synthesis

Analysis

 Examines evidence.
 Breaks information into parts.
 Evaluates details.

Synthesis

 Combines information.
 Connects ideas.
 Produces a complete narrative.

The two processes are closely related and cannot be completely separated.

Historiography as the Final Product

The combination of information obtained through historical analysis results in

historiography.

Historiography is the final written account of history produced through:

1. Research
2. Source collection
3. Source evaluation
4. Historical analysis
5. Interpretation
6. Synthesis

LESSON 2: SOURCES OF HISTORICAL DATA

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I. MEANING OF HISTORICAL SOURCES

Historical information is obtained from objects, relics, testimonies, and stories that
have survived from the past.

Key Idea

Historical sources include anything that provides evidence about the past.

They may be:

 Physical objects (artifacts, remains)

 Written documents
 Oral testimonies (stories, interviews)

Important Explanation

A source is used by historians to:

 Prove that an event actually happened

 Help interpret what happened and why it happened

👉 Simple difference:

 Source = evidence
 Historical interpretation = explanation/meaning of the evidence

II. TYPES OF HISTORICAL SOURCES

Historical sources are divided into:

1. Written Sources
2. Non-Written Sources

A. WRITTEN SOURCES OF HISTORY

Written sources are documents or texts that contain recorded information about the
past.

They are classified into 3 main categories:

1. Narrative or Literary Sources

These are written in story form or descriptive style.

Characteristics:

 Tell stories or accounts of events

 Created for different purposes (information, persuasion, entertainment)
 May include personal opinions or interpretations

Examples:

 Chronicles
 Diaries
 Memoirs
 Novels
 Pamphlets
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 Speeches written as texts

 Hagiographies (lives of saints or important figures)

Purpose:

They aim to:

 Inform
 Persuade
 Entertain
 Teach lessons
 Express beliefs or ideas

Important Note:

Even if they are fictional or artistic, they can still reflect historical ideas and culture.

2. Diplomatic or Juridical Sources

These are legal documents used to establish official records.

Characteristics:

 Highly formal
 Often sealed or authenticated
 Considered reliable historical evidence
 Follow legal rules and structure

Examples:

 Charters
 Contracts
 Wills
 Land titles
 Court documents
 Government decrees

Sources from authorities:

 Kings
 Governments
 Courts
 Legislatures
 Popes

Importance:

They are useful because they:

 Prove legal transactions

 Show political and economic systems
 Are often considered trustworthy sources

3. Social Documents

These are records that show social, economic, political, and legal life.

Examples:

 Census records
 Property registers
 Government reports
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 Parliamentary records
 Municipal accounts
 Research reports

Importance:

They help historians understand:

 Population
 Economy
 Government systems
 Social conditions

B. NON-WRITTEN SOURCES OF HISTORY

Non-written sources include material evidence and oral testimonies.

1. Material Evidence (Archaeological Sources)

These are physical objects left by people in the past.

Importance:

They help historians understand:

 Daily life of people

 Culture and traditions
 Technology of the past
 Trade and economy

Key Explanation:

Artifacts are NOT the actual events, but they are proof that those events happened
or existed.

Additional Information from Archaeology

 Artifacts found in different places may show trade and exchange

 Garbage pits can still contain valuable historical evidence
 Coins show economic systems and government control
 Excavations can be accidental or planned

2. Visual Evidence

These include images and recordings of the past.

Examples:

 Paintings
 Drawings
 Photographs
 Films
 Etchings

Importance:

They provide:

 Visual representation of historical events

 Clues about culture, clothing, and environment

3. Oral Evidence (Verbal Testimony)

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These are spoken accounts of the past.

Examples:

 Interviews
 Folk songs
 Legends
 Sagas
 Oral traditions

Importance:

They are useful especially when written records are not available.

However:

 They may change over time

 They may contain bias or exaggeration

III. PRIMARY VS SECONDARY SOURCES

1. PRIMARY SOURCES

Definition:

Primary sources are original, firsthand accounts created during or near the time of
the event.

Characteristics:

 Direct evidence
 Original information
 No interpretation (or minimal interpretation)

Examples:

 Diaries
 Letters
 Speeches
 Photographs
 Government records
 Newspapers (reporting events)
 Interviews with witnesses
 Maps
 Posters
 Artifacts
 Paintings from the period

Importance:

Primary sources are important because they:

 Provide direct evidence

 Are closest to the actual event
 Are the foundation of historical research

2. SECONDARY SOURCES

Definition:
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Secondary sources are materials created after the event, based on primary sources.

Characteristics:

 Interpret historical events

 Analyze or explain primary sources
 Written by people who did not directly experience the event

Examples:

 History books
 Biographies
 Journal articles
 Reviews
 Literary criticism
 Research papers

Importance:

Secondary sources help:

 Explain primary sources

 Provide analysis and interpretation
 Give broader understanding of events

IV. SIMPLE COMPARISON

Type Meaning Example

Primary Source Firsthand evidence Diary, letter, photo
Secondary Source Interpretation of primary sources History book, biography
Written Source Recorded documents Books, records
Non-written Source Physical/oral evidence Artifacts, interviews

V. KEY EXAM REMINDERS

✔ Historical sources = evidence of the past

✔ Artifacts = physical proof of history
✔ Written sources = documents and texts
✔ Non-written sources = objects + oral history
✔ Primary = original
✔ Secondary = interpretation

ONE-LINE SUMMARY

Historical sources are all written, oral, and physical evidence used by historians
to reconstruct, interpret, and understand the past.

LESSON 3: HISTORICAL CRITICISMS

I. MEANING OF HISTORICAL CRITICISM

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Historical criticism is the process of understanding the underlying circumstances

behind early writings and historical documents.

It helps historians:

 Understand the true meaning of a text

 Know the context of its creation
 Evaluate whether it is trustworthy or not

Main Idea

Historical criticism focuses on:

 What the text really means

 Why it was written
 When, where, and by whom it was written

II. MAIN GOALS OF HISTORICAL CRITICISM

Historical criticism has two main goals:

1. Original Meaning of the Text

To determine the literal meaning (sensus literalis historicus) of the document in its
historical context.

👉 This means understanding:

 What the author really meant

 What message was intended for the original readers

2. Reconstruct Historical Context

To rebuild the historical situation in which:

 The author lived

 The audience lived
 The document was written

👉 This helps historians understand:

 Culture
 Beliefs
 Political situation
 Social conditions

III. TWO TYPES OF HISTORICAL CRITICISM

Historical criticism is divided into:

1. External Criticism

2. Internal Criticism

A. EXTERNAL CRITICISM (AUTHENTICITY)

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Definition

External criticism is the process of determining whether a document is authentic (real)

or fake.

It focuses on:

 Origin of the document

 Authorship
 Date of creation
 Physical form of the source

Main Goal

👉 To answer:
“Is this document real or forged?”

Techniques of External Criticism

1. Diplomatic Criticism

 Studies the form and structure of documents

 Examines official patterns used in legal or government records

2. Paleographical Criticism

 Studies handwriting, script, and language

 Considers the time and place the document was created

👉 Helps determine:

 Whether writing style matches the historical period

 Whether the document has been altered

Other Methods of External Criticism

1. Comparison with Other Sources

Historians compare the document with:

 Other reliable documents

 Similar historical accounts
 Records from the same period

👉 If details match, the document is more likely authentic.

2. Study of Physical Materials

Historians examine:

 Paper type
 Ink
 Writing tools
 Chemical composition

Example:
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 Paper was rare before the 15th century in Europe

 Printing press was not used before the 15th century
 Typewriters only existed in the 19th century

👉 If a document claims to be older but uses modern materials, it is likely fake.

3. Handwriting and Signatures

Historians check:

 Handwriting style
 Signatures
 Seals
 Letterheads
 Watermarks

They compare them with verified samples.

4. Language and Writing Style

Experts look for:

 Grammar errors
 Spelling mistakes
 Idioms
 Punctuation style

👉 Inconsistencies may suggest forgery.

5. Anachronisms (Very Important)

An anachronism is something that does not belong to the correct time period.

Examples:

 Mentioning an event that happened AFTER the author’s death

 Using modern words in an ancient document
 Referring to technologies not yet invented

👉 These are strong signs of forgery.

6. Alibi Check

Historians check if:

 The author could physically be in that place at that time

👉 If not, the document is suspicious.

7. Provenance (Origin/Custody)

Provenance refers to:

 Where the document came from

 Who kept it over time

👉 If found in a trusted archive or family record, it is more likely authentic.

Importance of External Criticism

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 Confirms authenticity
 Detects forged documents
 Protects historical accuracy
 Ensures reliable sources

B. INTERNAL CRITICISM (RELIABILITY)

Definition

Internal criticism evaluates the truthfulness and reliability of the content inside a
document.

Main Goal

👉 To answer:
“Is the information inside the document true?”

Focus of Internal Criticism

It studies:

 Meaning of the message

 Accuracy of facts
 Credibility of the author
 Possible bias or influence

What Historians Examine

1. Credibility of the Author

 Is the author trustworthy?

 Did the author witness the event?
 Is the author knowledgeable?

2. Knowledge of the Author

Historians check:

 How much the author knew about the event

 Whether the author was present during the event

3. Bias and Influence

Historians consider:

 Political influence
 Religious beliefs
 Personal opinions
 Social background

👉 These may affect how facts are presented

4. Accuracy of Facts
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Historians verify:

 Did the event really happen?

 Are the details correct?
 Are there contradictions with other sources?

Importance of Internal Criticism

 Ensures truthfulness of historical facts

 Helps identify bias
 Improves accuracy of interpretation
 Prevents misleading conclusions

IV. TEST OF AUTHENTICITY

Historians use scientific and investigative methods similar to police work.

1. Material Testing

Historians examine:

 Paper type
 Ink composition
 Writing tools

👉 To check if they match the historical period.

2. Date Estimation

Historians determine:

 When the document was made

 Whether materials match that time period

3. Chemical Analysis

Ink and materials are tested for:

 Age consistency
 Historical accuracy

4. Cross-Checking with History

Historians compare:

 Events mentioned in document

 Known historical facts

5. Location and Context Check

They check:

 Was the author in that place?

 Does the event timeline make sense?

V. IMPORTANCE OF HISTORICAL CRITICISM

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Historical criticism is important because it:

 Detects fake documents

 Ensures historical truth
 Improves research accuracy
 Helps build reliable history
 Separates fact from fiction
 Strengthens historical interpretation