Module 3
Curbing Climate Change
3.1 Difference between weather and climate
1.0 Weather: Temperature, pressure, wind, humidity and precipitation, interact with each other
and provide a certain atmospheric condition. These influence the atmospheric conditions like
the direction and velocity of wind, amount of insolation, cloud-cover and the amount of
precipitation. These parameters are known as the elements of both weather and climate. The
influence of these elements differs from place to place and time to time. It may be restricted to
a small area and for a short duration of time. We very often describe this influence in the name
of weather as sunny, hot, warm, cold, fine, etc depending upon the dominant element of weather
at a place and at a point of time. Therefore, weather is the atmospheric condition of a place for
a short duration with respect to its one or more elements. Two places even a short distance apart
may have different kind of weather at one and the same time.
2.0 Weather forecast: It is important to know by some means the coming weather in advance.
You may be planning to go on a hike without knowing that the particular day may be rainy.
Farmers, sailors, aviators, tourists and many others are interested to know the weather
conditions in advance for their own benefits. When a cyclone or dangerous weather is expected,
warnings are issued over the radio, television and newspapers so that people can prepare to
save themselves and their property from its hazard. The weather office collects data on
temperature, wind, cloud cover, rainfall and other atmospheric phenomena through its
numerous observation centres. These centres are scattered all over the country. Similar
information is also received from the ships sailing in the high seas. The analysis of these data
thus collected, helps in forecasting weather conditions for the next 48 hours or even for a week.
The significance of a weather information supplied through a map and its forecast is better
utilised in a country like the U.K. where weather changes are very rapid.
3.0 Climate and Climate change: The average weather conditions, prevalent from one season
to another in the course of a year, over a large area is known as climate. The average of these
weather conditions is calculated from the data collected for several year (about 35 years) for a
larger area. Rajasthan, for example, experiences hot and arid climate, Kerala has tropical rainy
climate, Greenland has cold desert climate and the climate of Central Asia is temperate
continental. Climate of a region is considered more or less permanent.
Carbon dioxide (CO₂) and other greenhouse gases (GHGs) such as methane and nitrous
oxide naturally warm the Earth's surface through a process called the greenhouse effect. These
gases trap part of the solar heat that would otherwise escape back into space, creating a thermal
blanket around the planet. This natural warming is essential for life—without it, Earth would
be too cold for most living organisms to survive.
4.0 Factors governing the climate of a region: Different regions of the world have differences
in temperature, humidity and precipitation. You know that these differences influence the
lifestyle of the people living under different climatic conditions. To understand different
climatic conditions, let us discuss the factors which cause the variations in the climate of a
place or a region.
1. Latitude or Distance from the Equator: The places near the equator are warmer than
the places which are far away from it. This is because the rays of the sun fall vertical
on the equator and slanting in the temperate and polar regions. As we have discussed
earlier the vertical rays are concentrated over a small area than the slanting one. Again,
the vertical rays pass through a shorter distance in the atmosphere before reaching the
earth’s surface. Therefore, lower the latitude higher is the temperature and vice versa.
Malaysia which is near the equator is warmer than England which is far away from the
equator.
2. Altitude or the Height from the mean sea level: We all know that mountains are
cooler than the plains. Shimla situated on a higher altitude is cooler than Jalandhar,
although both are almost on the same latitude. The temperature decreases with the
height of a place. For a vertical rise of 165 metres there is an average decrease in
temperature at the rate of 1°C. Thus, the temperature decreases with increase in height.
3. Continentally or the Distance from the Sea: The water is a bad conductor of heat i.e.
it takes longer time to heat and longer time to cool. Due to this moderating effect of the
sea, places near the coast have low range of temperature and high humidity. The places
in the interior of the continent do not experience moderating effect of the sea. These
places have extreme temperatures. The places far from the sea have higher range of
diurnal (daily) and annual temperatures. Mumbai has relatively lower temperature and
higher
4. Nature of the Prevailing Winds: The on-shore winds bring the moisture from the sea
and cause rainfall on the area through which they pass. The off-shore winds coming
from the land are dry and help in evaporation. In India, the on-shore summer monsoon
winds bring rains while off-shore winter monsoon winds are generally dry.
5. Cloud Cover: In areas generally of cloudless sky as in deserts, temperature even under
shade are very high because of the hot day time sunshine. At night this heat radiates
back from the ground very rapidly. It results in a large diurnal range in temperature. On
the other hand, under cloudy sky and heavy rainfall at Thiruvananthapuram the range
of temperature is very small.
6. Ocean currents: Ocean waters move from one place to another partly as an attempt to
equalize temperature and density of water. Ocean currents are large movements of water
usually from a place of warm temperature to one of cooler temperature or vice-versa.
The warm ocean currents raise the temperature of the coast and sometimes bring
rainfall, while the cold currents lower the temperature and create fog near the coast.
Port Bergen in Norway is free from ice even in winter due to warm North Atlantic Drift
while Port Quebec in Canada remains frozen during winter months due to chilling effect
of the Cold Labrador Current in spite of the fact that Port Quebec is situated in much
lower latitude than Port Bergen. The on-shore winds passing over a warm current carry
warm air to the interior and raise the temperature of the inland areas. Similarly, the
winds blowing over cold current carry cold air to the interior and create fog and mist.
7. Direction of mountains chains
The mountain chains act as natural barrier for the wind. The on-shore moisture laden
winds are forced to rise after striking against the mountain; and give heavy rainfall on
the windward side. These winds descending on the leeward side cause very low rainfall.
The great Himalayas check the moisture laden monsoon winds from crossing over to
Tibet. This mountain chain also checks biting polar cold winds from entering into India.
This is the reason for which northern plains of India get rains while Tibet remains a
perpetual rain shadow area with lesser amount of rainfall.
8. Slope and the aspect
The concentration of heat being more on the gentler slope raises the temperature of air
above them. Its lesser concentration along steeper slopes lowers the temperature. At the
same time, mountain slopes facing the sun are warmer than the slopes which are away
from the sun’s rays. The southern slopes of Himalaya are warmer than the northern
slopes.
3.2 Climate change and Factors influencing climate change
1. Natural climate change: The Earth's climate has not always been the same. Over millions
of years, the planet has gone through colder and warmer periods. Historically, climate shifts
occurred over thousands to millions of years, driven by natural factors like Earth’s orbital
changes, solar cycles, and volcanic activity. Scientists study things like ice layers, tree rings,
ocean sediments, and fossils to learn how the climate has changed in the past. From these
studies, we know that the Earth's climate has varied a lot over time. These changes in average
temperature create different climate periods. When the Earth is much colder, it's called a
glacial period (or "ice age"). When it's warmer, it's called an interglacial period. These cold
and warm phases have taken turns over thousands of years. Right now, we are living in a warm
period—an interglacial period—which began about 10,000 years ago, after the last ice age
ended. Scientists believe that the next glacial (cold) period will likely happen in about 80,000
years. While that seems far away in human terms, it is considered a short time in geological
history (the history of Earth over millions of years).
2. Human influence on climate: The current climate change is occurring over just a few
decades, which is extremely rapid in geological terms. The primary cause is anthropogenic
(human-caused) activities. The human activities during the 20th century, and today we see
devastating consequences of a human induced greenhouse effect. As we mentioned that carbon
dioxide is a part of processes in nature, we must realize that the amount of this gas in the
atmosphere exceeds by far the necessary amounts for natural cycles. Moreover, CO2 is not the
only gas that creates the greenhouse effect. Other gases released in the air due to human
activities are part of the greenhouse effect, like nitrogen oxide, N2O, which is also toxic and
methane, CH4, which is flammable. However, they only make a small share of gas mixture in
the atmosphere. Not to forget ozone, O3, a gas which is necessary in the higher layers of
atmosphere since it protects life on earth from UV rays, but in the lower parts it contributes to
the greenhouse effect. Therefore, this layer of greenhouse gases keeps more heat on earth than
before. The phenomenon, which appeared due to the greenhouse effect caused by human
activity, is called global warming, since one of the major consequences of this effect is the
global temperature rise.
3. Major anthropogenic sources of greenhouse gases: the human activities have started a
chain of reactions resulting in changes in the atmosphere, water, soil and life on the planet, due
to first and foremost extensive emission of the greenhouse gases.
a. Power Stations – Largest Source of CO₂ Emissions
Power stations are critical infrastructure for modern society, converting chemical, nuclear, or
renewable energy into electric power. However, most power plants globally still rely heavily
on fossil fuels—primarily coal, oil, and natural gas. These fuels undergo combustion, releasing
carbon dioxide (CO₂) and other greenhouse gases (GHGs).
According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), power generation is the
largest single contributor to global CO₂ emissions. Fossil fuel combustion at power stations
alone is responsible for about 40% of total energy-related CO₂ emissions. Among all GHGs,
CO₂ accounts for approximately 72%, with methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O) making up
most of the rest.
For example, coal-fired power plants emit nearly 1,000 g of CO₂ per kWh, compared to 450 g
for natural gas, and zero for renewables like solar and wind. As of recent estimates, fossil fuel-
based energy still makes up over 60% of global electricity generation, contributing heavily to
global warming.
b. Industry – A Major Energy and Emissions Consumer
The industrial sector is another massive source of GHG emissions, particularly through energy-
intensive processes like cement production, metallurgy (iron and steel), and chemical
manufacturing.
Between 1971 and 2004, global industrial energy consumption rose by 61%, according to the
International Energy Agency (IEA). The cement industry alone contributes to 8% of global
CO₂ emissions. This is largely due to the calcination process, where calcium carbonate (CaCO₃)
is heated to produce lime (CaO), releasing CO₂ as a byproduct.
Industries also burn fossil fuels and biomass to generate heat and power for manufacturing
processes, contributing directly to atmospheric CO₂. Furthermore, chemical plants emit not
only CO₂, but also fluorinated gases, which have global warming potentials (GWPs) thousands
of times higher than CO₂.
c. Transportation – A Rapidly Growing Emission Source
The transportation sector is the second-largest source of CO₂ emissions globally and is
expanding rapidly due to increased vehicle use, aviation, and shipping. In Europe, transport
contributes about 20% of CO₂ emissions, while in the United States it accounts for roughly
33%.
Most vehicles use petroleum-based fuels like gasoline and diesel, which release CO₂ upon
combustion. In 2022, transportation emitted approximately 7.4 billion metric tons of CO₂
globally, about 25% of total emissions.
Beyond CO₂, car and truck exhausts also contain nitrogen oxides (NOₓ) and volatile organic
compounds (VOCs). When these react with sunlight, they form tropospheric ozone (O₃)—a
greenhouse gas and air pollutant. Although ozone is beneficial in the stratosphere (protecting
us from UV radiation), at ground level it contributes to climate warming and respiratory
problems.
d. Farming – Methane and Nitrogen Emissions
Agriculture, especially animal farming, is a key contributor to methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide
(N₂O) emissions. Methane is primarily released during the digestive process (enteric
fermentation) in livestock like cattle, sheep, and goats. It is also emitted from manure storage
and handling.
Methane has a global warming potential (GWP) that is 28–34 times greater than CO₂ over a
100-year period. Livestock farming is responsible for approximately 40% of anthropogenic
methane emissions.
Overuse of synthetic fertilizers leads to the release of nitrous oxide, which is about 298 times
more potent than CO₂ in terms of heat-trapping ability. Excess nitrogen also causes
eutrophication in water bodies and soil degradation, impacting biodiversity and food security.
e. Deforestation – Carbon Sink Turned Source
Forests act as carbon sinks, storing carbon in biomass and soil through the process of
photosynthesis. However, rapid deforestation—especially in tropical rainforests—has reversed
this effect.
Each year, around 17 million hectares of forests are cleared (equivalent to four times the size
of Denmark), largely due to agriculture, logging, and fires. When trees are cut or burned, the
carbon stored in them is released back into the atmosphere as CO₂.
Deforestation currently accounts for approximately 20% of global anthropogenic GHG
emissions. It also contributes to biodiversity loss, soil erosion, and can lead to desertification.
In many tropical regions, deforested land is more prone to heavy rainfall washouts, which
degrade soil and disrupt water cycles.
3.3 Effect of climate change on Biodiversity
Climate change threatens the basic elements of life for people throughout the world.
The most vulnerable ecological and socio-economic systems are those with the greatest
sensitivity to climate change and the least ability to adapt. Sensitivity is the degree to which a
system will respond to a given change in climate. Adaptability is the degree to which systems
can adjust to, or in anticipation of, changed conditions. Vulnerability defines the extent to
which climate change may damage or harm a system; this depends both on s system’s
sensitivity as well as its ability to adapt.
1. Effects on Nature
a. Primary effect: Several decades ago, the climate of different regions in the world started to
became less typical, i.e. it showed signs unusual for the season. Typhoons, floods, snowstorms
and droughts started to appear in areas where they were not common and at times not expected.
The average annual temperatures, particularly in boreal regions, showed signs of slow
gradual rising. The glaciers at high mountain ranges such as European Alps or American
cordilleras were melting more rapidly during warm seasons than earlier recorded, and were
rebuilding their winter ice masses slower than before.
b. Impact on Marine ecosystems:
Changes in both the physical and chemical properties of the ocean alter the marine
productivity and thus have substantial impacts on the health of marine ecosystems. First, ocean
acidification exerts a strong threat for coral reefs, by reducing the concentration of carbonate
ions and therefore the material that corals need to build their skeleton reduces. As coral reefs
host numerous organisms, this negatively impacts the entire ecosystem.
Second, deoxygenation affects the metabolism of species by limiting the biological
activity. In recent decades, oxygen-depleted areas have rapidly expanded leading to the so-
called dead zones from which the organisms leave or in which they die. An outstanding
example is the Baltic Sea in which the expansion of dead zones has experienced a 10-fold
increase since 1900.
c. Impact on coastal zones:
Coastal flooding result from a variety of causes including storm surges produced by wind
storms and sea-level rise. When surges coincide with high tidal levels, extensive flooding may
occur, threatening ecosystems, infrastructures and human lives. As an example, the coastal
flooding which occurred in 1953 in the North Sea destroyed 40 000 buildings an caused 2000
deaths in Netherlands, Belgium and United Kingdom. This kind of flooding event occurs every
hundred years on average, but could happen annually by the end of the 21st century.
Coastal erosion is due to the imbalance between supply and export of sedimentary material to
the coast. This results in the retreat of the coastline and threaten the sandy dunes which are a
significant protection for the littoral and for the hosted flora and fauna species. It may also have
huge economic impacts because of loss of land areas, and hence, because of the loss of
properties and infrastructures. Coastal erosion is produced by strong winds, storm surges and
high tidal levels and is amplified by sea level rise. It is also exacerbated human activities
because the natural flow of sediments in river basins is obstructed by various infrastructures.
d. Impact on fresh water systems
In addition to changing rainfall patterns, it is increasingly affecting river flows, groundwater
recharge, and the frequency and intensity of droughts and floods, especially in Asia, a
region highly dependent on monsoons and glacier-fed rivers.
In India and neighbouring countries, the Southwest Monsoon plays a crucial role in
supplying water for agriculture, drinking, and hydropower. However, climate change is making
the monsoon more erratic, with delayed onsets and premature withdrawals. Also, uneven,
causing excessive rainfall in some areas while others experience prolonged dry spells.
In 2023, northern Indian states such as Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand experienced
devastating floods and landslides due to intense cloudbursts and heavy rainfall. At the same
time, regions like eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar experienced below-average rainfall, resulting
in water shortages and poor crop yields.
The Himalayas which stretch over 2400km has more glaciers than any other place on
the earth. These water towers provide freshwater to over a billion people living in the region.
But the mountains and its glaciers and icecaps are most sensitive to rising temperature and
changing climates. Satellite images already indicate that nearly 67% of the Himalayan glaciers
have retreated.
For Bhutan and the rest of the Himalayan population, the melting of glaciers means
increase in flood risks during the monsoons, and reduced water supply in the dry seasons. A
glacial melt caused by climate change can form or expand glacial lakes and weaken the natural
dams or moraines that hold the water in these lakes. A collapse of these dams will discharge
large volumes of water and debris known as glacial lake outburst floods (GLOF). This can
cause catastrophic flooding downstream with major damages to lives and properties.
Bhutan has 562 glaciers and 2,674 glacial lakes, of which 25 are categorized as
potentially dangerous. The 1994 Punakha flood was caused by GLOF pouring an
unprecedented 18 million cubic meters of water into the Mochu basin. The flood claimed 22
lives and damaged 1700 acres of fertile agricultural land and several infrastructure facilities.
Terrestrial ecosystems:
Climate change has also many impacts on terrestrial ecosystems. Firstly, it greatly affects
biodiversity by modifying the phenology of plants (with longer growing seasons and earlier
pollen seasons) and the life cycle of animals (e.g. earlier arrival of migrant birds, earlier onset
of reproduction and longer breeding season of many thermophilic insects). These trends,
primarily due to increased temperatures, are projected to persist in the future. Secondly, global
warming modifies the geographical range of flora and fauna species. This may induce changes
in the species composition and can cause in turn a change in their mutual interactions (e.g.
Montoya and Raffaelli 2010). Migration of some species towards higher latitudes and/or higher
elevations are observed (Chen et al., 2011), but local and regional extinctions also occur for
other species. The species which are expected to be the most affected are small populations,
those with restricted climatic envelopes (i.e. range of favourable climatic conditions), such as
those living in high latitudes or high elevations (Engler et al. 2011) or those whose ability to
migrate is limited by human-made barriers, such as land use change and deforestation or
expanded urbanization (Pereira et al. 2012). This could lead to slow decline of biodiversity.
Impact on Ecosystem and Biodiversity:
Increasing global temperature could change terrestrial ecosystems altogether; while some
species will be forced out of their habitats (possibly to extinction) because of changing
conditions, others will flourish. Many of the species at risk are the Arctic and Antarctic
mammals such as the polar bears and Emperor Penguins. In the Himalayas, Snow Leopards
typically inhabit the area between the tree line and the permanent snow line. Temperature
changes have caused the permanent snow line to recede, which causes the Snow Leopards to
move further up mountain slopes. At these high elevations, herbivorous animals, primary food
of these leopards are diminishing.
3.5 Numerical on AQI