Aggression — Study Guide
Aggression
Social Basis of Behavior — Exam Study Guide
★ = Especially important (professor-flagged)
★ 1. What Is Aggression?
Aggression: any behavior that is designed to harm another person who does not want to be harmed.
Key characteristics of aggression:
• It is an external behavior — observable, not an emotion or thought
• It is a social behavior — involves at least two people
• It is intentional, not accidental
Aggression Any behavior intended to harm another who wants to avoid harm; broader
category
Violence A subset of aggression involving extreme physical harm — injury or death is
the end goal
2. Forms of Aggression
Physical aggression Hitting, kicking, use of weapons, physical intimidation
Verbal aggression Yelling, screaming, swearing, name-calling, insults, threats
Relational (social) Gossip, exclusion, spreading rumors, silent treatment — damages social
aggression relationships and belonging
Cyber aggression Online harassment, doxxing, rumor spreading
Sexual aggression Coercion, harassment, assault
Intergroup aggression Hate crimes, dehumanization — driven by group membership
★ 3. Differentiating Types of Aggression
Physical vs. Relational
Physical aggression Intended to cause direct, physical harm to another person
Relational aggression Intended to damage someone's social relationships, reputation, or sense of
belonging; more indirect and covert
Direct vs. Indirect
Direct aggression The victim is physically present (e.g., physically fighting them)
Indirect aggression The victim is not physically present (e.g., slashing their tires)
Active vs. Passive
Active aggression The aggressor responds in a harmful manner (hitting, yelling)
Page 1 of 5
Aggression — Study Guide
Passive aggression The aggressor fails to respond in a helpful way (e.g., 'forgetting' to deliver a
message); harder to establish blame
Reactive vs. Proactive
Reactive aggression "Hot" — impulsive, angry behavior motivated by a desire to harm; triggered by
provocation
Proactive aggression "Cold" — premeditated, calculated behavior motivated by some other goal
(justice, financial gain)
Hostile vs. Instrumental
Hostile aggression Goal IS to cause harm; reckless, often impulsive, not premeditated. Ex:
flipping someone off in traffic, verbally assaulting someone who bumps into
you
Instrumental Harm is a means to another goal. Ex: competitive sports, Tonya Harding
aggression story
Exam Tip: Know all five differentiating pairs. A common exam strategy is to give a scenario and ask which type applies.
The key distinctions: Reactive=hot/impulsive, Proactive=cold/calculated; Hostile=harm IS the goal, Instrumental=harm is
a tool for another goal.
4. Theories of Aggression
Instinctive/Psychoanalytic Theory (Freud)
• We have an instinctive drive for aggression
• Life Instinct (Eros) vs. Death Instinct (Thanatos): Thanatos drives aggression outward
• Evolutionary/Darwinian perspective: aggression helps disperse populations, supports competition for
limited resources, and ensures the strongest pass on their genes
Classic Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis (Dollard et al., 1939)
Frustration always leads to aggression. When our drive to reach a goal is blocked by external factors, we
experience frustration, which creates an aggressive drive, which can lead to aggressive behavior.
• Displacement: aggression is not always directed at the original source of frustration — it can be
redirected to a safer target
Status: Historically foundational and important to know for exams. Now considered too rigid — has been
revised. Frustration does NOT always lead to aggression.
Exam Tip: Know this theory well despite it being outdated — the professor specifically flagged it as exam-relevant.
The key update is Berkowitz's revision below.
Berkowitz's Cognitive Neoassociation Model (1960s–1980s)
A modern revision of the Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis.
Revised pathway:
• Frustration → Negative Affect → Aggression (only IF aggressive cues are present)
• Aggressive cues: weapons, violent media, aggressive words, hostility, environmental reminders of
aggression
Berkowitz later emphasized the role of appraisal:
Page 2 of 5
Aggression — Study Guide
• If the person appraises the situation as intentional, unfair, or threatening → aggression is more likely
• If they reappraise ('It was an accident') → aggression decreases
Exam Tip: Key distinction from classic FAH: frustration alone does NOT automatically cause aggression — negative
affect plus aggressive cues are required. Appraisal can inhibit or amplify aggression.
★ General Aggression Model (GAM)
Integrates biological, cognitive, affective, and situational factors into one unified model. Three components:
Inputs → Routes → Outcomes.
Inputs
• Personal traits or predispositions (hostile attribution bias, impulsivity, trait aggression)
• Situational provocation: pain, heat, insults, social rejection
Routes (3)
1. Affect Negative emotions (anger) and moods that prime aggression
2. Cognition Hostile thoughts and interpretations of intent ('They did that on purpose')
3. Arousal Physiological activation and misattribution (e.g., heat, exercise, noise
increasing arousal that is then attributed to a person)
Outcomes
Immediate Appraisal Quick, automatic interpretation of the situation. If resources are low (fatigue,
alcohol, cognitive load) → aggression more likely
Reappraisal More thoughtful, controlled processing. Can inhibit aggression but requires
cognitive capacity
Behavior Aggressive or non-aggressive response, influenced by both appraisal stages
Exam Tip: GAM is the most comprehensive theory — it accounts for person AND situation, and for both automatic
and controlled processing. Know the three routes and both appraisal stages.
★ 5. Person Variables That Impact Aggression
Traits General tendency or predisposition to be aggressive
Hostile Attribution Bias Interpreting ambiguous behavior as hostile even when it may not be
Impulsivity Difficulty inhibiting aggressive behavior in the moment
Aggressive Learned patterns of aggressive behavior; schemas that frame aggression as
Beliefs/Scripts normal or effective
Personality Traits Narcissism, psychopathy, and low agreeableness are associated with higher
aggression
Gender Men are more likely to engage in physical aggression (~90% of homicides);
women are more likely to engage in relational/social aggression
6. Situational Variables That Impact Aggression
Page 3 of 5
Aggression — Study Guide
Provocation Being insulted, criticized, or having another person act against you (e.g., driver
flips you off)
Social Rejection Very powerful trigger; social exclusion activates aggression
Media Violence Acts as an aggressive cue and primes aggressive scripts — increases
likelihood of aggression
Alcohol Myopia Alcohol narrows cognitive appraisal, making aggressive cues more influential
and inhibitory cues less effective
Heat and Aggression Hot temperatures increase aggression because heat is an aversive stimulus
that produces negative affect
Deindividuation Online trolling, large crowds, wearing a mask — reduces self-awareness and
increases impulsive aggression
7. Reducing Aggression
What Does NOT Work
Catharsis Screaming, boxing classes, venting — does NOT reduce aggression; often
increases arousal and rehearses aggressive behavior
Punishment alone Positive punishment, negative punishment, corporal punishment — limited
effectiveness without addressing underlying causes
What DOES Work
• Reduce proactive aggression: teach non-aggressive ways to solve problems
• Reduce reactive aggression: calming techniques, self-regulation skills
Cognitive Strategies
• Name It to Tame It: Name the Trigger → Name the Thought → Name the Cue. Interrupts automatic
escalation and builds metacognitive control, allows for reappraisal
◦ 'What just happened?' / 'What went through my mind?' / 'What did I feel in my body?'
• Reappraisal Statements: Short cognitive reframes deployed under stress ('This is annoying, not
dangerous.' / 'I can handle this without blowing up.'). Reduce hostile attribution bias and slow appraisal
• Perspective Shifting: 5-second pause to imagine the other person's non-hostile explanation ('What are
three non-malicious reasons they might have done that?'). Directly counters the cognitive neoassociation
pathway
• Values-Based Redirection: ACT-style pivot: 'Who do I want to be in this moment?' Especially effective
for clients who feel shame after anger episodes
Behavioral Strategies
• 90-Second Rule: Intense physiological arousal peaks and begins to fall within ~90 seconds if no fuel is
added. Intervention: 'Do nothing aggressive for 90 seconds.' Pair with paced breathing or grounding
Page 4 of 5
Aggression — Study Guide
• Paced/Box Breathing: Inhale 4s → Hold 2–4s → Exhale 4–6s → Hold 2–4s. Quickly downshifts
sympathetic arousal
• Walk Away: Structured micro-timeout: step away 1–2 minutes, no phones, no rehearsing arguments;
focus on a neutral sensory anchor. Behavioral reset, not avoidance
• Competing Response Training: Teach a behavior physically incompatible with aggression (hands
behind back, sit down, lower voice to 50% volume). Interrupts escalation through motor pathways
8. Quick Reference: Key Terms
Term Definition
Aggression Any intentional behavior designed to harm another person who does not want to be
harmed; external, social, intentional
Violence Subset of aggression; extreme physical harm (injury or death) is the end goal
Physical aggression Direct bodily harm — hitting, kicking, use of weapons
Relational aggression Covert harm to social relationships, reputation, or belonging — gossip, exclusion,
silent treatment
Direct aggression Victim is physically present during the aggressive act
Indirect aggression Victim is not physically present (e.g., property damage, rumors)
Active aggression Aggressor acts harmfully (hitting, yelling)
Passive aggression Aggressor fails to act helpfully ('forgetting' to deliver a message); harder to assign
blame
Reactive aggression Hot, impulsive, anger-driven; motivated by desire to harm in response to provocation
Proactive aggression Cold, calculated, premeditated; harm serves another goal (gain, dominance)
Hostile aggression Harm IS the goal; reckless and impulsive
Instrumental aggression Harm is a tool toward another goal (e.g., sports, financial gain)
Displacement Redirecting aggression from the original source to a safer or more available target
Frustration-Aggression Dollard et al. (1939): frustration always leads to aggression; now considered too rigid
Hypothesis but historically foundational
Cognitive Neoassociation Berkowitz: frustration → negative affect → aggression only if aggressive cues are
Model present; appraisal mediates outcome
General Aggression Model Integrates person + situation inputs through affect, cognition, and arousal routes to
(GAM) appraisal and behavioral outcomes
Hostile Attribution Bias Tendency to interpret ambiguous behavior as intentionally hostile
Alcohol Myopia Alcohol narrows cognitive appraisal, amplifying aggressive cues and reducing
inhibitory processing
Catharsis The (incorrect) idea that venting aggression reduces it; research does not support
this
90-Second Rule Physiological aggression arousal peaks and subsides within ~90 seconds if not
reinforced; basis for pause intervention
Page 5 of 5