ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

INTERVIEW HANDBOOK
Theory, Practical Field Knowledge
and Detailed Solutions

A complete guide for [Link] Electrical Engineering students

preparing for technical interviews in Power Plants, Substations,
Testing & Commissioning, HVAC and Maintenance industries.

First Edition

Electrical Engineering Interview Handbook Page 1

 Preface
This handbook has been written for [Link] Electrical Engineering students and
young engineers who are preparing for technical interviews in industries such as
power generation, transmission and distribution utilities, electrical maintenance
departments, testing and commissioning companies, HVAC industries, manufacturing
plants and substation engineering firms. The language used throughout the book is
deliberately simple so that any reader, regardless of academic background, can
understand and confidently explain the answers in front of an interviewer.
Each topic is explained from the fundamentals, followed by working principle,
construction details, practical industrial applications, testing methods, troubleshooting
techniques and safety precautions. Interview questions are not answered in one or
two lines; instead, every question is supported with detailed reasoning, formulas, real
plant examples and field-tested guidance.

The structure of this book is designed so that a reader can begin from any chapter
based on his or her area of interest. Chapter 15 contains an extensive collection of
frequently asked interview questions across all topics. We strongly recommend that
students first read the theoretical chapters and then practice with the
interview-question chapter to strengthen their preparation.

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 Table of Contents
Ch. Chapter Title Page (approx.)

1 Basic Electrical Engineering 6

2 Transformer 14

3 DC Machines 26

4 Induction Motor 32

5 Synchronous Machine 40

6 Power System 46

7 Protection System 54

8 Circuit Breakers 62

9 Power Electronics 68

10 Motors and Drives 74

11 Industrial Control 78

12 Testing Equipment 84

13 Industrial Troubleshooting 90

14 HVAC Electrical System 96

15 Frequently Asked Interview Questions 100

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 CHAPTER 1

Basic Electrical Engineering

Basic electrical engineering forms the foundation of every advanced topic such as
machines, power systems, protection and drives. Before going to interview, an
engineer must be very clear about the fundamental laws, definitions, single-phase
and three-phase systems, power concepts, earthing and the difference between
many commonly confused terms. This chapter explains each topic in simple language
with industrial examples and interview-ready answers.

1.1 Ohm's Law

Ohm's Law states that the current flowing through a conductor between two points is
directly proportional to the voltage across the two points, provided the physical
conditions such as temperature remain constant. Mathematically it is expressed as V
= I × R, where V is the voltage in volts, I is the current in amperes and R is the
resistance in ohms.

In practical industrial use, Ohm's Law helps an engineer to calculate the voltage drop
in a cable, to select a proper conductor size, to find the rating of a resistor used in
control circuits and to estimate the heating loss in a winding. For example, if a 230 V
supply is feeding a heater of 23 ohm resistance, the current drawn will be 10 A. From
this current, we can choose a suitable cable, fuse and switchgear.

Ohm's Law is not valid for non-linear devices such as semiconductor diodes,
thyristors, gas discharge lamps and electric arcs. In these devices the voltage and
current do not follow a straight line relationship, so we use V-I characteristic curves
instead.

1.2 Kirchhoff's Laws

Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL)
KCL states that the algebraic sum of currents entering a node (junction) is equal to
the algebraic sum of currents leaving that node. In simple words, whatever current
goes into a junction must come out, because electric charge cannot be stored at a
point. This law is the basis of nodal analysis and is widely used while analysing
distribution boards, busbars and parallel branches.

Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL)

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 KVL states that the algebraic sum of voltages around any closed loop in a network is
zero. This is based on the principle of conservation of energy. When we go around a
loop, the sum of EMF sources is equal to the sum of voltage drops across the
resistances. KVL is the basis of mesh analysis and is used in calculating fault
currents, short-circuit MVA, voltage regulation of feeders and loop impedances.

Practical application: While doing earth-loop impedance test of a building, the tester
injects a known current in the phase-to-earth loop and applies KVL to calculate the
loop impedance, from which the expected short-circuit current is found.

1.3 AC and DC
Direct Current (DC) flows in one direction only and has a constant magnitude with
respect to time. Alternating Current (AC) changes its direction and magnitude
periodically. In India, the standard AC supply frequency is 50 Hz, which means the
current changes its direction 100 times every second.

Parameter DC AC

Direction Unidirectional Bidirectional

Frequency Zero 50 Hz / 60 Hz

Transformer use Not possible Possible (main advantage)

Transmission loss High at low voltage Low (high voltage transmission)

Generation Battery, solar PV, rectifier Alternator

Common use Electronics, traction, electroplatingDomestic, industrial supply

AC is preferred for transmission because it can be easily stepped up or stepped down

using a transformer. By increasing the voltage during transmission, the current
becomes small for the same power and therefore the I²R loss in the line becomes
much smaller. DC is preferred where smooth and controllable torque is required, for
example in traction motors, electroplating, battery charging and electronic equipment.

1.4 Active, Reactive and Apparent Power

In an AC circuit, the load may be resistive, inductive or capacitive. Because of this,
the voltage and current may not always be in phase. Therefore three different types
of power are defined:

• Active Power (P): The real power consumed by the load and converted into
useful work such as heat, light or mechanical energy. Unit: Watt (W) or kilowatt
(kW). Formula: P = V × I × cosφ for single phase; P = √3 × VL × IL × cosφ for three
phase.

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 • Reactive Power (Q): The power which oscillates between the source and the
load due to inductance or capacitance. It does not do useful work but is necessary
to create the magnetic field in motors and transformers. Unit: VAR or kVAR.
Formula: Q = V × I × sinφ.
• Apparent Power (S): The vector sum of active and reactive power, which the
supply system must actually deliver. Unit: VA or kVA. Formula: S = V × I (single
phase); S = √(P² + Q²).
The relationship is shown by the power triangle, where the horizontal side is P, the
vertical side is Q and the hypotenuse is S. The angle between P and S is the phase
angle φ, and cosφ is the power factor.

1.5 Power Factor

Power factor (PF) is defined as the cosine of the phase angle between voltage and
current, or equivalently the ratio of active power to apparent power (PF = P / S = kW /
kVA). It indicates how effectively the electrical power is being used.

A unity power factor (PF = 1) means all the supplied power is being converted into
useful work. A low power factor means a large amount of reactive power is being
drawn, which causes higher current, more I²R losses, larger conductor size, voltage
drop in feeders and additional penalty in the electricity bill.

Industries improve power factor by connecting capacitor banks (static or automatic

APFC panels) close to the load. Synchronous condensers and STATCOMs are also
used in large installations. Maintaining PF between 0.95 and 0.99 lagging is the usual
industrial target.

Practical Example
A 100 kW load operating at 0.7 PF draws an apparent power of 142.8 kVA, while the
same 100 kW load at 0.95 PF draws only 105 kVA. The reduction in kVA demand
reduces transformer loading, cable size and the maximum demand charges.

1.6 Single Phase and Three Phase System

A single phase system has one alternating voltage with two wires (phase and
neutral). It is used in homes, lighting and small loads up to about 5 kW.

A three phase system has three alternating voltages of equal magnitude but
displaced by 120° electrical from each other. It uses three or four wires (three phases
and a neutral) and is used for industrial loads, motors above 5 HP and for power
generation, transmission and distribution.

Advantages of three-phase over single-phase

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 • For the same size, a three-phase machine produces 1.5 times more output than
a single-phase machine.
• Three-phase induction motors are self-starting; single-phase motors need a
starting winding.
• Three-phase power transmission requires less copper for the same power.
• Three-phase supply gives constant instantaneous power, while single-phase
supply gives pulsating power.
• Three-phase systems can drive heavy industrial loads efficiently.

1.7 Star and Delta Connection

In a star (Y) connection, one end of each of the three windings is connected together
to form a common point called the neutral. The other ends are the line terminals. In a
delta (∆) connection, the windings are connected in series in a closed loop, and the
junction points are the line terminals.

Quantity Star Connection Delta Connection

Line voltage (VL) √3 × Vph Vph

Line current (IL) Iph √3 × Iph

Neutral Available Not available

Phase shift 120° between phases 120° between phases

Common use Transmission, generator side Distribution, motors

Power P = √3 VL IL cosφ P = √3 VL IL cosφ

In a star–delta starter, the motor is first connected in star to reduce the starting
current to one-third of the direct-on-line value, and after a few seconds it is
reconnected in delta for normal running.

1.8 Line Voltage and Phase Voltage

Phase voltage is the voltage measured between any one phase and the neutral. Line
voltage is the voltage measured between any two phases. In a 415 V industrial
supply (star-connected), the line voltage is 415 V and the phase voltage is 415 / √3 ≈
240 V.

1.9 Frequency and Harmonics

Frequency is the number of complete cycles of an alternating quantity per second,
measured in Hertz (Hz). In India and most Asian countries the standard frequency is
50 Hz; in the USA it is 60 Hz. Frequency depends on the speed and number of poles
of the generator: f = (P × N) / 120.

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 Harmonics are sinusoidal voltages or currents whose frequencies are integer
multiples of the fundamental frequency. The second harmonic is 100 Hz, third is 150
Hz and so on. Harmonics are mainly generated by non-linear loads such as VFDs,
UPS, rectifiers, arc furnaces, fluorescent lamps and computers.

Effects of harmonics
• Overheating of transformers, motors and cables.
• Malfunction of protective relays and metering equipment.
• Neutral conductor overloading due to triplen harmonics (3rd, 9th, 15th).
• Capacitor bank failure due to resonance.
• Increased iron and copper losses, reduced efficiency.
Harmonics are mitigated using passive harmonic filters, active filters, isolation
transformers, 12-pulse or 18-pulse rectifiers and detuned reactors in capacitor banks.
Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) is usually maintained below 5% as per IEEE 519
standard.

1.10 Earthing and Grounding

Earthing means connecting the non-current carrying metallic parts of equipment such
as motor body, transformer tank and panel enclosure to the earth through a low
resistance path. This is also called safety earthing or equipment earthing.

Grounding means connecting a current carrying part of the system, such as the
neutral of a transformer or generator, to the earth. This is also called system
grounding or neutral grounding. Although in many countries the words earthing and
grounding are used interchangeably, technically they are different.

Objectives of earthing
• To protect human life from electric shock.
• To provide a low impedance path for fault current so that the protective device
operates quickly.
• To maintain the equipment body at zero potential.
• To protect equipment and buildings from lightning surges.
• To stabilise the system voltage during faults.

Types of earthing
• Plate earthing – copper or GI plate buried vertically with charcoal and salt.
• Pipe earthing – GI pipe of 38 mm or 50 mm diameter, commonly used in India.
• Strip earthing – used in large substations.
• Rod earthing – copper-bonded rods, used in lightning protection.

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 • Chemical earthing – modern method using mineral compound and electrode for
very low and stable earth resistance.
Acceptable earth resistance values: less than 1 Ω for large power stations and EHV
substations, less than 2 Ω for major substations, less than 5 Ω for industrial plants
and less than 8 Ω for domestic installations as per Indian Electricity Rules.

1.11 Neutral and Earth – Difference

Neutral Earth

Current-carrying conductor Non-current carrying

Return path of unbalanced current Safety path for fault current

Connected to star point of transformer Connected to earth electrode

Insulated cable Bare or green/yellow cable

Should not be broken in service Continuously bonded to all metal parts

1.12 Isolation Transformer

An isolation transformer is a 1:1 ratio transformer used to electrically isolate a load
from the source. It does not change the voltage level but breaks the direct conductive
path. This protects sensitive electronic equipment from voltage spikes, ground loops
and noise, and also protects personnel by preventing a direct path from the supply to
earth. Isolation transformers are widely used in medical equipment, control panels of
large drives, laboratory test benches and computer rooms.

1.13 Surge and Inrush Current

Inrush current is the high initial current drawn by a device such as a transformer,
motor or capacitor bank at the moment of switching ON, due to the magnetisation of
the core or charging of the capacitor. It may be 6 to 10 times the full load current and
lasts for a few cycles. Protective relays must be set to ignore this initial inrush.

Surge current, on the other hand, is a sudden short-duration over-current or

over-voltage caused by external disturbances such as lightning strikes, switching of
large loads or faults. Surge arresters (lightning arresters) are installed to safely divert
these surges to earth and protect the equipment insulation.

1.14 Interview Questions – Chapter 1

Q. Why is the standard frequency 50 Hz in India and 60 Hz in USA?
The choice of frequency is historical and depends on the design of early generators.
A higher frequency reduces the size of transformers and motors but increases iron

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 loss, skin effect and reactance drops in long lines. 50 Hz was found to be a good
compromise for European and Asian systems, while 60 Hz was chosen for North
American systems. Both frequencies have continued because changing the
frequency of an entire grid is practically impossible.

Q. Why is AC preferred over DC for transmission?

AC can be stepped up to very high voltage using a transformer, which reduces the
line current for the same amount of power. Reduced current means reduced I²R
losses and smaller conductor size. After transmission, AC can again be stepped
down for distribution. DC voltage levels cannot be changed easily and DC generation
and switching at high voltage is costly. However, HVDC is used for very long bulk
transmission and undersea cables.

Q. What will happen if DC supply is given to a transformer?

A transformer works on the principle of electromagnetic induction, which requires a
changing flux. DC produces a constant flux, so there is no induced EMF in the
secondary. Also, the primary winding has very low resistance, so a large DC current
will flow, the winding will heat up and finally burn out. Therefore DC must never be
applied to a transformer designed for AC.

Q. What is the difference between earthing and grounding?

Earthing refers to connecting the metallic body of equipment to earth to protect users
from shock. Grounding refers to connecting the neutral point of the system to earth to
give a reference and a return path for fault current. Earthing is for safety; grounding is
for system operation.

Q. Why is the neutral wire not given full insulation like phase?
Because the neutral is connected to earth at the source (star point of transformer), it
is at nearly zero potential under normal conditions. So full insulation is not required
between neutral and earth, but neutral is still insulated from phase conductors to
avoid short circuit.

Q. What is the difference between MCB, MCCB, ELCB and RCCB?

MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker) protects low-current circuits up to 100 A against
overload and short circuit. MCCB (Moulded Case Circuit Breaker) is for higher current
up to 2500 A and has adjustable settings. ELCB (Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker)
senses earth leakage by voltage and trips. RCCB (Residual Current Circuit Breaker)
detects the difference between phase and neutral currents and trips on leakage as
low as 30 mA, giving protection against electric shock.

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 CHAPTER 2

Transformer

A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers electrical energy from one
circuit to another through electromagnetic induction, without any direct electrical
connection and without changing the frequency. It can step the voltage up or down
based on the turns ratio. Transformers are the backbone of the entire power system;
without them efficient transmission and distribution would not be possible.

2.1 Working Principle

The transformer works on the principle of mutual induction between two magnetically
coupled coils. When alternating voltage is applied to the primary winding, an
alternating flux is set up in the core. This alternating flux links with the secondary
winding and induces an EMF in it according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic
induction. If the secondary circuit is closed, current flows and power is delivered to
the load.

2.2 EMF Equation

The EMF induced in a transformer winding is given by:

E = 4.44 × f × N × Φm

Where E = RMS value of induced EMF in volts, f = supply frequency in hertz, N =

number of turns in the winding and Φm = maximum value of flux in the core in
webers. The ratio of primary and secondary EMF is equal to the ratio of their number
of turns, which is the transformation ratio K = N2 / N1 = V2 / V1 = I1 / I2.

2.3 Construction
A transformer consists of two main parts: the magnetic circuit (core) and the electrical
circuit (windings). The core is made of thin laminations of high-grade cold-rolled
grain-oriented (CRGO) silicon steel, insulated from each other to reduce eddy current
loss. The windings are made of high conductivity electrolytic copper, insulated with
enamel, paper or pressboard and immersed in transformer oil (in oil-cooled types).

The major accessories include: main tank, conservator tank, breather with silica gel,
Buchholz relay, oil temperature indicator (OTI), winding temperature indicator (WTI),
pressure relief valve (PRV), radiators, cooling fans, on-load tap changer (OLTC) or

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 off-circuit tap changer (OCTC), bushings (HV and LV), marshalling box and earthing
terminals.

2.4 Core Type and Shell Type

Feature Core Type Shell Type

Winding surrounds Core Winding surrounded by core

Magnetic path Single Double (parallel)

Mean length of flux Long Short

Mean length of copper Short Long

Repair / maintenance Easy Difficult

Output Low / Medium High

Use Distribution, power Special purpose, high current

2.5 Step-Up and Step-Down Transformer

A step-up transformer has more turns on the secondary than on the primary, so the
secondary voltage is higher than the primary. It is used at generating stations to step
up the generated voltage (typically 11 kV) to the transmission voltage (132 kV, 220
kV, 400 kV, 765 kV).

A step-down transformer has fewer secondary turns than primary turns, so it reduces
the voltage. It is used at receiving substations and distribution substations to bring the
voltage down to the utilisation level (11 kV, 433 V, 230 V).

2.6 Auto Transformer

An auto transformer has a single winding which acts as both primary and secondary.
A part of the winding is common to both circuits and the rest is called the series
winding. This results in less copper, lower losses, smaller size and lower cost. The
main disadvantage is the loss of electrical isolation between primary and secondary;
if the common neutral is broken, the full primary voltage can appear on the
secondary. Auto transformers are used as starters for large induction motors, as
voltage regulators and as interconnecting transformers in EHV substations (e.g.,
400/220 kV).

2.7 Isolation Transformer

As discussed in Chapter 1, an isolation transformer has a 1:1 turns ratio and is used
to galvanically isolate the load from the source. In transformers used for medical and
electronic applications, an additional electrostatic shield between primary and

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 secondary windings reduces capacitive coupling and noise.

2.8 Vector Groups

The vector group of a transformer indicates the phase relationship between the
primary and secondary windings and the type of connection (Star, Delta or Zig-zag).
The vector group is expressed by letters and a clock number. Capital letter indicates
HV winding (Y, D or Z) and small letter indicates LV winding (y, d, z). The number
indicates the phase shift of LV with respect to HV in multiples of 30°. For example,
Dyn11 means HV is delta connected, LV is star with neutral brought out and LV lags
HV by 330° (or leads by 30°).
Common vector groups in industry: Dyn11 (distribution), YNd1 (generator step-up),
YNyn0 (auto transformer), Dd0, Yy0. Two transformers can be paralleled only if they
have the same vector group and same percentage impedance, same voltage ratio
and same phase sequence.

2.9 Cooling Methods

As the transformer is loaded, copper losses and iron losses heat up the windings and
the core. To remove this heat various cooling methods are used. The standard IEC
notation uses four letters: first two describe the internal cooling and external cooling,
last two describe the medium and movement.

Code Description Typical Use

AN Air Natural (dry type) Indoor, small ratings

AF Air Forced (dry type with fans) Medium ratings, indoor

ONAN Oil Natural, Air Natural Distribution transformers

ONAF Oil Natural, Air Forced (fans) Medium power transformers

OFAF Oil Forced, Air Forced (pumps + fans) Large power transformers

ODAF Oil Directed, Air Forced Very large power transformers

OFWF Oil Forced, Water Forced Generating stations near water

2.10 Efficiency and Voltage Regulation

Efficiency η = (Output Power / Input Power) × 100. Efficiency is maximum when
copper losses are equal to iron losses. Distribution transformers are designed for
maximum efficiency at about 50% load, because they are energised 24 hours but
loaded for limited time. Power transformers are designed for maximum efficiency
near full load because they are loaded continuously.

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 Voltage regulation is the change in secondary voltage from no-load to full-load
expressed as a percentage of the rated secondary voltage. Lower the regulation,
better the transformer. Typical value is 2–5% for distribution transformers.

2.11 Parallel Operation

Two transformers are paralleled to share load, to keep the supply continuous during
maintenance or to increase capacity. Conditions for satisfactory parallel operation:
same voltage ratio, same vector group, same percentage impedance, same phase
sequence and same polarity. If percentage impedance differs, the load will not be
shared in proportion to ratings and one transformer may get overloaded.

2.12 Interview Questions – Transformer

Q. Why is transformer rating in kVA and not kW?
The losses in a transformer are of two types: copper losses (depend on current) and
iron losses (depend on voltage). Neither of these losses depend on the power factor
of the load. Since the manufacturer does not know what type of load (PF) will be
connected, the transformer is rated in kVA which is independent of power factor.

Q. Why is one side of the transformer grounded?

Grounding the neutral of the transformer provides a reference point and a return path
for fault current during earth faults. This allows protective relays such as earth fault
and REF relays to operate quickly. It also prevents the voltage of the healthy phases
from rising to dangerous levels during single-line-to-earth faults and prevents the
build-up of static charges.

Q. Why is transformer oil used? What are its functions?

Transformer oil is a mineral oil derived from petroleum. It performs three main
functions: (1) Insulation – it has high dielectric strength and insulates the windings
from the core and tank. (2) Cooling – it absorbs heat from the windings and core,
circulates by convection through radiators and dissipates heat to the atmosphere. (3)
Arc quenching – in tap changers and bushings it helps to extinguish small arcs. Its
BDV should be more than 60 kV for new oil and more than 50 kV for in-service oil,
tested as per IS 6792.

Q. Why are transformer windings made of copper and not aluminium?

Copper has higher electrical conductivity than aluminium, so for the same current
rating the copper winding is smaller in cross-section and the transformer becomes
more compact. Copper also has greater mechanical strength to withstand
short-circuit forces, better solderability and longer service life. Aluminium is
sometimes used in small distribution transformers to reduce cost, but the size

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 becomes larger.

Q. What is the function of the conservator tank?

The conservator is a small auxiliary tank mounted above the main tank. It provides
space for the expansion and contraction of transformer oil with changes in load and
ambient temperature. It also keeps the main tank completely filled with oil so that
oxidation and moisture absorption are minimised. A rubber bladder is provided inside
modern conservators to prevent direct contact of oil with atmospheric air.

Q. What is a breather and what is the role of silica gel?

A breather is a device fitted at the top of the conservator that allows the transformer
to breathe in and out as the oil expands and contracts. The air drawn in passes
through silica gel crystals which absorb the moisture before it can reach the oil. Fresh
silica gel is blue in colour; once it absorbs moisture it turns pink and must be replaced
or reactivated by heating.
Q. What is the function of a Buchholz relay?
Buchholz relay is a gas-actuated protective device installed in the pipe between the
conservator and the main tank of an oil-immersed transformer rated above 500 kVA.
It has two floats. Slow accumulation of gases due to minor internal faults like
inter-turn short circuits or local heating actuates the upper float and gives an alarm. A
heavy fault inside the transformer creates a surge of oil that tilts the lower float and
trips the transformer. The relay is one of the most important internal protections of an
oil transformer.

Q. Why is the secondary of a CT never kept open?

When the CT is in service, the primary ampere-turns are balanced by the secondary
ampere-turns. If the secondary is opened, the demagnetising effect is lost and the
entire primary current acts as the magnetising current. This drives the core into deep
saturation, producing very high peak voltages at the secondary terminals (sometimes
thousands of volts), which can damage the CT insulation and is dangerous to
personnel.

2.13 Field Tests on Transformer

Insulation Resistance (IR) Test
Purpose: To check the healthiness of insulation between HV–LV, HV–Earth and
LV–Earth. It detects moisture ingress, dirt and aging of insulation. Equipment: 5 kV or
2.5 kV motorised insulation tester (Megger). Procedure: Isolate the transformer, short
all HV terminals, short all LV terminals, discharge the windings. Apply 5 kV between
HV and LV+Earth and measure IR at 15 s, 60 s and 600 s. Calculate PI = IR(10
min)/IR(1 min). Acceptable values: IR > 1000 MΩ at 30 °C, PI > 1.5 (good), 1.0–1.5

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 (questionable), <1.0 (poor). Safety: Always discharge windings before and after the
test using an earthing rod.

Winding Resistance Test

Purpose: To detect loose connections, broken strands, faulty tap changer contacts
and inter-turn shorts. Equipment: Micro-ohm meter or CRM kit using DC current of
1–10 A. Procedure: Inject DC current and measure voltage drop on each winding at
every tap position. Compare with factory test report after applying temperature
correction. Acceptable variation between phases: less than 2% for a healthy
transformer. Safety: After test, discharge the winding through the meter for sufficient
time as windings store magnetic energy.

Transformer Turns Ratio (TTR) Test

Purpose: To verify the turns ratio against the nameplate and check for inter-turn faults
or wrong tap position. Equipment: TTR kit. Procedure: Apply low AC voltage to HV
winding and measure induced voltage in LV winding at each tap. Calculate ratio and
compare with nameplate. Acceptable deviation: ±0.5%. Phase displacement should
also match the vector group.

Tan Delta (Dielectric Dissipation Factor) Test

Purpose: To assess the quality of insulation of windings and bushings. A rising tan
delta with voltage indicates contamination, moisture or aging. Equipment: Tan delta
kit (10–12 kV). Procedure: Apply test voltage from 2 kV to 10 kV in steps and
measure tan δ and capacitance. Acceptable value: less than 0.5% for new windings,
less than 1% for in-service. Safety: Earth all unused terminals and provide warning
barriers.

Sweep Frequency Response Analysis (SFRA)

Purpose: To detect mechanical deformation of windings, core movement and winding
displacement which can happen after a heavy short circuit or during transportation.
Procedure: Apply a low voltage sinusoidal signal of varying frequency (20 Hz to 2
MHz) and measure the response. The response is compared with the previous
fingerprint of the same transformer or with a sister unit. Any deviation indicates an
internal mechanical change.

Magnetic Balance Test

Purpose: Performed on three-phase star-connected transformers to check the
magnetic circuit. Procedure: Apply single-phase AC voltage to one HV phase and
neutral, measure voltage induced in the other two phases. The sum of the two
induced voltages should equal the applied voltage. Imbalance indicates inter-turn
faults or core problems.

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 Oil BDV (Breakdown Voltage) Test
Purpose: To check the dielectric strength of transformer oil. Equipment: BDV kit with
a standard oil cup having two spherical electrodes 2.5 mm apart. Procedure: Fill the
cup with oil sample taken from the bottom of the transformer, allow it to settle for a
few minutes, apply rising AC voltage at 2 kV/s until breakdown occurs. Take six
readings, neglect first reading and average the remaining five. Acceptable values:
above 60 kV for new oil, above 50 kV for service oil. If less, the oil needs filtration or
replacement.

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 CHAPTER 3

DC Machines

A DC machine converts electrical energy into mechanical energy (DC motor) or

mechanical energy into electrical energy (DC generator). The basic construction of
both is the same. With the advent of power electronics, DC machines are being
gradually replaced by induction motors with VFDs, but they are still widely used in
traction, rolling mills, cranes, hoists, paper mills and battery-operated systems where
smooth and wide range of speed control is required.

3.1 Construction
The main parts of a DC machine are:

• Yoke or Frame – outer cylindrical body made of cast iron or rolled steel that
provides mechanical support and forms part of the magnetic circuit.
• Poles and Field Winding – salient projections from the yoke carrying the field
coils which produce the main magnetic flux when DC excitation is applied.
• Armature Core – cylindrical laminated steel structure mounted on the shaft, with
slots on the outer periphery to house the armature winding. Laminations reduce
eddy current loss.
• Armature Winding – copper conductors placed in the armature slots, connected
to the commutator segments. It carries the load current.
• Commutator – cylindrical structure made of hard-drawn copper segments
insulated from each other by mica. It acts as a mechanical rectifier in a generator
and as a mechanical inverter in a motor.
• Brushes and Brush Holders – made of carbon or graphite, the brushes slide over
the commutator and provide electrical contact between the rotating armature and
the stationary external circuit.
• Shaft, Bearings, End Shields and Cooling Fan.

3.2 Back EMF

When a DC motor rotates, the armature conductors cut the magnetic flux of the field
poles and an EMF is induced in them. According to Lenz's law, this induced EMF
opposes the applied voltage and is therefore called back EMF (Eb). Mathematically
Eb = (P × Φ × Z × N) / (60 × A), where P = number of poles, Φ = flux per pole, Z =

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 total armature conductors, N = speed in rpm and A = number of parallel paths.

Back EMF makes the DC motor a self-regulating machine. When the load increases,
the motor slows down slightly, Eb decreases, the difference (V−Eb) becomes larger,
more current is drawn from the supply and more torque is produced to drive the
higher load. The armature current is given by Ia = (V − Eb)/Ra.

3.3 Types of DC Motors

Type Field connection Speed–Load Characteristic Application

Shunt motor Parallel with armature Almost constant speed Lathe, fan, blower, pump

Series motor In series with armature Very high starting torque, varying
Crane,
speed
hoist, traction, electric train

Compound (Cumulative)Both shunt and series Good starting torque, fairly constant
Rollingspeed
mill, shear, lift

Compound (Differential)Opposing series field Speed rises with load (rarely used)
Special applications

3.4 Armature Reaction

Armature reaction is the effect of the magnetic flux set up by the armature current on
the main field flux. It has two effects: (1) it distorts the main field — the flux is
weakened at one tip of the pole and strengthened at the other; and (2) it has a
demagnetising effect that reduces the main flux. Armature reaction shifts the
magnetic neutral axis (MNA) in the direction of rotation in a generator and against the
direction of rotation in a motor. To minimise its effect, interpoles (commutating poles)
and compensating windings are used in large DC machines.

3.5 Speed Control Methods

Shunt motor speed control
• Field control (flux control) – By inserting a rheostat in the field circuit, the field
current and hence the flux is reduced, which increases the speed above rated
value.
• Armature voltage control – By varying the voltage applied to the armature using
a Ward–Leonard set or a thyristor-based controlled rectifier, speed below rated
value is obtained. This is the smoothest and most widely used method.
• Armature resistance control – Insert a series resistor in the armature circuit.
Simple but wasteful due to I²R loss.

Series motor speed control

• Field diverter – A resistor in parallel with the field to weaken the flux and
increase the speed.

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 • Armature diverter – Resistor parallel to the armature to reduce speed.
• Tapped field control – Different speeds by changing field turns.
• Series–parallel control – Used in traction; two motors connected in series for low
speed and in parallel for high speed.

3.6 Starters for DC Motors

At the time of starting, the back EMF is zero, so the armature current Ia = V/Ra is very
high (15–20 times full load current). This high current can damage the winding,
commutator and supply system. Therefore, a starter with external resistance is used
to limit the starting current to about 1.5 to 2 times the full load current. As the motor
picks up speed, back EMF develops and the starting resistance is gradually cut out.
Common starters: 3-point starter (with NVC and OLR; field is in parallel with NVC),
4-point starter (where NVC has its own circuit so that field weakening does not
de-energise NVC), and electronic soft starters using thyristors for modern
installations.

3.7 Interview Questions – DC Machines

Q. Why is a starter required for a DC motor?
At the moment of starting, the motor is at rest and back EMF Eb is zero. The
armature current Ia = V/Ra becomes very large because Ra is small (a fraction of an
ohm). This heavy inrush damages the winding insulation, sparks at the commutator
and causes a heavy voltage dip in the supply system. A starter introduces external
resistance in series with the armature during starting and cuts it out gradually as the
motor accelerates and the back EMF builds up.

Q. Why does a DC series motor not start on no load?

In a DC series motor the field winding is in series with the armature, so the field flux is
proportional to armature current. On no load the current is very small, flux is very
small, and since speed N ∝ 1/Φ, the speed becomes dangerously high, which can
mechanically damage the motor. Therefore series motors should always be started
with a load coupled.

Q. Why is the back EMF important in a DC motor?

Back EMF controls the armature current automatically based on the mechanical load.
Without back EMF, the DC motor would either burn out under no load or stall under
heavy load. Back EMF makes the DC motor a self-regulating machine.

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 CHAPTER 4

Induction Motor

The three-phase induction motor is the workhorse of industry. About 80–90% of all
industrial motors are induction motors because of their simple construction,
ruggedness, high efficiency, low cost and the fact that they require almost no
maintenance. They are used in pumps, fans, compressors, conveyors, machine tools,
cranes and many more applications.

4.1 Working Principle

When a three-phase supply is given to the stator winding, a rotating magnetic field is
produced in the air gap. This rotating field cuts the rotor conductors, induces an EMF
in them, and since the rotor circuit is closed, a current flows. The current-carrying
rotor conductors in the magnetic field experience a mechanical force, which produces
torque and the rotor rotates in the direction of the rotating field. The motor is called
'induction motor' because the rotor receives power by electromagnetic induction,
similar to a transformer secondary.

4.2 Slip and Rotor Frequency

The rotor never reaches the synchronous speed Ns = 120f/P, because if it did, the
relative motion between the rotating field and the rotor conductors would become
zero, no EMF would be induced and no torque would be produced. The difference
between synchronous speed and actual rotor speed, expressed as a fraction of
synchronous speed, is called slip.

Slip s = (Ns − N)/Ns × 100%. At full load, slip is typically 2–5%. Rotor frequency fr = s
× f. At standstill (s = 1), rotor frequency equals supply frequency; at synchronous
speed (s = 0), rotor frequency is zero.

4.3 Starting Torque

Starting torque is the torque developed by the motor at the moment of starting (slip =
1). It depends on the rotor resistance and the applied voltage. For a squirrel cage
motor the starting torque is 1.5 to 2.5 times the full load torque. For slip ring motors,
starting torque can be increased by inserting external resistance in the rotor circuit.

4.4 Squirrel Cage and Slip Ring Motors

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 Parameter Squirrel Cage Slip Ring (Wound Rotor)

Rotor construction Copper/aluminium bars short-circuited byThree-phase

end rings winding brought out through slip rings

External resistance Cannot be added Can be added in rotor circuit

Starting torque Low to medium High (with rotor resistance)

Starting current High Controlled

Maintenance Almost nil Brushes and slip rings need maintenance

Cost Low Higher

Application Pumps, fans, compressors Cranes, hoists, crushers, mills

4.5 Starting Methods

Direct-On-Line (DOL) Starter
The motor is directly connected to the full supply voltage. Starting current is 6–8 times
full load current. Used for motors up to about 5 HP (some utilities allow up to 7.5 HP).
Simple, cheap and gives full starting torque.

Star-Delta Starter
The motor is started in star connection, where the phase voltage is reduced to 1/√3 of
line voltage. Therefore starting current and starting torque are reduced to 1/3 of DOL
value. After the motor accelerates to about 80% of rated speed, a timer switches the
connection to delta. Used for motors from 5 HP to about 50 HP. Limitation: starting
torque also reduces to 1/3, so it is not suitable for high inertia or full-load starting.

Auto Transformer Starter

An auto transformer with tappings (e.g., 40%, 60%, 80%) is used to apply reduced
voltage at start, and then the motor is switched to full voltage. Smooth control and
selectable starting torque. Used for medium to large motors where star-delta is not
adequate.

Soft Starter
Uses anti-parallel thyristors in each phase to gradually increase the voltage applied to
the motor from a low value to full voltage over a few seconds. Provides smooth
acceleration without mechanical shock, reduces inrush and extends motor life. After
the motor reaches full speed, a bypass contactor is closed to remove the thyristors
from the circuit.

Variable Frequency Drive (VFD)

A VFD first rectifies the AC supply to DC and then inverts the DC back to AC with
variable frequency and variable voltage (V/f control). By varying the frequency, the
motor speed can be controlled smoothly from zero to above rated speed. VFDs also

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 provide soft start, soft stop, energy saving, four-quadrant operation, dynamic braking
and many protection features. They are now the standard choice for pumps, fans,
compressors and process industries.

4.6 Interview Questions – Induction Motor

Q. Why is an induction motor called a rotating transformer?
Because the stator behaves like the primary of a transformer (connected to the
supply) and the rotor behaves like a short-circuited secondary. The magnetic flux
produced by the stator induces an EMF and a current in the rotor, exactly as in a
transformer secondary. The only difference is that the rotor is free to rotate, so the
energy is converted into mechanical form.

Q. Why is a single-phase induction motor not self-starting?

A single-phase winding produces an alternating (pulsating) magnetic field, not a
rotating field. According to double field revolving theory, this pulsating field can be
resolved into two equal and opposite rotating fields. At standstill, both fields produce
equal and opposite torque, so the net torque is zero and the motor does not start. To
start the motor, an auxiliary winding (starting winding) with a capacitor or resistance is
used to create a phase split and a rotating field.

Q. Why are rotor bars of a squirrel cage motor skewed?

Skewing means the rotor bars are inclined slightly with respect to the shaft axis
instead of being placed straight. Skewing offers several advantages: (1) it reduces
magnetic locking or cogging between stator and rotor teeth; (2) it reduces magnetic
noise during operation; (3) it ensures smooth acceleration; (4) it slightly increases the
effective rotor resistance and improves the starting torque; and (5) it reduces
harmonic torques and vibration.

Q. Why is a starter required for an induction motor?

At the moment of starting, the slip is unity, so the rotor circuit looks like a
short-circuited transformer secondary. The starting current can be 6–8 times the full
load current, which causes heavy voltage dip in the supply system, overheating of
windings and mechanical stress on the coupling. A starter limits this inrush current to
a safe value.

Q. What happens if the supply frequency is increased for an induction motor?

Synchronous speed Ns = 120f/P will increase. If the V/f ratio is kept constant (as in a
VFD), the flux remains the same and the motor runs faster with the same torque
capability. If the voltage is not increased proportionally, the flux reduces, the motor
produces less torque, draws more current and may overheat.

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 4.7 Practical Troubleshooting
Motor overheating
Possible causes: overload, single phasing, low voltage, high ambient temperature,
blocked ventilation, worn bearing, harmonics from VFD or frequent starts. Action:
check load current with clamp meter on all three phases, check voltage balance
(should be within 1%), inspect cooling fan and fins, measure bearing temperature
with infrared thermometer, check the thermal overload setting and motor nameplate
current.

Bearing failure
Causes: lack of lubrication, over-lubrication, misalignment, shaft current due to VFD,
contamination by dust or water, vibration. Symptoms: noisy operation, high
temperature, abnormal vibration spectrum. Solution: replace the bearing, use
insulated bearing for VFD-fed motors, install shaft grounding ring, follow proper
greasing schedule.

Insulation failure
Causes: moisture ingress, dust contamination, ageing, overvoltage spikes from VFD,
frequent overload. Symptoms: low IR value, motor body becoming live, earth fault
tripping. Action: dry out the motor with low DC voltage, varnish dipping, megger test,
polarisation index check, complete rewinding if value remains poor.

Vibration
Causes: misalignment with driven equipment, unbalance of the rotor, loose
foundation, bent shaft, faulty bearing or worn coupling, electrical unbalance. Use a
vibration analyser to study the frequency spectrum. Vibration at 1× rpm indicates
unbalance, 2× rpm indicates misalignment, and high frequency vibration indicates
bearing damage.

Single phasing
When one of the three phases is lost while the motor is running, the motor continues
to run on two phases but the current in the remaining two phases increases by about
1.73 times, leading to overheating and burning of winding. A single-phase preventer
relay or modern motor protection relay trips the motor on detection of phase loss or
phase unbalance.

Rotor locking / motor stalling

If the load is too high or jammed, the motor cannot rotate and draws starting (locked
rotor) current continuously, leading to rapid temperature rise. The overload relay or
motor protection relay should trip the motor within a few seconds.

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 CHAPTER 5

Synchronous Machine

A synchronous machine is an AC machine in which the rotor rotates at exactly the

synchronous speed determined by the supply frequency and the number of poles.
Synchronous generators (alternators) are the source of almost all electrical power in
the world, used in thermal, hydro, nuclear and gas turbine power plants. Synchronous
motors are used in large industries for constant speed drive and for improving the
system power factor.

5.1 Working Principle

A synchronous machine has a stator carrying the three-phase armature winding and
a rotor carrying the field winding which is excited by DC. When the rotor is rotated by
a prime mover, the field flux cuts the stator conductors and induces a three-phase
EMF. The frequency of this EMF is f = (P × N)/120. When connected to the grid, the
rotor and stator fields remain locked in step and rotate together at synchronous
speed.

5.2 Construction
The stator is similar to that of an induction motor — a laminated core with a
three-phase distributed winding. The rotor is of two types:

• Salient pole rotor – has projecting poles, used in slow speed machines such as
hydro generators (75–500 rpm) where many poles are required.
• Cylindrical rotor (non-salient) – smooth cylindrical rotor with the field winding
embedded in slots, used in high-speed machines such as turbo generators
(1500/3000 rpm) driven by steam or gas turbines.

5.3 Excitation System

DC excitation is supplied to the rotor field winding through slip rings and brushes (in
conventional machines) or through a brushless exciter (in modern machines). A
brushless exciter consists of a small AC generator with its armature on the same
shaft as the main rotor, and a rotating rectifier (diode wheel) that converts the AC into
DC. By controlling the field current using an Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR), the
generated voltage and the reactive power output are controlled.

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 5.4 Synchronisation
Before connecting an incoming alternator to the grid, the following four conditions
must be satisfied:

• Voltage of incoming machine equal to bus voltage.

• Frequency of incoming machine equal to bus frequency (slightly higher).
• Phase sequence same as the bus phase sequence.
• Phase angle nearly the same (zero phase difference at the moment of closing
the breaker).
Synchronisation is checked using a synchroscope (which indicates the phase and
frequency difference), three lamps (dark or bright method) and a synchronising check
relay (25). Modern machines use automatic synchronisers.

5.5 Hunting
Hunting is the oscillation of the rotor about its mean position when there is a sudden
change in load. It is caused by the inertia of the rotor and the lack of damping. If
unchecked, it can lead to loss of synchronism. Hunting is reduced by providing
damper (amortisseur) windings on the rotor pole faces, which act like a squirrel cage
and produce damping torque whenever there is relative motion.

5.6 V Curve and Power Angle

The graph between armature current Ia and field current If for a synchronous motor at
constant load is called the V curve, because it has the shape of letter V. At the
minimum point, the motor operates at unity power factor. To the left of the minimum
(under-excited) the motor draws lagging current; to the right (over-excited) it draws
leading current. By controlling the excitation, the same synchronous motor can be
used as a synchronous condenser to supply reactive power and improve plant power
factor.

Power developed by a cylindrical rotor synchronous machine is given by P = (E × V /

Xs) × sin δ, where E is the EMF behind synchronous reactance Xs, V is the terminal
voltage and δ is the power angle (the angle between E and V). Maximum power is
developed at δ = 90°. Operating the machine close to 90° is unsafe because of the
risk of loss of synchronism.

5.7 Interview Questions – Synchronous Machine

Q. Why is a synchronous motor not self-starting?

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 When a three-phase supply is given to the stator, a magnetic field rotates at
synchronous speed instantly. The rotor, due to inertia, is at rest. The stator field
passes the rotor poles so quickly that the rotor cannot follow it, and the average
torque produced over one cycle is zero. Therefore a synchronous motor cannot start
by itself. It is started using the damper winding as a squirrel cage induction motor up
to near synchronous speed, and then the DC excitation is applied to pull the rotor into
step.

Q. What is the use of a synchronous condenser?

A synchronous condenser is an over-excited synchronous motor running on no load.
It draws leading current from the supply and supplies reactive power (kVAR) to the
system, thereby improving the power factor and regulating voltage. It is used in EHV
substations and large industries where static capacitor banks are insufficient.

Electrical Engineering Interview Handbook Page 27

 CHAPTER 6

Power System

The power system is a network of generating stations, transmission lines, substations

and distribution systems that delivers electrical energy from the source to the
consumer. A reliable power system must supply power continuously at the rated
voltage and frequency, with high efficiency and minimum cost.

6.1 Generation
Electrical energy is generated in large power stations using different primary sources:
thermal (coal, gas, oil), hydro, nuclear, solar, wind, biomass and diesel. The standard
generation voltage is 11 kV, 13.8 kV or 15.75 kV, and frequency is 50 Hz (India) or 60
Hz (USA). The generator is a three-phase synchronous alternator coupled to a
steam, gas, water or wind turbine.

6.2 Transmission
Generated voltage is stepped up by a generator transformer to a high transmission
voltage (132 kV, 220 kV, 400 kV, 765 kV, ±800 kV HVDC) to transmit bulk power over
long distances with minimum I²R loss. The transmission system is interconnected to
form a grid which improves reliability, allows sharing of reserves and reduces the total
installed capacity needed.

Standard transmission voltages in India: 765 kV, 400 kV, 220 kV, 132 kV.
Sub-transmission: 66 kV, 33 kV. Primary distribution: 11 kV. Secondary distribution:
433 V three-phase / 230 V single-phase.

6.3 Distribution
Distribution system carries power from the substation to the consumer. It consists of
HT (11 kV) and LT (433/230 V) lines, distribution transformers, feeder pillars, service
mains and meters. Distribution can be radial, ring main or interconnected, depending
on reliability requirements.

6.4 Grid System

A grid is the interconnection of generating stations and substations through
transmission lines. The Indian grid is one of the largest synchronous grids in the

Electrical Engineering Interview Handbook Page 28

 world. Advantages of grid interconnection: sharing of reserves, reduced spinning
reserve, mutual support during outage, economic load dispatch, and integration of
renewable energy.

6.5 Busbar and Bus Coupler

A busbar is a metallic bar (copper or aluminium) used to connect several incoming
and outgoing circuits at the same voltage in a substation. Common busbar schemes:
single bus, single bus with sectionaliser, double bus single breaker, double bus
double breaker, main and transfer bus, breaker-and-half scheme and ring bus. Each
scheme has different reliability and cost.

A bus coupler is a circuit breaker connected between two busbars or two sections of
the same busbar. It allows transferring of load from one bus to another without
interruption, paralleling of two sources and isolation of a faulty bus for maintenance.

6.6 Single Line Diagram (SLD)

A single line diagram is a simplified representation of a three-phase power system
using single lines and standard symbols. It shows all major equipment such as
generators, transformers, breakers, isolators, CTs, PTs, busbars, feeders and loads.
SLD is used for design, operation, protection coordination, fault analysis and training.

6.7 HT Panel, LT Panel and Switchyard

HT panel handles voltages above 1 kV (typically 11 kV or 33 kV). It contains VCB,
CT, PT, protection relays, metering and busbars. LT panel handles voltages up to 1
kV (typically 415 V), and contains ACB, MCCB, MCB, capacitor bank, distribution
feeders and metering. A switchyard is the outdoor area of a substation containing
transformers, circuit breakers, isolators, CTs, PTs, lightning arresters, busbars and
structures.

6.8 Substation Equipment

Current Transformer (CT)
A CT is an instrument transformer that steps down high current of the primary to a
standard secondary value (1 A or 5 A) for measurement and protection. The primary
is a single conductor (or bar) and the secondary has many turns. Two types:
measurement CT (designed to saturate above rated current to protect meters) and
protection CT (designed to remain accurate up to 20 times rated current). CT
secondary must never be left open.

Potential Transformer (PT) and CVT

Electrical Engineering Interview Handbook Page 29

 PT (or VT) is an instrument transformer that steps down high voltage to a standard
secondary voltage of 110 V or 63.5 V for metering and protection. PT secondary is
connected to high impedance circuits like relay coils and voltmeters. CVT (Capacitive
Voltage Transformer) is used for EHV systems (132 kV and above) where
conventional PT becomes uneconomical. It uses a capacitor divider and a small
auxiliary transformer.

Isolator
An isolator is a manually operated off-load disconnecting switch used to isolate a
section of the system for maintenance. It must NEVER be opened or closed under
load. Interlocks prevent operation when the breaker is closed. Earthing switches are
mechanically coupled with isolators to earth the isolated portion safely before any
maintenance work.

Circuit Breaker
A circuit breaker is an automatic switch that closes or opens the circuit under normal
conditions and also automatically interrupts the circuit during faults. It must be
capable of safely interrupting the largest expected short-circuit current. Various types
are based on the medium used for arc quenching: oil (OCB), air blast (ABCB),
vacuum (VCB), and SF6.

VCB, SF6, ACB, MCCB, MCB and RMU

Device Voltage Medium Application

MCB Up to 415 V Air Domestic and small commercial circuits

MCCB Up to 690 V Air Industrial LT distribution up to 2500 A

ACB Up to 1000 V Air LT main incomer of large panels

VCB 3.3 kV – 36 kV Vacuum HT switchgear, indoor substations

SF6 CB 11 kV – 800 kV SF6 gas EHV outdoor substations

RMU 11 kV / 22 kV / 33 kV SF6 or oil Compact distribution unit

Electrical Engineering Interview Handbook Page 30

 CHAPTER 7

Protection System

The protection system in a power network is designed to detect abnormal conditions

such as short circuits, earth faults, overloads, overvoltage, under-frequency and
equipment failures, and to isolate the faulty part as quickly as possible. A good
protection scheme must be selective, sensitive, fast, reliable, stable and economical.

7.1 Overcurrent Relay (50/51)

Overcurrent relay senses the current in the protected circuit through a CT and
operates when the current exceeds a preset value. Function 50 is instantaneous (no
time delay), used for high magnitude faults near the source. Function 51 is
time-delayed inverse, definite or very-inverse type that allows coordination with
downstream relays. Settings include pickup current (PSM) and time multiplier setting
(TMS).

7.2 Earth Fault Relay (50N/51N)

Earth fault relay senses the residual current flowing in the neutral or in the residual
circuit of three CTs (sum of three line currents). Under normal balanced conditions,
this current is zero; under an earth fault, the imbalance current operates the relay.
Used to isolate faults between any phase conductor and earth.

7.3 Differential Relay (87)

Differential relay compares the current entering and leaving the protected zone
(transformer, generator, motor or busbar). Under healthy conditions, the two currents
are equal and the differential current is zero. Under an internal fault, the differential
current becomes large and the relay operates. Bias (restraint) is used to make the
relay stable against CT saturation, magnetising inrush and tap changer operation.
Differential protection is one of the fastest and most selective protections.

7.4 Distance Relay (21)

Distance relay measures the impedance between the relay location and the fault.
Since impedance is proportional to the distance of the fault, the relay operates if the
impedance falls below a preset value. Distance protection is the main protection of
transmission lines (above 66 kV). Three or more zones are used: Zone 1

Electrical Engineering Interview Handbook Page 31

 (instantaneous, 80% of line), Zone 2 (time delayed, up to 120%) and Zone 3
(back-up, longer reach).

7.5 Restricted Earth Fault (REF) Relay (64R)

REF relay provides high-speed protection for earth faults within a transformer
winding. It compares the current in the neutral CT with the residual current of the
three line CTs. Under a fault outside the transformer, both currents balance and the
relay remains stable. Under an internal earth fault, the balance is disturbed and the
relay operates. REF is much faster and more sensitive than ordinary earth fault
protection.

7.6 Buchholz, Thermal, Under/Over Voltage Relays

Buchholz relay is discussed in Chapter 2. Thermal relay measures the temperature of
the winding using bimetallic strip, RTD or thermistor and trips on overheating. Under
voltage (27) and over voltage (59) relays trip the system on abnormal voltage to
protect motors and other equipment.

7.7 Surge Arrester (Lightning Arrester)

Surge arrester is a protective device connected between the line and the earth, in
parallel with the equipment. It has very high resistance under normal voltage and very
low resistance under surge voltage, so any lightning or switching surge is safely
diverted to earth without affecting the equipment insulation. Modern arresters are
made of zinc oxide (ZnO) blocks and are called metal oxide arresters. The leakage
current and surge counter readings are monitored during routine maintenance.

7.8 Fuse and RC Snubber Circuit

A fuse is the simplest protective device that melts and breaks the circuit when the
current exceeds a preset value for a defined time. It is used for small motors, control
circuits and as back-up protection. HRC (High Rupturing Capacity) fuses can
interrupt very high fault currents and are filled with quartz sand for arc quenching.

RC Snubber circuit is a series combination of a resistor and a capacitor connected

across switching devices such as thyristors, IGBTs, contactor coils and motor
terminals. It absorbs the high dv/dt voltage spikes that appear during switching and
protects the device from damage.

7.9 Practical Interview Questions on Protection

Q. Why are S2 terminals of CT secondaries earthed?

Electrical Engineering Interview Handbook Page 32

 S2 (the star point or one side of the secondary) of every CT is earthed at only one
point to provide a reference and to drain away static and induced voltages. Earthing
at more than one point creates parallel paths and circulating currents, which can
cause maloperation of relays and damage to insulation.

Q. Why should a CT secondary never be open?

When the primary current flows, secondary ampere-turns balance the primary
ampere-turns. If secondary is open, this balancing effect is lost, the core saturates
and a very high voltage (sometimes 5–10 kV) appears at the secondary terminals,
which can puncture the insulation and is fatal to personnel. Always short the CT
secondary using shorting links before any work in the secondary circuit.

Q. Difference between CT and CBCT.

CT (Core Balance type also exists, but here we mean conventional CT) is installed on
one phase conductor. CBCT (Core Balanced Current Transformer) is a single ring CT
through which all three phase conductors and the neutral conductor are passed.
Under healthy condition the sum of three phase currents is zero, and no current flows
in the CBCT secondary. Under earth fault, the imbalance produces a residual current.
CBCT is very sensitive to low value earth faults and is widely used in cable feeders
and motor protection.

Q. Why is relay coordination important?

Relay coordination ensures that during a fault, only the relay closest to the fault
operates and isolates the minimum portion of the system. The upstream relays act as
backup but operate with a time delay. Proper coordination is achieved by selecting
suitable pickup and time settings for all relays in series. Without coordination, an
upstream breaker may trip first, leading to a wider outage.

Electrical Engineering Interview Handbook Page 33

 CHAPTER 8

Circuit Breakers

A circuit breaker is the heart of any switchgear. It must close on a fault and break a
fault current within a very short time. Breakers are classified based on the arc
quenching medium.

8.1 Vacuum Circuit Breaker (VCB)

VCB uses high vacuum (10■■ Torr) as the arc quenching medium. The contacts are
housed inside a sealed vacuum bottle (interrupter). When the contacts separate, an
arc is drawn, but in vacuum there are no gas molecules to support ionisation, so the
arc extinguishes at the next current zero. VCB is widely used in 3.3 kV to 36 kV
indoor switchgear. Advantages: maintenance-free, long contact life, environment
friendly, suitable for frequent operation.

8.2 SF6 Circuit Breaker

SF6 (Sulphur Hexafluoride) is an inert, non-toxic gas with excellent dielectric and arc
quenching properties. SF6 breakers are used in outdoor EHV substations from 11 kV
up to 800 kV. The gas at 5–6 bar pressure rapidly absorbs the free electrons in the
arc and the arc extinguishes at current zero. Disadvantages: SF6 is a greenhouse
gas, so leakage must be carefully monitored.

8.3 Air Circuit Breaker (ACB)

ACB uses atmospheric air as the arc quenching medium. The arc is lengthened by
arc chutes and splitters to cool it and extinguish it. ACB is used at low voltage (up to 1
kV) for currents from 800 A to 6300 A. Common as the main incomer of LT panels.
Modern ACBs have microprocessor-based release units with overload, short-circuit
and ground fault protection.

8.4 Oil Circuit Breaker (OCB)

OCB uses transformer oil as the arc quenching medium. The arc decomposes the oil,
producing hydrogen gas which cools and extinguishes the arc. OCBs are mostly
obsolete but still found in old installations. They require regular oil testing and have a
risk of fire.

Electrical Engineering Interview Handbook Page 34

 8.5 Positions of a Draw-out Breaker
• Service position – Breaker is racked in fully, both main contacts (busbar side)
and load contacts are engaged, and control circuit is connected. Breaker can be
operated normally.
• Test position – Main contacts are disconnected, but the control circuit is still
connected. The breaker can be operated electrically (open/close) for testing
without affecting the load.
• Isolated (disconnected) position – Both main contacts and control contacts are
disconnected; the breaker is fully isolated and can be withdrawn from the cubicle
for maintenance.
• Withdrawn position – Breaker is completely removed from the panel.

8.6 Components – Closing, Trip, UV Coil and Anti Pumping

• Closing coil – Operates the spring release mechanism to close the breaker.
Energised momentarily through the close push button.
• Trip coil – Operates the trip mechanism to open the breaker. Energised by relay
contacts, trip push button or protection trip command.
• Under Voltage (UV) coil – Continuously energised; if the supply voltage drops
below a set value (typically 70%), the coil de-energises and trips the breaker to
prevent equipment damage.
• Anti-pumping relay – Prevents the breaker from repeated close-trip-close cycles
if the closing command is held while a trip command exists. It ensures that for one
closing command, only one closing operation takes place.

8.7 Interview Questions – Breakers

Q. Why is SF6 gas used in circuit breakers?
SF6 is an inert gas with very high dielectric strength (about 2.5 times that of air at
atmospheric pressure) and excellent arc quenching property because of its
electronegative nature — it readily captures free electrons during arc and
extinguishes the arc quickly at current zero. It does not form carbon, does not
deteriorate with use and allows compact breaker design.

Q. What is the difference between a circuit breaker and an isolator?

A circuit breaker is an on-load device that can make and break heavy currents
including fault currents automatically. An isolator is an off-load device used to
disconnect a part of the system after the breaker is opened, providing visible isolation
for maintenance. The isolator must never be operated under load.

Electrical Engineering Interview Handbook Page 35

 Q. What is breaker rating? What does 25 kA for 1 sec mean?
Breaker ratings include continuous current rating, rated short-circuit breaking capacity
(kA), rated making capacity (peak kA), short-time current rating (e.g., 25 kA for 1 sec
means the breaker can carry 25 kA fault current for 1 second without damage) and
operating voltage. These ratings must match the system fault MVA and voltage.

Electrical Engineering Interview Handbook Page 36

 CHAPTER 9

Power Electronics

Power electronics deals with the conversion and control of electric power using
semiconductor switching devices. With power electronic converters, AC can be
converted to DC, DC to AC, AC to AC of different frequency and DC to DC of different
voltage. Modern industry depends heavily on power electronics for variable speed
drives, UPS, HVDC, FACTS, solar inverters and electric vehicles.

9.1 Power Semiconductor Devices

• Diode – Two-terminal device that conducts in one direction only. Used in
rectifiers and free-wheeling paths.
• SCR (Thyristor) – Four-layer, three-terminal device. Triggered by a gate pulse
and continues to conduct until the current falls below holding current. Used in
phase-controlled rectifiers, soft starters, HVDC and large drives.
• TRIAC – Bidirectional thyristor that can conduct in both directions. Used for AC
voltage control in fan regulators, light dimmers and heater control.
• DIAC – Bidirectional trigger diode used to fire TRIACs symmetrically.
• MOSFET – Voltage-controlled, fast switching device used for low to medium
power, high frequency applications such as SMPS and small inverters.
• IGBT – Combines the easy gate drive of MOSFET with the high current
capability of BJT. Standard device for medium and high power inverters and VFDs
up to a few MW.

9.2 Converters
• Rectifier – Converts AC to DC. Half-wave, full-wave, single-phase, three-phase,
half-controlled and fully-controlled. Used in DC drives, battery chargers and
excitation systems.
• Inverter – Converts DC to AC. Used in UPS, VFD, solar power plants, electric
vehicles and HVDC. Modern inverters use PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) with
IGBTs to produce near-sinusoidal output.
• Chopper – Converts fixed DC to variable DC. Used in DC motor speed control,
traction and battery-powered vehicles. Buck, boost and buck-boost configurations
are used.

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 • Cycloconverter – Converts AC of one frequency to AC of another frequency
without an intermediate DC link. Used for very large low speed motors like rolling
mill drives and ball mills.

9.3 Applications
UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply)
UPS provides continuous power to critical loads such as computers, control systems
and emergency lighting during mains failure. The mains AC is rectified, used to
charge the battery and feed the inverter, which produces clean AC output. Types:
offline, line-interactive and online (double conversion). Online UPS is preferred for
sensitive loads.

VFD (Variable Frequency Drive)

VFD controls the speed of three-phase induction motors by varying the frequency
and voltage in a constant ratio (V/f control). Major sections: input rectifier
(uncontrolled or controlled), DC link with capacitor and reactor, and IGBT inverter
using PWM. VFDs save energy in centrifugal pumps and fans where the load varies,
provide soft start/stop, four quadrant operation and many protections.

Soft Starter
As described in Chapter 4, a soft starter uses back-to-back thyristors to ramp the
voltage applied to a motor from a low value to full voltage over a few seconds,
reducing inrush current and mechanical shock.

9.4 Interview Questions – Power Electronics

Q. What is the difference between a diode and an SCR?
A diode conducts whenever it is forward biased and stops conducting when reverse
biased. An SCR has an additional control terminal called the gate. It conducts only
when forward biased and a gate pulse is applied; once it starts conducting, it
continues until the current falls below holding current. Thus an SCR is a controllable
switch, while a diode is uncontrolled.

Q. What is the difference between IGBT and MOSFET?

MOSFET is a voltage-controlled device, switches very fast (up to MHz) and is used
for low to medium power and high frequency. IGBT combines the high input
impedance of MOSFET with the low conduction loss of BJT. It can handle higher
voltage and current but switches slower (a few kHz to 20 kHz). VFDs use IGBT;
SMPS use MOSFET.

Electrical Engineering Interview Handbook Page 38

 CHAPTER 10

Motors and Drives

In addition to the conventional DC and induction motors, several special purpose

motors are used in modern industry and automation.

10.1 Servo Motor

Servo motor is a special motor used in closed-loop control systems to achieve
precise position, speed and torque control. It works with a feedback device (encoder
or resolver) that continuously sends the rotor position to the servo drive. The drive
compares the actual position with the commanded position and adjusts the current
accordingly. Servo motors are available in AC (PMSM type) and DC versions. They
are used in CNC machines, robotics, packaging and printing machinery.

10.2 Stepper Motor

Stepper motor rotates in fixed angular steps for each input pulse, without any
feedback. By counting the number of pulses, the rotor position can be controlled
accurately in open loop. Types: variable reluctance, permanent magnet and hybrid.
Used in 3D printers, plotters, small CNC machines, medical equipment and camera
focus.

10.3 BLDC Motor

Brushless DC motor is essentially a synchronous motor with permanent magnet rotor
fed from a DC source through an electronic commutator (inverter) controlled by Hall
sensors. Since there are no brushes, maintenance is almost nil and the life is very
long. BLDC motors are widely used in ceiling fans, electric vehicles, drones,
computer disk drives and battery-operated tools.

10.4 PMSM
Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor uses permanent magnets on the rotor and is
driven by a sinusoidal three-phase current from a VFD with vector control. PMSM
provides high efficiency, high power density and excellent torque characteristics at
low and high speeds. Used in electric vehicles, lifts and high-performance servo
drives.

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 Parameter DC Induction BLDC PMSM Servo

Maintenance High (brushes) Low Very low Very low Low

Efficiency Medium Medium-High High Very High Very High

Speed control Easy Needs VFD Needs drive Needs vector drive
Closed loop drive

Torque/Inertia Medium Medium High High Very High

Cost Medium Low Medium High High

Application Traction Pumps, fans EV, fans EV, lifts CNC, robotics

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 CHAPTER 11

Industrial Control

Industrial control circuits use a combination of contactors, relays, timers, push

buttons, limit switches and protection devices to control motors and processes.
Understanding the operation of each component and reading ladder diagrams is
essential for any electrical engineer working in maintenance or commissioning.

11.1 Contactor
A contactor is an electromagnetic switch designed to switch power circuits of motors
and other loads. It has three main parts: electromagnetic coil, main contacts (heavy
duty, normally open for switching the load) and auxiliary contacts (small contacts
NO/NC used for control). When the coil is energised, the magnetic field attracts the
armature and closes all main and NO auxiliary contacts; NC contacts open.

11.2 Relay, NO and NC Contacts, Auxiliary Contacts

A relay is similar to a contactor but designed for lower current control circuits. NO
(Normally Open) contact is open when the coil is de-energised; NC (Normally Closed)
is closed. When the coil is energised, NO closes and NC opens. Auxiliary contacts
are mounted on contactors and are used for interlocking, indication and sequencing.

11.3 Timers
ON-delay timer
When the timer is energised, the timing starts. After the set time, the output contacts
change state. Used in star-delta starter to switch from star to delta after the motor
accelerates.

OFF-delay timer
When the timer is energised, the output contacts change state immediately. When
the timer is de-energised, the timing starts; after the set time, the contacts return to
the original state. Used in cooling fan circuits where the fan must run for some time
after the main motor stops.

11.4 Interlocking

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 Interlocking means using the contacts of one device in the control circuit of another
device to prevent unsafe or unwanted operation. Examples: in a star-delta starter, NC
auxiliary contact of star contactor is connected in the coil circuit of delta contactor so
that both cannot be energised together. In forward-reverse control, NC of forward
contactor is interlocked with reverse contactor coil to prevent short circuit.

11.5 Starters – Operation and Ladder Diagrams

DOL Starter
Power circuit: incoming supply → MCCB → main contactor → overload relay →
motor. Control circuit: phase → MCCB control → STOP NC → START NO in parallel
with auxiliary NO of main contactor (hold-on contact) → overload relay NC →
contactor coil → neutral. Operation: press START, coil energises, main and auxiliary
NO close, motor runs, START button can be released because of hold-on contact.
Press STOP, coil de-energises and motor stops. Overload trip opens the NC and
de-energises the coil.

Star-Delta Starter
Three contactors are used: main (M), star (S) and delta (D), plus a timer (T) and
overload relay. Sequence: when START is pressed, M and S energise; motor starts
in star. Timer T starts. After preset time, T drops S and energises D. Motor now runs
in delta. Interlocks between S and D prevent both from being energised together.

Forward-Reverse Starter
Two contactors F (forward) and R (reverse) with mechanical and electrical
interlocking. Pressing the forward push button energises F and connects the motor
with the original phase sequence. Pressing reverse interchanges any two phases
through R and reverses the rotation. Stop must be pressed before changing direction.

Electrical Engineering Interview Handbook Page 42

 CHAPTER 12

Testing Equipment

Testing and commissioning engineers must be familiar with various test kits used to
evaluate the health of electrical equipment. Each kit has a specific purpose,
procedure and acceptable values that must be understood thoroughly.

12.1 IR Kit (Insulation Resistance Tester / Megger)

Purpose: To measure the insulation resistance of cables, motors, transformers and
switchgear. Voltage ratings: 500 V, 1 kV, 2.5 kV, 5 kV and 10 kV. Procedure: isolate
and earth the equipment, connect the leads, apply test voltage and record IR at 15 s,
60 s and 10 min. Acceptable: IR ≥ 1 MΩ per kV of operating voltage, PI ≥ 1.5 for good
condition.

12.2 CRM Kit (Contact Resistance Meter)

Purpose: To measure the contact resistance of breakers, isolators and busbar joints
by injecting 100 A DC and measuring the millivolt drop. High contact resistance
causes overheating and breaker failure. Acceptable: less than 50 µΩ for new
breakers, less than 100 µΩ for in-service.

12.3 Timing Kit

Purpose: To measure the operating times of circuit breakers: closing time, opening
time, contact bounce, simultaneity between three poles and travel curve. Procedure:
connect the timing kit between the three poles of the breaker, give close or trip
command and record the times. Acceptable values are given by the manufacturer
(typically 30–80 ms for VCB).

12.4 Tan Delta Kit

Already explained in Chapter 2. Used for transformers, cables, bushings, CTs, PTs
and motors. Detects insulation deterioration before actual breakdown.

12.5 ERT Kit (Earth Resistance Tester)

Purpose: To measure the resistance of an earth electrode using the three-point
fall-of-potential method or the clamp-on method. Procedure: drive two auxiliary spikes

Electrical Engineering Interview Handbook Page 43

 at suitable distances, inject current through the electrode and one spike, measure
voltage between the electrode and the other spike. Acceptable: as per IS 3043 limits
mentioned in Chapter 1.

12.6 SFRA Kit

Sweep Frequency Response Analyser detects mechanical deformation of
transformer windings as explained in Chapter 2.

12.7 CT Analyser
A modern microprocessor-based instrument that performs ratio, polarity, knee point
voltage, magnetising current, winding resistance, saturation curve and burden test of
CTs in a few minutes. Eliminates the need for a heavy current injection set in many
tests.

12.8 Thermal Camera (Thermography)

Infrared camera used to detect hot spots in busbars, cable joints, breakers,
transformer bushings and motor terminals without shutdown. Temperature rise above
10 °C from a reference point is a warning, above 30 °C is critical. Annual
thermography is part of every preventive maintenance program.

12.9 LA Leakage Current Test

Purpose: To measure the third harmonic resistive leakage current of a metal oxide
lightning arrester in service. Rising leakage current indicates moisture ingress or
ageing of ZnO blocks. The test is done online using a special meter clamped around
the arrester earth lead.

12.10 LA Surge Counter Test

A surge counter mounted at the base of each arrester records the number of times
the arrester has operated. The counter reading is noted during routine inspection. A
high count over a short period indicates frequent surges and the arrester health must
be checked.

Electrical Engineering Interview Handbook Page 44

 CHAPTER 13

Industrial Troubleshooting

Troubleshooting is a logical step-by-step process of identifying and rectifying faults in

electrical equipment. A good engineer always uses the principle of 'observe, isolate,
measure and analyse' instead of guesswork. The following sections give a structured
approach to common industrial problems.

13.1 Motor Not Starting

• Check the incoming supply: voltage between all three phases and
phase-to-neutral with a multimeter.
• Check the control fuse / MCB; replace if blown.
• Press START and listen — if no sound from contactor, control circuit is broken.
Verify STOP push button (NC), START push button (NO), hold-on contact and
overload relay NC.
• If contactor closes but motor does not rotate, check phase voltage at the motor
terminals; a missing phase indicates a faulty contact tip.
• Check the motor body IR with a 500 V megger. A very low value indicates
winding earth fault.
• Try rotating the shaft by hand to check for mechanical jamming or bearing
seizure.
• If only humming sound is heard, single phasing or rotor lock is likely; switch off
immediately and investigate.

13.2 Contactor Chattering

Causes: low control voltage, weak coil, loose connection in control circuit, intermittent
auxiliary hold-on contact, dirty or worn magnetic core, mechanical wear in armature.
Action: measure coil voltage during energisation; should be within ±10% of
nameplate. Check tightness of control wiring. Clean or replace the magnetic core.
Replace worn contactor if necessary.

13.3 Overload Relay Tripping

Causes: motor overload due to mechanical jam, undersized motor, voltage
unbalance, single phasing, blocked cooling, wrong relay setting, harmonics, frequent

Electrical Engineering Interview Handbook Page 45

 start/stop. Action: measure running current on all three phases with a clamp meter,
compare with motor nameplate, check the load condition mechanically. Verify the
overload relay setting (should be 1.05 to 1.2 times motor full load current). Inspect the
motor for any abnormality.

13.4 Transformer Overheating

Causes: continuous overload, poor ventilation, low oil level, oil deterioration, choked
radiators, fan failure (in ONAF/OFAF), high ambient, harmonic loading, internal fault.
Action: measure load with tong tester, compare oil and winding temperatures with
normal trend, check radiators for blockage, verify fan and pump operation, take oil
sample for BDV and DGA (Dissolved Gas Analysis) test. Reduce load if necessary.

13.5 Earth Fault

Causes: insulation breakdown of cable, motor winding earth fault, moisture in
switchgear, loose neutral. Action: isolate the feeder using earth fault relay indications,
measure IR of each section with a megger, divide and isolate cables to localise the
fault. Replace or repair the faulty section, dry the moisture and check earthing
integrity.

13.6 Phase Failure

If one phase is lost, all three-phase loads are affected: motors run on two phases and
overheat, lighting loads on the missing phase go off. Causes: blown HRC fuse,
broken jumper, faulty incoming feeder, loose neutral causing voltage unbalance.
Action: measure voltages and isolate the affected portion immediately to prevent
damage.

13.7 Low Insulation Resistance

Causes: moisture, dust, oil contamination, ageing, partial discharge, winding damage.
Action: clean and dry the equipment with hot air or low DC voltage drying, varnish
dipping (for motors), megger test before and after drying, replace cable or rewind
motor if value does not improve.

13.8 Relay Maloperation

Causes: wrong setting, CT/PT secondary problem, loose terminal, battery DC supply
failure, faulty relay card, electromagnetic interference. Action: check setting against
the coordination chart, verify CT/PT secondary continuity and earthing, test the relay
using secondary injection kit, replace if found defective.

Electrical Engineering Interview Handbook Page 46

 13.9 High Vibration
As described in Chapter 4. Use vibration analyser to identify root cause and take
corrective action: balancing, alignment, foundation tightening, bearing replacement.

Electrical Engineering Interview Handbook Page 47

 CHAPTER 14

HVAC Electrical System

HVAC (Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning) systems are used in commercial
buildings, hospitals, malls, IT parks and industries. The electrical engineer in HVAC
must understand the main equipment, their control and protection.

14.1 Chiller
A chiller is a refrigeration machine that produces chilled water (typically 7 °C) which is
circulated to air handling units (AHUs) to cool the air. Types: vapour compression
(screw, centrifugal, scroll, reciprocating) and vapour absorption. Main electrical loads:
compressor motor (sometimes thousands of HP), oil pump, condenser fan, chilled
water pump and control panel. Chillers commonly use VFD on the compressor for
energy saving and on the pumps for variable flow.

14.2 AHU (Air Handling Unit)

An AHU contains a cooling/heating coil, supply and return fans, filters, dampers and
humidifier. Air is drawn through the coil where it is cooled by chilled water and then
supplied to the conditioned space. The supply fan motor is typically driven by a VFD
based on duct pressure or temperature feedback.

14.3 FCU (Fan Coil Unit)

FCU is a small unit installed inside the conditioned room with a fan, coil and filter. It
serves a small area. Three-speed switch or modulating valve is used to control the
cooling.

14.4 Cooling Tower

Cooling tower is used to reject the heat from the condenser water to the atmosphere
by evaporation. Electrical components: cooling tower fan motor, condenser water
pump, level switch and float valve. The fan motor is often driven by a VFD or
two-speed motor for energy saving.

14.5 Crankcase Heater

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 A small electric heater installed in the bottom of the compressor crankcase. It is
energised whenever the compressor is OFF to keep the oil warm and prevent the
refrigerant from dissolving in the oil. Without it, on the next start the refrigerant would
foam out the oil and damage the compressor.

14.6 Solenoid Valve

An electromagnetic valve that opens or closes the flow of refrigerant or water based
on the electrical signal. Used to control refrigerant flow into evaporator (liquid line
solenoid), to isolate cooling circuits and in many automation applications.

14.7 Part Winding Motor

Large hermetic compressor motors are often built with two windings. At start, only
one winding is energised, drawing about 65% of the locked rotor current. After a short
delay (about 1 second) the second winding is energised. This reduces the inrush
current and the voltage dip on the supply system without external starter.

14.8 Compressor Protection

Protections provided: high discharge pressure cut-out, low suction pressure cut-out,
high oil temperature, low oil pressure differential, motor winding thermistor (PTC),
overload relay, anti-cycling timer, phase failure/reversal relay, flow switch on
condenser and chilled water lines. All these are interlocked in the compressor starting
circuit so that the compressor starts only when all conditions are healthy.

14.9 Interview Questions – HVAC

Q. What is TR (Ton of Refrigeration)?
TR is the unit of cooling capacity. 1 TR = 3.517 kW of heat removal rate. It is the
amount of heat required to melt 1 short ton (907 kg) of ice at 0 °C in 24 hours.

Q. Why is a crankcase heater used in a chiller compressor?

It keeps the lubricating oil warm during the OFF condition to prevent the refrigerant
from condensing and mixing with the oil. Without it, the refrigerant-oil mixture can
foam at start-up, causing loss of lubrication and serious compressor damage.

Q. Why is a part-winding start used in HVAC compressors?

Hermetic compressor motors are inside the refrigerant atmosphere, so external
starters are not preferred. Part-winding start reduces the inrush current to about
two-thirds of DOL by energising only half the winding initially, and the second winding
is added after a small delay. This protects the supply system from heavy voltage dips.

Electrical Engineering Interview Handbook Page 49

 CHAPTER 15

Frequently Asked Interview Questions

This chapter compiles the most frequently asked interview questions from all the
topics covered earlier. The answers are given in simple language and the topic-wise
arrangement helps a student to revise quickly before any technical interview.

A. Electrical Machines
Q. What is the difference between a motor and a generator?
A motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy, while a generator
converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. Construction of both is similar; the
difference is only in the direction of energy flow.

Q. What is the slip of an induction motor?

Slip is the difference between synchronous speed and actual rotor speed expressed
as a fraction of synchronous speed. At full load it is typically 2–5%.

Q. Why does a DC shunt motor maintain almost constant speed?

Because the field flux is nearly constant (field is across the supply) and the armature
voltage drop is small, the back EMF and therefore the speed remain almost constant
from no load to full load.

Q. Why does the speed of a series motor increase on light load?

On light load, armature current and therefore the field flux become small. Since speed
is inversely proportional to flux, the speed rises sharply, sometimes dangerously high.

Q. What is the function of commutator in a DC machine?

The commutator acts as a mechanical rectifier in a generator (converts AC induced in
armature into DC at the brushes) and as a mechanical inverter in a motor (supplies
DC to the armature in a manner that produces unidirectional torque).

Q. What is the purpose of interpoles?

Interpoles (commutating poles) are small poles placed between the main poles. They
neutralise the armature reaction in the commutating zone and improve commutation
by reducing sparking at the brushes.

Q. What is regenerative braking?

When a motor's load drives it faster than the no-load speed, the motor acts as a
generator and feeds power back into the supply. This electrical braking is called

Electrical Engineering Interview Handbook Page 50

 regenerative braking. It is used in lifts, EVs and downhill traction.

Q. What is dynamic braking?

Dynamic braking dissipates the kinetic energy of the rotating motor in a resistor. The
motor is disconnected from the supply and connected to a braking resistor; the motor
acts as a generator and the resistor absorbs the energy as heat.

Q. What is plugging?
Plugging is a method of fast stopping where the supply phase sequence is reversed
momentarily, causing the motor to develop a high braking torque. It must be
disconnected as soon as the motor stops; otherwise the motor will start in reverse
direction.

Q. Why is the air gap in an induction motor kept as small as possible?

A small air gap reduces the magnetising current required, improves the power factor
and increases efficiency. Mechanical limit prevents the gap from being too small.
Q. What is the difference between salient and non-salient pole rotor?
Salient pole rotors have projecting poles, are used for low speed hydro generators
with many poles. Non-salient (cylindrical) rotors have a smooth cylindrical surface,
are used for high speed turbo alternators (2 or 4 poles).

Q. What is the V curve of a synchronous motor?

The graph of armature current versus field current at constant load is V shaped.
Minimum point corresponds to unity power factor; under-excited region draws lagging
current; over-excited region draws leading current.

B. Transformers
Q. Why is transformer rating in kVA?
Because losses depend on voltage (iron loss) and current (copper loss) but not on
power factor, and the manufacturer does not know the load power factor in advance.
So the rating is given in kVA independent of power factor.

Q. Why is no-load current of a transformer non-sinusoidal?

The B-H curve of the iron core is non-linear (saturation). To produce a sinusoidal flux
a non-sinusoidal magnetising current is required, rich in third harmonic.

Q. What is the function of conservator?

It allows expansion and contraction of oil with temperature and load variations and
prevents direct contact of oil with atmosphere when fitted with a sealed bladder.

Q. What is silica gel used for?

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 Silica gel in the breather absorbs moisture from the air entering the transformer
during breathing. Blue colour indicates dry, pink indicates saturated and needs
replacement.

Q. What is the function of Buchholz relay?

It is a gas-actuated protection that gives alarm on minor faults (slow gas
accumulation) and trips on major internal faults (oil surge).

Q. Why is the secondary of a CT never opened?

Because the secondary ampere-turns balance the primary; if opened, very high
voltage appears at secondary terminals and the core saturates, damaging the CT and
being dangerous to personnel.

Q. Why is one side of a transformer earthed?

To provide a reference for system voltage, to allow protective devices to operate
during earth faults and to limit the voltage rise of healthy phases during a fault.
Q. What is vector group?
It describes the winding connection (Y, D, Z) and the phase displacement between
primary and secondary in multiples of 30°.

Q. Why is delta-star connection used in distribution transformers?

Delta primary suppresses third harmonic currents in the line, star secondary provides
a neutral for single phase loads and the 30° phase shift is acceptable in distribution.
Common vector group: Dyn11.

Q. Why oil is used in a transformer?

For insulation, cooling and arc quenching as explained in Chapter 2.

Q. What is BDV test?

Breakdown Voltage test of oil to check its dielectric strength. Sample is stressed in a
standard cup; new oil should withstand above 60 kV.

Q. What are the losses in a transformer?

Two main losses: iron (core) loss including hysteresis and eddy current loss, which is
constant; and copper loss in windings which varies with the square of the load
current. There are also small stray and dielectric losses.

Q. What is meant by % impedance of a transformer?

It is the percentage of rated voltage required to circulate the rated current in the
short-circuited secondary. It decides the short-circuit current and is important for
parallel operation.

Q. What is the difference between power and distribution transformer?

Electrical Engineering Interview Handbook Page 52

 Power transformers are designed for maximum efficiency near full load and are used
in transmission substations. Distribution transformers are designed for maximum
efficiency at about 50% load and serve consumer loads directly.

C. Power System
Q. Why is power transmitted at high voltage?
To reduce the line current for the same power, which reduces I²R losses and
conductor size, making transmission economical and efficient.

Q. Why is the standard supply frequency 50 Hz?

It is a historical and economic choice — gives a good compromise between size of
equipment, losses and reactive drops.

Q. What is a sag in a transmission line?

Sag is the vertical distance between the line conductor and the imaginary horizontal
line joining the two supports. Adequate sag is necessary to maintain mechanical
safety and required ground clearance.

Q. Why is bundled conductor used in EHV lines?

To reduce corona loss, reduce the effective inductance and improve current carrying
capacity by reducing skin effect.

Q. What is the Ferranti effect?

When a long transmission line is lightly loaded or open, the receiving end voltage
becomes higher than the sending end voltage due to the line capacitance and
inductance. This is called Ferranti effect.

Q. What is corona?
Corona is the partial discharge that occurs around HV conductors when the surface
voltage gradient exceeds the breakdown strength of air. It causes hissing sound,
violet glow, radio interference and power loss.

Q. What is meant by single line diagram (SLD)?

A simplified diagram representing the three-phase power system using single lines
and standard symbols for design, operation and analysis.

Q. What are the main parts of a substation?

Power transformer, busbar, circuit breaker, isolator, CT, PT, lightning arrester,
earthing system, protection panel, control room and battery system.

Q. What is meant by tariff?

Tariff is the rate at which electrical energy is sold to consumers. It may consist of
fixed charge, energy charge, demand charge, power factor surcharge and

Electrical Engineering Interview Handbook Page 53

 time-of-day component.

Q. What is load factor?

Load factor = Average load / Maximum demand. Higher load factor means better
utilisation of installed capacity.

Q. What is the difference between HVDC and HVAC transmission?

HVDC requires converters but has no reactive losses, no skin effect, no charging
current, and is cheaper for very long distance bulk transmission and undersea cables.
HVAC is simpler and used for medium distances.

Q. What is FACTS?
Flexible AC Transmission Systems use power electronic devices like SVC,
STATCOM, TCSC and UPFC to enhance controllability and power transfer capability
of AC transmission networks.

D. Protection and Switchgear

Q. What is the difference between fuse and circuit breaker?
Fuse is a one-time protective device that melts and must be replaced; breaker is a
reusable automatic switch that can be reset after trip and used again.

Q. What is back-up protection?

A second line of protection that operates if the main protection fails to clear the fault.
Usually achieved by upstream relays with a time delay.

Q. Why are NGR (Neutral Grounding Resistors) used?

To limit the earth fault current to a safe value. Excessive earth fault current can
damage the equipment and pose safety hazards. NGRs are commonly used in
generator neutrals.

Q. What is REF protection?

Restricted Earth Fault protection is a fast and sensitive protection for earth faults
inside a transformer winding by comparing the neutral CT current with the residual
current of the three line CTs.

Q. What is differential protection?

It compares current entering and leaving the protected zone; any difference indicates
an internal fault and the relay operates instantly.

Q. What is the difference between earth fault and short circuit?

Earth fault is a fault between a phase conductor and earth. Short circuit is a fault
between two or more phases (or phase and neutral). Both have different magnitudes
and different protections.

Electrical Engineering Interview Handbook Page 54

 Q. What is the function of a lightning arrester?
To protect electrical equipment from over-voltages caused by lightning or switching
surges by providing a low impedance path to earth above a critical voltage.

Q. What is meant by relay coordination?

Selecting relay settings (pickup and time) in a series of relays so that only the relay
closest to the fault operates first and others act as back-up with a defined delay.

Q. What is an anti-pumping relay?

A relay used in breaker control to prevent multiple closing operations when a closing
command is held while a trip signal exists, ensuring that one close command results
in only one closure.

Q. Why is SF6 preferred over air in HV breakers?

SF6 has 2–3 times higher dielectric strength and excellent arc quenching property,
making the breaker compact and reliable at high voltage.
Q. What is the difference between VCB and SF6 breaker?
VCB uses vacuum and is mostly used up to 36 kV; SF6 uses sulphur hexafluoride
gas and is used from 11 kV up to 800 kV. SF6 has higher interrupting capacity and is
suitable for outdoor EHV use.

E. Motors and Power Electronics

Q. What is the difference between AC and DC drive?
DC drive controls a DC motor by varying its armature voltage and field; AC drive
(VFD) controls an AC induction or PMSM motor by varying the frequency and voltage
using IGBT inverters.

Q. What is V/f control?

In a VFD, voltage and frequency are varied in a constant ratio so that the magnetic
flux in the motor remains constant and the motor produces rated torque at any speed
below rated.

Q. What is vector control?

An advanced control technique used in VFDs and servo drives where the stator
current is decomposed into flux-producing and torque-producing components,
allowing precise and fast torque control similar to a DC motor.

Q. What is dynamic braking in a VFD?

The kinetic energy of the decelerating motor is fed back into the DC bus, which is
then dissipated in an external braking resistor through a chopper. Used for fast
stopping of high inertia loads.

Electrical Engineering Interview Handbook Page 55

 Q. What is regeneration in a VFD?
When the motor decelerates or is driven by the load (e.g., a downhill conveyor), it
acts as a generator and the energy is returned to the DC bus. In active front-end
drives, this energy can be fed back to the supply, saving energy.

Q. What is the function of a DC link capacitor in a VFD?

To smooth the rectified DC voltage and to provide a low impedance source for the
inverter so that the IGBTs can switch rapidly without voltage dip.

Q. What is the difference between BLDC and PMSM?

Both have permanent magnet rotor. BLDC has trapezoidal back EMF and is driven by
rectangular current; PMSM has sinusoidal back EMF and is driven by sinusoidal
current with vector control. PMSM gives smoother torque.

Q. Why is a thyristor called a latching device?

Once the thyristor is triggered by a gate pulse, it continues to conduct even after the
gate pulse is removed, until the anode current falls below the holding current. This
'latching' is its main feature.

Q. What is commutation in power electronics?

Commutation is the process of turning OFF a conducting thyristor by reducing its
current to zero. Natural (line) commutation occurs in AC circuits at current zero;
forced commutation is used in DC circuits using auxiliary capacitor or inductor.

F. Industrial Control and Troubleshooting

Q. What is a contactor?
An electromagnetic switch for switching power circuits of motors and other loads, with
main and auxiliary contacts.

Q. Difference between relay and contactor?

Relay is used in low-current control circuits; contactor is used to switch the main
power to motors and other heavy loads.

Q. What is interlocking?
Using the contacts of one device in the control circuit of another to prevent unsafe
simultaneous operation, e.g., star and delta contactors in a star-delta starter.

Q. What is an ON-delay timer?

When energised, the timer starts counting; after the set time it changes its output
contacts.

Q. What is an OFF-delay timer?

Electrical Engineering Interview Handbook Page 56

 When energised, the output changes immediately; when de-energised, the timer
starts counting and after the set time the output returns to original state.

Q. Why does a motor draw high current at start?

Because at start the back EMF is zero (DC) or rotor slip is unity (induction), so the
impedance is minimum and the current is 6–8 times full load value.

Q. How do you measure earth resistance?

Using a digital earth resistance tester with three-spike fall-of-potential method as
explained in Chapter 12.

Q. What is the polarisation index (PI)?

Ratio of insulation resistance measured at 10 minutes to that at 1 minute. PI > 2 is
excellent, 1.5–2 good, 1–1.5 questionable, < 1 needs investigation.

Q. Why does an overload relay trip with single phasing?

Single phasing causes the current in the remaining two phases to increase, and
modern overload relays have a single-phase preventer feature based on differential
bimetal motion that trips faster than the time setting.

Q. How to test a contactor coil?

Disconnect supply, measure the coil resistance with a multimeter. Compare with the
value given in the contactor catalogue. Open coil shows infinite resistance, shorted
coil shows very low value.

Q. How to identify the faulty phase in a three-phase motor?

Disconnect the supply, perform a continuity / IR test phase to phase and phase to
earth. The phase with very low IR or with continuity to earth is the faulty one.

G. Testing, Commissioning and Substation

Q. What is HiPot test?
High Potential test applies a voltage higher than the rated voltage between
conductors and earth to verify the insulation level. AC or DC HiPot is used as per
standards.

Q. What is polarity test of a CT?

A test to verify the relative polarity of primary and secondary terminals. A DC battery
is briefly connected to the primary and a centre-zero galvanometer to the secondary;
the direction of the kick on making and breaking the battery indicates correct polarity.

Q. What is knee point voltage of a CT?

The voltage at the secondary terminals at which a 10% increase in voltage produces
a 50% increase in magnetising current. It indicates the saturation point of the CT and

Electrical Engineering Interview Handbook Page 57

 is important for differential and REF protection.

Q. What is DGA (Dissolved Gas Analysis)?

DGA is the analysis of gases dissolved in transformer oil to detect incipient faults.
Excess of hydrogen, methane, acetylene or carbon monoxide indicates different
types of faults (PD, overheating, arcing).

Q. What is the purpose of the magnetic balance test?

To verify the magnetic circuit of a three-phase star-connected transformer. The sum
of voltages induced in the other two phases should equal the applied phase voltage
when one phase is excited.

Q. What is the purpose of SFRA?

Sweep Frequency Response Analysis detects mechanical deformation or
displacement of transformer windings by comparing the frequency response with a
baseline 'fingerprint'.
Q. What is the purpose of timing test on a breaker?
To verify that the breaker closes and opens within the manufacturer's specified time
and that all three poles operate simultaneously, ensuring proper fault clearance.

Q. What is a ratio test on a CT?

It verifies the actual turns ratio of the CT by injecting primary current and measuring
the secondary current. Should match the nameplate ratio within tolerance.

Q. What is meant by 'making capacity' of a breaker?

It is the peak value of current that the breaker can withstand at the instant of closing
on a fault. It is typically 2.5 times the rated short-circuit breaking current.

Q. Why is a battery bank used in a substation?

To provide reliable DC supply to control circuits, trip circuits, protection relays and
emergency lighting. Common voltages: 220 V DC or 110 V DC, with battery chargers
and float-boost arrangement.

H. HVAC and Miscellaneous

Q. What is the standard chilled water temperature?
Typically supply at 7 °C and return at 12 °C, with a ∆T of 5 °C.

Q. What is COP?
Coefficient of Performance = useful cooling effect / electrical input. Higher COP
means better efficiency. For a chiller, COP is typically 4–6.

Q. What is the function of an expansion valve?

Electrical Engineering Interview Handbook Page 58

 It reduces the high-pressure liquid refrigerant from the condenser to low pressure
required at the evaporator and controls the refrigerant flow.

Q. What is the difference between water-cooled and air-cooled chiller?

Water-cooled chillers reject heat to water via condenser and use a cooling tower; they
are more efficient but require water and chemical treatment. Air-cooled chillers reject
heat to ambient air directly, are simpler but less efficient and noisier.

Q. Why are VFDs used on chilled water pumps?

To match the pump flow to the actual load by varying speed, saving significant energy
compared to throttling with valves.

Q. What is anti-cycling timer?

A protection feature that prevents the compressor from restarting too quickly after
stopping (typically 5–10 minutes), allowing pressure equalisation and oil return.
Q. What is meant by short-cycling of a motor?
Frequent start and stop within a short period, which causes excessive heating and
stress on windings, contactors and connected mechanical equipment.

Q. Why is a flow switch interlocked with chiller compressor?

To ensure that chilled water and condenser water are flowing before the compressor
starts; lack of flow leads to freezing of evaporator tubes or overheating of condenser.

Q. What does a 3-phase preventer do?

It senses loss of any phase, voltage unbalance or phase reversal and trips the motor
immediately to prevent damage.

Q. Why are belts used in some FCUs and AHUs?

To allow flexibility in selecting fan speed by changing pulley ratio, to dampen
mechanical shocks and to isolate the motor vibration from the fan.

I. Additional Rapid Interview Questions

Q. What is meant by reactive power?
The power oscillating between source and reactive load (inductors, capacitors),
measured in VAR. It does no useful work but is needed for magnetic field in motors
and transformers.

Q. What is the effect of low power factor?

Higher current for same power, more I²R losses, voltage drop, larger conductor size
and electricity bill penalty.

Q. What is APFC panel?

Electrical Engineering Interview Handbook Page 59

 Automatic Power Factor Correction panel which switches capacitor banks ON/OFF
automatically through a microprocessor relay to maintain the desired PF.

Q. What are the types of cables?

Based on insulation: PVC, XLPE, rubber, paper-insulated. Based on use: power
cable, control cable, instrumentation cable, communication cable.

Q. Why is XLPE preferred over PVC?

XLPE has higher thermal rating (90 °C continuous, 250 °C short circuit) and better
mechanical and chemical properties than PVC (70 °C continuous).

Q. What is meant by short-circuit current?

The very high current that flows when there is a fault (very low impedance path).
Selection of switchgear depends on this value.

Q. How is short-circuit current calculated?

Using per-unit method: ISC = base current / per-unit impedance from source to fault.
Typical values are tens of kA.

Q. What is the purpose of an isolating switch?

To provide visible isolation of a circuit for safe maintenance; not for breaking load
current.

Q. What is interlock between breaker and isolator?

The isolator can be operated only when the breaker is open, to prevent on-load
operation of the isolator.

Q. What is a load break switch?

A switch capable of making and breaking the normal load current but not fault
currents. Often used in ring main units (RMU).

Q. What is the function of a battery charger?

To convert AC supply to DC and charge the substation battery in float or boost mode
and also to supply the DC load directly.

Q. Why are CT and PT used in a substation?

To step down high primary current/voltage to a standard low value suitable for relays,
meters and indications.

Q. What is meant by burden of CT or PT?

The total VA load (relays, meters, leads) connected to the secondary. The CT/PT
must be rated for the connected burden to maintain accuracy.

Q. What is the function of NGR?

Electrical Engineering Interview Handbook Page 60

 Neutral Grounding Resistor limits the earth fault current of a generator or transformer
to a safe value (typically 100–400 A).

Q. What is an arc flash?

An explosive release of energy due to a short circuit through air, producing intense
heat, light and pressure. Personnel must wear arc-rated PPE.

Q. What is a lockout-tagout (LOTO)?

A safety procedure to ensure that energy sources are properly shut off, locked and
tagged before any maintenance is carried out, preventing accidental energisation.

Q. What is a permit-to-work (PTW)?

A formal written authorisation to perform specific work on energised or potentially
energised equipment under controlled conditions.

Q. Why is a five-wire system (TN-S) used?

TN-S has separate neutral (N) and earth (PE) conductors, ensuring that earth wire is
free from neutral current, providing better safety and EMI performance.

Q. What is the purpose of equipotential bonding?

Connecting all metallic parts to the same earth potential so that no dangerous voltage
exists between them during a fault.

Q. What is a Class I and Class II electrical equipment?

Class I has metal body that requires earthing for safety; Class II (double-insulated)
has additional insulation and does not require earthing.

Q. What is meant by IP rating?

Ingress Protection rating describes the protection of an enclosure against solid
objects and water. E.g., IP65 — dust tight and protected against water jets.

Q. What is the difference between earth wire and neutral wire?

Earth wire carries no current in normal operation and is for safety; neutral wire is a
current-carrying return conductor of single-phase or unbalanced three-phase loads.

Q. How do you select a cable for a motor?

Calculate full load current, apply derating factors for ambient, grouping and
installation method, check voltage drop within 3% and select cable from manufacturer
table. Verify with short-circuit withstand and protection coordination.

Q. What is voltage drop calculation?

Voltage drop = √3 × IL × (R cosφ + X sinφ) × L for three-phase. It must be within
permissible limit (usually 3% from source to load).

Q. Why is a star-delta starter not suitable for high inertia loads?

Electrical Engineering Interview Handbook Page 61

 Because the starting torque in star is only one-third of DOL torque, which may be
insufficient to accelerate a high inertia load within safe time, leading to overheating.

Q. What is meant by service factor of a motor?

A multiplier that indicates the overload capability that the motor can carry
continuously without damage. Typical SF is 1.0 to 1.15.

Q. What is class B / F / H insulation?

Insulation classes based on maximum operating temperature: Class B = 130 °C,
Class F = 155 °C, Class H = 180 °C. Most modern motors use Class F insulation with
Class B temperature rise.

Q. What is RTD and thermistor?

RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector) and thermistor are temperature sensors
embedded in motor windings to monitor temperature and trip on overheating. PT100
is the most common RTD.
Q. Why is a thermal overload relay set at 1.05 × FLC?
To allow the motor to operate at its rated current and a small overload, but to trip if
continuous overload exceeds the design margin.

Q. What is meant by lock rotor current?

The current drawn by the motor when its rotor is stalled (slip = 1). Approximately
equal to starting current, typically 6–8 times FLC.

Q. What is the breakdown torque of an induction motor?

The maximum torque the motor can produce; beyond this point, the motor stalls.
Usually 2–3 times the full load torque.

Q. What is meant by self-excitation of an induction generator?

An induction machine can act as a generator when driven above synchronous speed
by a prime mover, and if capacitors are connected to provide reactive power, it can
build voltage on its own. Used in small wind/hydro applications.

Q. What is the function of a star point in a generator?

It is the common neutral point of three-phase windings. It is connected to earth via
NGR/NGT for fault current limitation and protection.

Q. Why are surge capacitors used at motor terminals?

To reduce the dv/dt of voltage spikes from VFD output, protecting motor insulation
from rapid switching transients.

Q. What is a du/dt filter?

A filter (small reactor or LC) connected between VFD output and motor to reduce the
rate of voltage rise, protecting cable and motor insulation.

Electrical Engineering Interview Handbook Page 62

 Q. What is regenerative power in lifts?
The energy generated when the lift descends with overhauling load. With
regenerative drives, this energy is fed back to the supply instead of being dissipated.

Q. What is the purpose of differential pressure switch?

To sense the pressure difference across pump, filter or fan and to give alarm or trip
on abnormal value.

Q. What is a PLC?
Programmable Logic Controller — a digital industrial computer used to automate
machinery using ladder logic, function blocks and other languages.

Q. What is SCADA?
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition system used to monitor and control large
processes from a central station via remote terminal units and communication
networks.
Q. What is a HMI?
Human Machine Interface — a touch screen or display that allows the operator to
view process status and give commands to the PLC.

Q. What is meant by 4-20 mA signal?

A standard analog signal in industrial automation where 4 mA represents the
minimum value and 20 mA the maximum value. Immune to voltage drop, easy fault
detection (0 mA = wire break).

Q. What is Modbus?
An industrial communication protocol used between PLCs, drives and sensors.
Variants: RTU (serial), TCP (Ethernet).

Q. What is the difference between analog and digital signal?

Analog signal varies continuously (e.g., temperature 4-20 mA); digital signal has only
two states (ON/OFF, 0/1).

Q. What is harmonic distortion (THD)?

Total Harmonic Distortion expresses the deviation of the waveform from a pure sine
wave as a percentage. Limit per IEEE 519: voltage THD < 5%.

Q. How do you reduce harmonics?

Use harmonic filters (passive or active), multi-pulse rectifiers, isolation transformers,
line reactors and increase the supply transformer rating.

Q. What is a capacitor bank?

Electrical Engineering Interview Handbook Page 63

 A group of power capacitors connected in star or delta to supply reactive power and
improve power factor.

Q. What is detuned reactor?

A series reactor used with capacitor banks to detune the LC circuit away from
harmonic frequencies, preventing resonance and capacitor damage.

Q. Why is energy audit important?

To identify the areas of energy wastage and recommend measures to reduce
consumption, save cost and reduce CO2 emissions.

Q. What is meant by demand factor?

Ratio of maximum demand to total connected load. Indicates how much of the
connected load is actually used at peak.

Q. What is diversity factor?

Ratio of sum of individual maximum demands to the maximum demand of the
system. Always greater than 1; higher value means better load diversity.

Q. What is the purpose of automatic transfer switch (ATS)?

Automatically transfers the load from mains to generator (or vice versa) on power
failure, with proper sequence and delay.

Q. What is synchronisation of DG sets?

The process of paralleling two or more generators to share load. Requires matching
of voltage, frequency, phase angle and phase sequence.

Q. What is AVR in a generator?

Automatic Voltage Regulator controls the field excitation to maintain the generator
terminal voltage at the set value under varying load.

Q. What is droop control in a generator?

A control method where the generator frequency or voltage decreases slightly with
increasing load, allowing two or more generators to share load proportionally.

Q. What is islanding?
Operation of a portion of the power system isolated from the main grid, supplied by
local generators. Anti-islanding protection is mandatory in grid-tied solar inverters for
safety.

Q. What is the purpose of synchronising lamps?

To verify proper synchronisation visually: with three lamps connected, dark lamp
method indicates correct frequency and phase, bright lamp method indicates
synchronism.

Electrical Engineering Interview Handbook Page 64

 Q. What is meant by power quality?
The quality of the supply voltage in terms of magnitude, frequency, waveform,
harmonics, flicker, sag and swell. Good power quality is essential for sensitive loads.

Q. What is voltage sag and swell?

Sag is a momentary reduction of voltage (10–90% for half cycle to 1 minute); swell is
momentary rise of voltage. Causes: faults, large motor starts, switching.

Q. What is meant by flicker?

Rapid fluctuations in voltage causing visible variation in light output of lamps. Caused
by arc furnaces, welders and rapidly varying loads.

Q. What is the role of a UPS?

To provide continuous, clean, regulated AC supply to critical loads during mains
failure or disturbance, using a battery as a backup source.
Q. What is the difference between online and offline UPS?
Online (double conversion) UPS continuously rectifies and inverts the supply; load is
always fed from the inverter. Offline (standby) UPS feeds load directly from mains
and switches to inverter only on failure. Online is better for sensitive loads.

Q. What is the function of a static bypass switch in UPS?

To transfer the load directly to the mains in case of inverter failure or overload,
ensuring continuity of supply.

Q. Why is grounding of DG set required?

To ensure safety of personnel, to provide a return path for fault current and to allow
proper relay operation.

Q. What is the purpose of a battery management system (BMS)?

To monitor the voltage, current, temperature and state of charge of each cell in a
battery pack, balance the cells and protect them from overcharge, deep discharge
and over-temperature.

Q. What is the difference between primary and secondary battery?

Primary battery is non-rechargeable (e.g., dry cell); secondary battery is rechargeable
(e.g., lead-acid, NiCd, Li-ion).

Q. Why is sulphation a problem in lead-acid batteries?

If the battery is left in discharged state for long, lead sulphate crystals harden on the
plates and cannot be converted back during charging, reducing capacity and life.

Q. What is the difference between AC and DC arc?

Electrical Engineering Interview Handbook Page 65

 AC arc passes through zero 100 times a second (50 Hz), making it easier to
extinguish. DC arc has continuous current with no natural zero, so it is much more
difficult to extinguish and requires special breakers.

Q. Why is GIS substation used?

Gas Insulated Substations are compact, use SF6 for insulation, can be installed in
limited spaces (urban areas), are highly reliable and require less maintenance
compared to AIS.

Q. What is the difference between AIS and GIS?

AIS (Air Insulated Substation) uses air for insulation, requires large area but is
cheaper. GIS uses SF6 inside metal enclosures, is compact and reliable but
expensive.

Q. What is the role of an earth pit?

It houses the earth electrode and provides a moist environment with low resistance
for effective dissipation of fault current into the earth.

Q. Why is salt and charcoal added to an earth pit?

Charcoal absorbs and retains moisture, providing a continuously moist environment;
salt increases conductivity by ionising in moisture, both together reduce earth
resistance.

Q. What is chemical earthing?

An earthing method using a special electrode filled with mineral compound that
absorbs moisture and provides very low and stable earth resistance over many years.

Q. What is touch potential and step potential?

Touch potential is the voltage between a person's hand touching an equipment and
his feet on ground during a fault. Step potential is the voltage between two feet of a
person standing near a fault. Both are limited by proper earth mat design.

Q. What is an earth mat?

A network of horizontal earthing conductors buried below ground in a substation to
provide uniform earth potential and limit step and touch voltages during faults.

Electrical Engineering Interview Handbook Page 66

 J. Extended Theory and Field Notes
J.1 Detailed Notes on Three-Phase Systems
In a balanced three-phase system, three voltages of equal magnitude and 120° apart
are generated. The instantaneous power delivered is constant, which is one of the
biggest advantages over a single phase supply where the power pulsates at twice the
supply frequency. This constant power means smoother torque on motors, less
vibration and a longer life of mechanical components such as bearings, couplings
and foundation bolts.
Three-phase systems are also more economical: for transmitting the same amount of
power, a three-phase line uses about 75% of the conductor material required by a
single-phase line of equivalent capability. This is one of the reasons why utilities and
industries universally adopt three-phase generation, transmission and distribution.
Single-phase loads are simply tapped between any one phase and the neutral of the
distribution transformer, taking care to balance the loads across the three phases.

In practice, perfect balance is never achieved because residential and small

commercial loads switch ON and OFF independently. Some unbalance is acceptable,
but if it becomes excessive (more than 2–3%), it causes negative sequence currents
in motors which heat the rotor, increase losses and may trip the motor protection.

J.2 Detailed Notes on Earthing System Design

Designing an earthing system requires soil resistivity measurement, calculation of
earth electrode resistance, step and touch potential analysis and selection of
conductor size. The Wenner four-probe method is the standard for measuring soil
resistivity at different depths. Soil resistivity varies widely from 10 Ω-m in moist clay to
several thousand Ω-m in rocky or sandy soil.

The number of earth electrodes is increased if a single electrode cannot achieve the
required resistance. Two or more electrodes connected in parallel reduce the
resistance, but the spacing must be at least equal to the electrode length so that the
resistance areas do not overlap excessively.

In a substation, an earth mat made of buried horizontal conductors (typically 50 × 6

mm copper or GI strip) and vertical earth rods is designed using IEEE 80 standard.
The mesh size, depth of burial, conductor cross-section and the connection to all
equipment are critical to ensure step and touch voltages remain within safe limits
during a maximum earth fault.

Electrical Engineering Interview Handbook Page 67

 Connections to the earth mat are made by exothermic welding (Cadweld) which gives
a permanent low-resistance joint that cannot loosen with vibration or thermal cycling.
All metallic structures, fences, gates, cable trays and equipment bodies must be
bonded to the earth mat at multiple points.

J.3 Detailed Notes on Transformer Oil Condition Monitoring

Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA)
DGA is the most powerful diagnostic test for oil-filled transformers. A small oil sample
is extracted from a sealed valve, and the gases dissolved in the oil are analysed by
gas chromatography. The interpretation is done using Rogers ratio, Doernenburg
ratio, Duval triangle or IEC 60599 method.
Key gases and their indication: hydrogen (H■) — partial discharge; methane (CH■)
and ethane (C■H■) — low-temperature thermal fault; ethylene (C■H■) —
high-temperature thermal fault above 700 °C; acetylene (C■H■) — arcing fault, the
most serious; carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO■) — deterioration of
cellulose insulation (paper). A sudden rise in any of these gases between two
successive tests is more important than the absolute value.

Furan Analysis
Furan compounds in transformer oil indicate the deterioration of paper insulation,
which is the weakest link in transformer life. The level of 2-furfuraldehyde (2-FAL) is
correlated with the degree of polymerisation (DP) of the paper. When DP drops below
200, the paper has lost its mechanical strength and the transformer is near the end of
its life.

Moisture Content
Moisture in oil and paper insulation drastically reduces dielectric strength and
accelerates ageing. The Karl Fischer titration method is used to measure water
content in oil, expressed in ppm. Acceptable values: less than 10 ppm for new
transformers, less than 25 ppm for service oil. Hot oil filtration with vacuum
dehydration is used to remove moisture and dissolved gases.

J.4 Detailed Notes on Cable Selection and Sizing

Selecting the right cable for a given load involves four major checks: continuous
current carrying capacity, voltage drop, short-circuit withstand and
mechanical/installation considerations.

Step 1 — Calculate the full load current of the load. For a three-phase motor: I = P ×
1000 / (√3 × V × cosφ × η). Apply a safety factor of 1.25 as per most national codes.

Electrical Engineering Interview Handbook Page 68

 Step 2 — Apply derating factors for ambient temperature (cables get derated above
30 °C), grouping (when several cables run in the same tray or trench), depth of laying
(for buried cables) and type of installation (in duct, in air, in cable tray, on ladder etc.).
Manufacturer catalogues and IS 7098 provide the relevant tables.

Step 3 — Check voltage drop. Voltage drop in a three-phase cable is given by Vd =

√3 × IL × L × (R cosφ + X sinφ). The total voltage drop from source to load should be
within 3% for normal feeders and within 5% during motor starting.

Step 4 — Check short-circuit withstand using I²t = K² × A², where K is a constant

depending on conductor material and insulation type and A is the conductor
cross-section in mm². The cable must be able to carry the maximum prospective
short-circuit current for the protection clearance time without damage.

J.5 Detailed Notes on Motor Protection

A modern motor protection relay (MPR) integrates multiple functions in one numerical
device: thermal overload (49), short circuit (50/51), earth fault (50N/51N), stall
protection (locked rotor), starts-per-hour limitation, unbalance and negative sequence
(46), under voltage (27), under current (37, for pumps to detect dry running), reverse
phase (47), differential (87) for large motors and bearing temperature (38).

The thermal overload function uses a thermal replica model that estimates the motor
temperature based on measured current and predicts overheating. It accounts for
previous loading history and ambient temperature using RTDs. This is much more
accurate than a simple bimetallic relay.

For large HV motors (above 1000 kW), differential protection is provided by passing
both ends of each phase winding through CTs and comparing currents — any
difference indicates an internal fault. Stator winding temperature is monitored by
embedded RTDs at multiple points.

J.6 Detailed Notes on Substation Maintenance

Substation maintenance is broadly classified into preventive, predictive and
breakdown maintenance. Preventive maintenance is carried out at fixed intervals as
per a schedule. Predictive maintenance is based on the condition assessment using
techniques like thermography, oil DGA, vibration analysis, partial discharge
measurement and SFRA.

Routine activities include: cleaning of insulators and bushings, tightening of all bolted
connections (with proper torque), checking of oil level and silica gel colour, lubrication
of mechanisms, operation test of breakers and isolators, battery health check, relay
functional test and protection coordination review.

Electrical Engineering Interview Handbook Page 69

 Annual shutdown activities include: IR test of all power and control circuits, oil BDV
and DGA, winding resistance, contact resistance of breakers, timing test, calibration
of relays and meters, thermal imaging of busbars and joints. All test results are
documented for trend analysis.

J.7 Detailed Notes on Safety Practices

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
Mandatory PPE for electrical work includes: safety helmet, safety shoes
(electrical-rated), insulating gloves of correct voltage class (tested every six months),
arc-flash suit for high energy work, face shield, safety goggles, ear plugs in noisy
areas and a fall arrest harness for work at height.

Lockout-Tagout (LOTO)
The five-step LOTO process: (1) notify all affected personnel; (2) shut down the
equipment through normal control; (3) isolate energy sources — open breaker, rack
out, open isolator; (4) apply lock and tag with the worker's name and date; (5) verify
zero energy by testing with a tester before starting work. Only the worker who applied
the lock can remove it after work.

Working at Height
Work above 1.8 m requires a full body harness anchored to a secure point.
Scaffolding must be inspected before use, and a safety net must be provided where
applicable. Hot work in such areas requires a special permit.

First Aid for Electric Shock

(1) Switch off the supply immediately; (2) if not possible, push the victim away with a
dry wooden stick or pull by clothes (never touch directly); (3) check breathing and
pulse; (4) perform CPR if necessary; (5) call medical help and shift to hospital. Even if
the person seems fine, medical checkup is mandatory because internal injuries may
not be immediately visible.

J.8 Detailed Notes on Energy Conservation in Industry

Major opportunities for energy saving in any industry:

• Replace old over-sized motors with high-efficiency IE3 / IE4 motors.

• Install VFDs on centrifugal pumps and fans where load varies, instead of
throttling valves or dampers. Affinity laws say power varies as the cube of speed,
so even a 20% speed reduction saves nearly 50% energy.
• Maintain power factor above 0.95 using APFC panels; reduces both losses and
electricity bills.

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 • Use LED lighting; saves 50–70% over fluorescent and HID lamps with longer life
and better quality of light.
• Eliminate harmonics with filters to reduce losses in transformers and cables.
• Optimise transformer loading; transformer is most efficient at about 50–75%
loading.
• Insulate steam and chilled water pipes to reduce thermal losses.
• Recover waste heat from compressors, kilns and furnaces using heat
exchangers.
• Install smart energy meters and energy management software to monitor and
benchmark consumption.
• Conduct periodic energy audit (Type I — walk through, Type II — detailed, Type
III — investment grade) by a certified energy auditor.

J.9 Detailed Notes on Renewable Energy Integration

Solar PV
A grid-tied solar PV system consists of solar modules, DC combiner box, inverter, AC
distribution panel, net meter and protection devices. Maximum Power Point Tracking
(MPPT) in the inverter ensures that the panels operate at the point of maximum
power output despite variations in irradiance and temperature. Anti-islanding
protection disconnects the inverter from the grid within 2 seconds of grid failure to
ensure safety of utility workers.

Wind
A modern wind turbine generator (WTG) uses a doubly-fed induction generator
(DFIG) or a permanent magnet synchronous generator (PMSG) with a full converter.
Pitch control adjusts the blade angle to regulate the power output. Yaw control rotates
the nacelle to align with the wind direction. Wind farms are integrated to the grid
through a step-up transformer and the park layout is designed to minimise wake
effects between turbines.

Battery Energy Storage System (BESS)

BESS plays a key role in modern grids by smoothing renewable output, providing
frequency support, peak shaving and backup. Lithium-ion is the dominant chemistry
due to high energy density and long cycle life. A BESS consists of battery modules,
BMS, bidirectional converter (PCS), EMS and HVAC for thermal management.

J.10 Detailed Notes on Power Plant Auxiliaries

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 In a thermal power plant, the auxiliary power consumption is typically 8–10% of the
gross generation. Major auxiliaries include boiler feed pump (BFP), induced draft fan
(ID), forced draft fan (FD), primary air fan (PA), coal mills, ash handling system,
cooling water pumps, compressed air system and air-conditioning. Each of these is
driven by a large motor with its own protection and control scheme.

The auxiliary supply is usually fed from a unit auxiliary transformer (UAT) tapped from
the generator terminal, with a station transformer (ST) providing the backup from the
grid. Automatic changeover ensures continuity during unit trip. Critical loads such as
DC battery, emergency lighting and turning gear are fed from an uninterrupted DC
system and a diesel generator.

K. Final Set of Interview Questions

Q. Why is the rotor of an induction motor laminated?
To reduce eddy current losses caused by alternating flux at slip frequency, especially
significant during starting when rotor frequency equals supply frequency.

Q. What is the difference between conduction and convection cooling?

Conduction transfers heat through direct contact of materials; convection transfers
heat by movement of fluids (oil or air). Transformers use both — windings transfer
heat to oil by conduction and oil to atmosphere by convection through radiators.

Q. Why do high voltage cables use stress cones at terminations?

To control and grade the electric field at the end of the insulation, preventing
concentration of stress that could lead to partial discharge and failure.

Q. What is partial discharge?

Localised electrical discharge within an insulation system that does not completely
bridge the electrodes. Continuous PD activity degrades the insulation and eventually
causes breakdown.

Q. What is the difference between live tank and dead tank breaker?
In a live tank breaker, the interrupter is at line potential and the tank is alive; in a dead
tank breaker, the interrupter is inside a grounded metal tank with bushings bringing
the conductors out. Dead tank breakers have integral CTs and are common in 145 kV
and above outdoor switchyards.

Q. Why is the resistance of an electrolyte not constant?

Because the resistance depends on temperature, concentration of ions and applied
voltage; it is non-linear and Ohm's law does not strictly apply.

Q. What is the principle of induction heating?

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 Eddy currents induced in a conductive workpiece by a high-frequency alternating
magnetic field generate heat due to I²R loss. Used in furnaces, brazing and surface
hardening.

Q. What is dielectric heating?

Heating of a non-conductive material by applying high-frequency electric field;
molecular dipoles vibrate and produce heat. Used in plastic sealing and food
processing.

Q. What is skin effect?

Tendency of alternating current to flow near the surface of a conductor; effective
cross-section is reduced and AC resistance becomes higher than DC resistance.
More pronounced at higher frequencies and larger conductors.

Q. What is proximity effect?

Redistribution of current in a conductor caused by the magnetic fields of adjacent
current-carrying conductors. Like skin effect, it increases the effective resistance and
is significant in busbars.

Q. Why is bundled conductor used in EHV transmission?

It increases the effective conductor diameter, reduces voltage gradient at the surface,
reduces corona loss and reduces inductance, allowing more power transfer.

Q. What is corona loss?

Power lost due to partial breakdown of air around HV conductors when the surface
gradient exceeds the disruptive value (about 30 kV/cm at standard temperature and
pressure).

Q. How can corona loss be reduced?

By using bundled conductors, increasing conductor diameter, using corona rings on
hardware, maintaining proper spacing and keeping the surface clean and smooth.

Q. What is Buchholz relay actuation?

Two stages: gas accumulation triggers the upper float for alarm, and oil surge from a
heavy internal fault tilts the lower float for trip.

Q. Why is mineral oil being replaced by ester oil?

Synthetic and natural ester oils are biodegradable, have higher fire point, better
moisture tolerance and are more environment-friendly. They are increasingly used in
distribution and traction transformers.

Q. What is a tap changer?

Device that adds or removes turns from the transformer winding to adjust the voltage
ratio. Off-circuit tap changer (OCTC) requires the transformer to be de-energised;

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 on-load tap changer (OLTC) operates with the transformer in service.

Q. Why is the OLTC located in a separate compartment?

Because OLTC operation generates arcs and gases that should not contaminate the
main tank oil. The OLTC has its own oil, conservator and Buchholz relay (sometimes
called surge relay).

Q. What is the bidirectional power flow in distribution?

With distributed generation (rooftop solar, small wind, BESS), power can flow both
ways in feeders. This affects protection settings, voltage regulation and metering.

Q. What is a smart meter?

An electronic energy meter with two-way communication, capable of remote reading,
time-of-use billing, tamper detection, remote disconnection and power quality
monitoring.
Q. What is net metering?
A billing arrangement where the consumer's solar generation is exported to the grid
and the consumer is billed only for the net energy consumed from the grid in a billing
period.

Q. What is gross metering?

All solar generation is exported to the grid at a feed-in tariff, and the consumer pays
for all consumption at the normal tariff. Two separate meters are used.

Q. Why are renewable sources called intermittent?

Because their output varies with weather and time of day, requiring energy storage,
conventional backup or smart grid management for continuous supply.

Q. What is FRT or LVRT?

Fault Ride Through / Low Voltage Ride Through capability requires renewable
generators to remain connected to the grid during voltage dips for a short time,
supporting grid stability instead of disconnecting.

Q. What is the difference between hot and cold start of a generator?

Cold start is when the machine is at ambient temperature; warm or hot start is when it
is already warm from recent operation. Cold start requires longer pre-warming and
more careful loading to avoid thermal stress.

Q. What is the role of a turning gear in a turbo generator?

It rotates the shaft slowly (a few rpm) when the turbine is on shutdown, to prevent
uneven cooling and bowing of the long shaft.

Q. Why is hydrogen used as a cooling medium in large generators?

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 Hydrogen has 14 times the heat capacity and 7 times the thermal conductivity of air
at the same pressure, and it has much lower density which reduces windage losses.
Sealed hydrogen cooling allows larger generator ratings in compact size.

Q. What is the function of a brushless exciter?

It provides DC excitation to the rotor field through a small rotating rectifier on the
same shaft, eliminating brushes and slip rings, reducing maintenance and improving
reliability.

Q. What is GIS line trap?

A device installed in a transmission line to block carrier frequency signals used in
PLCC (Power Line Carrier Communication) and confine them to the desired section.

Q. What is PLCC?
Power Line Carrier Communication uses the transmission line itself as a
communication medium for protection, telemetry and voice between substations,
using high frequency signal injected via coupling capacitors and line traps.

Q. What is SCADA RTU?

Remote Terminal Unit installed at a substation, it collects data from field devices,
communicates with the SCADA master station and executes commands.

Q. What is IEC 61850?

An international standard for substation automation that defines communication
networks, data models and services for IEDs (Intelligent Electronic Devices).

Q. What is a GOOSE message?

Generic Object-Oriented Substation Event — a fast, reliable, multicast message used
between IEDs in IEC 61850 to exchange trip and interlock signals over Ethernet,
replacing hardwired connections.

Q. What is sampled value (SV) in IEC 61850?

Digital transmission of analogue measurements (current and voltage from a process
bus merging unit) over Ethernet at a fixed sampling rate, eliminating analog wiring
between CT/PT and protection IEDs.

Q. What is condition monitoring?

Continuous online measurement of key parameters (vibration, temperature, oil gas,
partial discharge) of equipment to detect incipient faults and plan maintenance before
failure.

Q. What is reliability-centered maintenance (RCM)?

A structured approach to maintenance planning based on the function, failure modes,
consequences and best maintenance tactic for each asset.

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 Q. What is FMEA?
Failure Mode and Effects Analysis — a systematic technique to identify possible
failure modes of a system, their causes and effects, used in design and maintenance
planning.

Q. What is six sigma?

A data-driven methodology to reduce process defects and variation to less than 3.4
defects per million opportunities.

Q. What is the difference between calibration and verification?

Calibration adjusts an instrument so that it reads accurately compared to a standard.
Verification only checks the accuracy without adjustment.

Q. What is traceability in calibration?

The unbroken chain of comparisons of a measurement back to a national or
international standard, ensuring that the result has known uncertainty and validity.
Q. What is the purpose of a megger guard terminal?
It eliminates the effect of surface leakage current during IR measurement on objects
with contamination, allowing only the true volume resistance to be measured.

Q. What is meant by 'polarity test' in transformer?

Verifies that the primary and secondary terminals have correct relative polarity
(additive or subtractive). Important for parallel operation and for proper vector group
connection.

Q. What is a sumpner test?

The back-to-back test on two identical transformers connected as one source and
one load, allowing simultaneous determination of efficiency and regulation at full load
without absorbing the full power from the supply.

Q. Why is silica gel used outside the transformer?

It is inside the breather, which is mounted outside on the conservator, to absorb
moisture from the air entering the conservator as oil contracts.

Q. What is the significance of impedance voltage of a transformer?

It is the voltage at which rated current flows in the short-circuited secondary,
expressed as a percentage of rated voltage. It limits the short-circuit current and
determines the regulation.

Q. What is meant by tap voltage?

The voltage at each tap of the transformer winding, typically ±5% or ±10% in steps of
2.5% around the nominal value, to compensate for system voltage variation.

Q. Why are dry-type transformers used indoors?

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 Because they have no oil, no fire risk and no risk of oil leakage. They are preferred in
basements, multi-storey buildings, hospitals and shopping malls.

Q. What is the difference between cast resin and VPI dry type transformer?
Cast resin uses epoxy-cast windings, completely sealed and moisture-proof, suitable
for harsh environments. VPI (Vacuum Pressure Impregnation) uses varnish
impregnated coils, less expensive but less moisture-resistant.

Q. Why is the neutral of a generator grounded through resistance?

To limit the earth fault current to a safe value (typically 100–400 A) that allows
protection to operate but does not cause severe damage to the stator core at the fault
point.

Q. What is split phase induction motor?

A single phase motor with two stator windings: main winding and starting winding with
different impedance, producing a phase split to create a weak rotating field for
starting. The starting winding is disconnected by a centrifugal switch when the motor
reaches about 75% of speed.

Q. What is a capacitor start motor?

Similar to split phase but with a capacitor in series with the starting winding, giving a
larger phase split and higher starting torque. Used in compressors and large fans.

Q. What is a capacitor run motor?

Has a permanently connected capacitor in series with the auxiliary winding. Gives
improved power factor and efficiency during running, but lower starting torque.

Q. What is a shaded pole motor?

A small single phase motor with a copper shading ring around a portion of each pole,
producing a weak rotating field for starting. Used in small fans and toys.

Q. What is meant by full-load slip?

The slip at which the motor produces its rated full load output, typically 2–5% for
general purpose motors and up to 8% for high slip motors used in punch presses.

Q. Why does an induction motor draw more reactive power at light load?
Because the magnetising current is almost constant regardless of load, while the
active component is small at light load. The result is a poor power factor at low load.

Q. How can the power factor of an induction motor be improved?

By connecting a capacitor of appropriate kVAR rating across its terminals, by
ensuring it operates near full load and by replacing oversized motors with right-sized
ones.

Q. What is meant by no-load test of an induction motor?

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 The motor is run without any mechanical load and the input power, voltage and
current are measured. From this test, iron loss, friction and windage loss and the
magnetising branch parameters are determined.

Q. What is meant by blocked rotor test?

The rotor is mechanically held and a reduced voltage is applied to the stator so that
the rated current flows. From the measurements, the equivalent impedance, copper
loss and short-circuit characteristics are determined.

Q. What is the use of an equivalent circuit of an induction motor?

It allows the calculation of performance parameters such as torque, slip, current and
efficiency at any load using simple circuit analysis instead of building a prototype and
testing.

Q. What is wave winding?

A type of armature winding in DC machines where the coil ends move forward across
the commutator, giving two parallel paths regardless of poles. Suitable for high
voltage, low current applications.

Q. What is lap winding?

A type of armature winding where the coil ends lap back and connect to adjacent
commutator segments, giving as many parallel paths as poles. Suitable for low
voltage, high current applications.

Q. Why are equaliser rings used in lap windings?

To equalise the slight differences in EMF between parallel paths caused by unequal
flux, preventing circulating currents through the brushes.

Q. Why is the field winding placed on the rotor of a synchronous machine?

Because the field requires only DC at low voltage and current, which can be easily
supplied through slip rings or brushless exciter, while the high-voltage armature
winding is kept stationary on the stator for easier insulation and connection.

Q. What is the difference between excitation and field current?

Excitation is the general term for the DC supply to the field winding; field current is the
actual current flowing through the field winding.

Q. What is the role of an AVR in a generator?

Automatic Voltage Regulator senses the output voltage and adjusts the field
excitation to maintain the voltage at the set value under varying load conditions.

Q. What is meant by short-circuit ratio (SCR) of an alternator?

Ratio of field current required to produce rated voltage on open circuit to the field
current required to circulate rated armature current on short circuit. Higher SCR

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 means better stability but larger machine size.

Q. Why is a synchronous machine called doubly excited?

Because both the stator (by AC supply) and the rotor (by DC excitation) carry
currents that produce magnetic fields, unlike the induction motor where only the stator
is electrically excited.

Q. What is a damper winding?

Copper bars embedded in the pole faces of a synchronous machine, short-circuited
at the ends. They produce damping torque during transients and also act as a starting
winding for synchronous motors.

Q. What is meant by infinite bus?

A bus whose voltage and frequency do not change regardless of the load connected.
Used as a reference in stability studies and represents a very large interconnected
grid.
Q. Why is a generator started in 'house load' before synchronising?
To verify proper operation of the AVR, governor, protection and auxiliaries with a
small load before connecting to the grid. Also used to keep the unit running during
grid disturbance.

Q. What is meant by black start?

The procedure to restore a power station to operation without using the grid, by using
a small diesel generator or hydro unit to start the auxiliaries of the main unit. Essential
for grid restoration after a blackout.

Q. What is system restoration?

The process of restoring a collapsed power grid by starting black-start capable units,
energising transmission lines step by step and synchronising other units.

Q. What is a relay coordination study?

A detailed analysis where all protective relays in a system are set such that the relay
nearest the fault operates first, followed by upstream relays with defined delays,
ensuring minimum disruption.

Q. What software is used for relay coordination?

ETAP, DigSILENT PowerFactory, EasyPower, SKM PowerTools and CYME are
commonly used for load flow, short circuit and relay coordination studies.

Q. What is short-circuit study?

Calculation of fault currents at every bus in a power system for various fault types,
used to select switchgear ratings and to set protection.

Q. What is load flow study?

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 Calculation of voltage magnitude and angle, real and reactive power flow in every line
and bus of a power system under given operating condition. Used for planning and
operation.

Q. What is transient stability study?

Determining whether the system can maintain synchronism after a major disturbance
such as a three-phase fault, using time-domain simulation.

Q. What is the per-unit system?

A normalisation method in which all quantities (voltage, current, power, impedance)
are expressed as fractions of chosen base values, simplifying calculations across
multiple voltage levels.

Q. What is the advantage of per-unit calculation?

Eliminates the need to consider transformer ratios, gives values in a similar range
regardless of system voltage, and is widely accepted in power system analysis.
Q. Why is the synchronous reactance important?
It is the major impedance limiting the steady-state short-circuit current of an alternator
and influences the voltage regulation, power angle and stability.

Q. What is sub-transient and transient reactance?

During a fault, the alternator's reactance is initially very low (sub-transient), then rises
to a transient value, and finally settles at the steady-state synchronous reactance.
Sub-transient reactance determines the initial peak fault current.

Q. What is the difference between fault MVA and breaking MVA?

Fault MVA is the prospective short-circuit MVA at a point. Breaking MVA is the rated
short-circuit interrupting capability of the breaker at its rated voltage.

Q. What does '36 kV, 25 kA, 1250 A' rating mean for a switchgear?
36 kV is the maximum operating voltage, 25 kA is the rated short-circuit breaking
current, and 1250 A is the rated continuous current.

Q. Why is rated current of a feeder usually 1.25 times the load current?
To allow for moderate overloads, future expansion, errors in load estimation and to
ensure the protection device does not trip on normal variations.

Q. Why is a feeder protection time graded with the source-side protection?

So that the feeder breaker clears the fault first; if it fails, the source breaker acts as
backup after a small delay, minimising outage area.

Q. What is reverse power protection?

A protection that trips a generator when the prime mover fails and the machine starts
motoring (drawing power from the grid). This prevents damage to the turbine.

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 Q. What is loss of field protection (40)?
A protection that trips a synchronous generator when its excitation is lost; otherwise
the machine runs as an induction generator drawing heavy reactive power,
overheating the rotor.

Q. What is over-fluxing protection (24)?

Trips the transformer when V/f exceeds the rated value, which can cause core
saturation, high magnetising current and overheating.

Q. What is negative sequence protection (46)?

Detects current unbalance in three phases (negative sequence current), protecting
motors and generators from rotor heating due to slip frequency double the supply
frequency.

Q. What is breaker failure protection (50BF)?

If the main breaker fails to clear a fault within a set time after a trip command, this
protection trips the upstream breakers to clear the fault.

Q. Why are auxiliary contacts (a and b) provided on a breaker?

'a' contact follows the breaker (closed when breaker is closed); 'b' contact is opposite.
Used for indication, interlocking and control.

Q. What is the function of a trip circuit supervision (TCS) relay?

It continuously monitors the trip circuit and gives an alarm if the circuit becomes open
(broken wire, blown fuse, failed trip coil), so that the breaker is not silently rendered
non-trippable.

Q. What is the use of an auto-reclose relay?

On overhead lines, most faults are transient (lightning, branch). Auto-reclose
attempts to close the breaker after a short delay; if the fault is cleared, supply is
restored. If not, the breaker trips and lockouts.

Q. What is a circulating current scheme?

A unit protection scheme where currents from CTs at both ends of the protected zone
are compared via pilot wires; any difference indicates an internal fault.

Q. What is the typical battery bank voltage in a substation?

Commonly 220 V DC, 110 V DC or 48 V DC depending on the application. Battery
cells (lead-acid or Ni-Cd) are sized for at least 8 hours of backup.

Q. Why is the substation battery never deeply discharged?

Deep discharge damages the battery plates and reduces life. Float-boost charging
maintains the battery at full charge with minimum stress.

Q. What is float and boost charging?

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 Float charge maintains the battery at full charge with a constant voltage and small
current. Boost charge is a periodic higher voltage charge used to equalise cells and
reverse sulphation.

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 L. Practical Safety, Documentation and Field
Experience
L.1 Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs)
Every plant has SOPs for routine operations such as switching of breakers, isolators
and transformers, starting and stopping of motors and handling of emergency
situations. SOPs are documented step-by-step instructions written in simple
language. They are reviewed and updated periodically. New engineers must read
and understand all SOPs before being allowed to operate any equipment
independently.

L.2 Maintenance Documentation

Important maintenance documents: equipment register, single line diagram (SLD),
schematic and wiring diagrams, protection setting sheets, calibration reports, test
reports of all routine tests, oil test history, vibration analysis records, thermal imaging
reports, work orders and permit-to-work registers, breakdown analysis (root cause
investigation) and spare parts list with stock levels.

L.3 Mock Drills and Training

Periodic mock drills for fire fighting, first aid, electric shock rescue, evacuation and
emergency switching keep the team prepared. Continuous training programs cover
new technology, safety updates and refresher courses on standards (IS, IEC, IEEE,
NEC).

L.4 Common Site Incidents and Lessons Learned

• Earth fault during commissioning due to a tool left inside the panel — always do
a final visual inspection and clean the panel before energising.
• Burning of CT secondary because the shorting link was forgotten in OPEN
position — apply and remove shorting links carefully and update tags.
• Motor burnt due to single phasing because one HRC fuse blew silently — install
single phase preventer or modern MPR to avoid recurrence.
• Transformer Buchholz alarm during heavy rain — water entered through cracked
breather pipe; replace breather and seal openings.
• VFD output filter failure due to nearby switching transients — install line reactor
and lightning protection on VFD input.

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 • Substation battery low-voltage alarm — charger failed during weekend; install
remote alarm and check battery weekly.
• Cable joint failure leading to fault — joint was made in wet condition; always do
cable jointing in a clean dry environment using approved kit and trained jointer.
• Bus PT explosion due to ferroresonance during isolator switching — install
damping resistor across PT secondary and follow correct switching sequence.

L.5 Final Tips for the Interviewer Meeting

• Be honest about what you know and what you don't; admit politely if you don't
know an answer.
• Answer with confidence in simple language; the interviewer wants to know your
understanding, not memorised lines.
• Always relate your answer to a practical example whenever possible.
• Carry your resume, project report, internship certificates and a notebook with
formulas.
• Dress professionally and arrive at least 15 minutes early.
• Ask thoughtful questions about the role, the team and the technology used in the
company.
• After the interview, send a polite thank-you message to the interviewer.

Electrical Engineering Interview Handbook Page 84

 M. Additional Field-Oriented Topics
M.1 Cable Termination and Jointing
Cable termination is the process of preparing the end of a cable to be connected to a
piece of equipment such as a transformer, breaker or motor. For low voltage cables,
lugs are crimped or soldered to the conductor and heat-shrinkable sleeves protect the
insulation. For high voltage cables (11 kV and above), heat-shrinkable,
cold-shrinkable or push-on terminations are used. These terminations have
stress-control material that grades the electric field, preventing partial discharge at
the sharp edge of the cable screen.
Cable jointing is even more critical because the joint creates a new section of
insulation in the middle of a cable run. A bad joint is the most common cause of cable
failure. The jointer must be trained and certified. The work must be carried out in a
clean and dry environment, using an approved jointing kit. Before energising, an IR
test and a HiPot DC test are done to verify the integrity of the joint.

M.2 Power Capacitor Bank Protection

Capacitor banks improve power factor but are very sensitive devices. Common
failures include internal element short, bushing flashover, can rupture and harmonic
overloading. Protections provided: unbalance protection (detects internal element
failure by sensing the unbalance current or voltage), overcurrent, overvoltage,
undervoltage, inrush limiting reactor, detuned reactor to avoid resonance with system
harmonics and a fast acting fuse on each can.

During switching, capacitor banks draw very high inrush current (about 100 times
rated current for a few milliseconds) and produce high voltage transients. A series
reactor of 5–7% impedance limits the inrush and detunes the LC circuit away from the
dominant harmonic frequencies.

M.3 Lightning Protection for Buildings and Substations

A lightning protection system consists of air terminations (rods), down conductors and
earth termination network. The rolling sphere method is used to determine the
protected zone. For tall buildings, lightning rods are installed at the highest points and
connected to dedicated earth electrodes through low-impedance down conductors
routed to minimise inductance.

In a substation, lightning is intercepted by overhead shield wires (earth wires) above

the phase conductors and by surge arresters installed near the equipment. Both work
together: shield wires reduce the probability of a direct strike on the phase

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 conductors, while surge arresters limit the magnitude of any surge that does reach
the equipment.

M.4 Heating, Ventilation in Electrical Rooms

Switchgear rooms, transformer rooms and battery rooms must be properly ventilated
to remove the heat dissipated by losses and to prevent the build-up of explosive
gases (hydrogen from lead-acid batteries). Forced ventilation with at least 8–10 air
changes per hour is typical for battery rooms. Cable trenches and basements should
also have natural or forced ventilation to prevent moisture build-up. Air-conditioning is
provided for relay rooms and control rooms to maintain temperature and humidity
within the limits required by electronic equipment.

M.5 Fire Protection of Electrical Equipment

Electrical fires are usually caused by short circuits, insulation failure, loose
connections and overload. Detection systems include smoke detectors, heat
detectors and gas detectors. For indoor switchgear, water mist or clean agent
(FM-200, Novec 1230) systems are used because water and foam are not suitable for
energised electrical equipment. Outdoor transformers are protected by water spray
(deluge) systems with adequate oil drain and containment. Cable trenches use
fire-resistant cable, fire stopping at compartment penetrations, and fire-rated barriers
to prevent fire propagation.

M.6 Substation Earthing Tests

After installation of the earth mat, the following tests are performed: earth resistance
(should meet design value), earth grid continuity (resistance between any equipment
body and the main grid should be very low), step and touch voltage measurement
using current injection test (typically 100 A injected via a remote current electrode and
step/touch voltages measured with high impedance voltmeter), and verification that
all metallic parts are properly bonded.

M.7 Pre-Commissioning Tests Checklist

• Visual inspection of all components against drawings.
• Verification of name plate ratings.
• Insulation resistance test of all power and control wiring.
• Continuity test of all interlocks and trip circuits.
• Polarity, ratio, magnetising and burden tests of CTs and PTs.
• Secondary injection test of all relays at site settings.

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 • Primary injection test for important protections like differential and REF.
• Functional test of all alarms, trips, indications and remote signals.
• Operation test of all breakers, isolators and earth switches in manual, local and
remote.
• Verification of phase sequence at all incomers and outgoings.
• Direction of rotation check for all motors before coupling to load.
• Battery charger and DC system check.
• Final hand-over with as-built drawings and test reports.

M.8 Common Standards and Codes

Standard Subject Region

IS 1180 Distribution transformers India

IS 2026 Power transformers India

IS 3043 Code of practice for earthing India

IS 5039 Distribution pillars India

IS 13947 Low voltage switchgear India

IEC 60044 Instrument transformers International

IEC 60076 Power transformers International

IEC 60255 Measuring relays and protection International

IEC 60909 Short-circuit current calculation International

IEC 61850 Substation automation International

IEEE 80 Substation grounding USA / International

IEEE 519 Harmonic control in power systems USA / International

NEC / NFPA 70 National Electrical Code USA

M.9 Glossary of Common Terms

Abbreviation Full Form

ACB Air Circuit Breaker

AVR Automatic Voltage Regulator

BDV Breakdown Voltage

BIL Basic Insulation Level

CB Circuit Breaker

CBCT Core Balance Current Transformer

CCT Critical Clearing Time

Electrical Engineering Interview Handbook Page 87

 Abbreviation Full Form

CT Current Transformer

CVT Capacitive Voltage Transformer

DGA Dissolved Gas Analysis

DOL Direct On Line

ELCB Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker

EMS Energy Management System

FACTS Flexible AC Transmission System

GIS Gas Insulated Substation

HVDC High Voltage Direct Current

HRC High Rupturing Capacity (fuse)

IED Intelligent Electronic Device

IGBT Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor

IP Ingress Protection

IR Insulation Resistance

LBS Load Break Switch

MCB Miniature Circuit Breaker

MCCB Moulded Case Circuit Breaker

MPR Motor Protection Relay

NGR Neutral Grounding Resistor

OCB Oil Circuit Breaker

OLTC On Load Tap Changer

PD Partial Discharge

PF Power Factor

PLC Programmable Logic Controller

PMSM Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor

PT Potential Transformer

RCCB Residual Current Circuit Breaker

REF Restricted Earth Fault

RMU Ring Main Unit

RTD Resistance Temperature Detector

SCADA Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition

SCR Silicon Controlled Rectifier / Short-Circuit Ratio

SF6 Sulphur Hexafluoride

SFRA Sweep Frequency Response Analysis

Electrical Engineering Interview Handbook Page 88

 Abbreviation Full Form

SLD Single Line Diagram

THD Total Harmonic Distortion

TR Ton of Refrigeration

UPS Uninterruptible Power Supply

VCB Vacuum Circuit Breaker

VFD Variable Frequency Drive

WTG Wind Turbine Generator

M.10 Useful Formulas Quick Reference

Quantity Formula

Ohm's Law V=I×R

Power, single phase P = V × I × cosφ

Power, three phase P = √3 × VL × IL × cosφ

Apparent Power S = V × I or √(P² + Q²)

Reactive Power Q = V × I × sinφ

Power Factor cosφ = P / S

Synchronous Speed Ns = 120 × f / P

Slip s = (Ns − N) / Ns × 100%

Rotor Frequency fr = s × f

EMF (transformer) E = 4.44 × f × N × Φm

Back EMF (DC) Eb = (P × Φ × Z × N) / (60 × A)

Torque (DC) T = (P × Φ × Z × Ia) / (2π × A)

Power developed (alternator) P = (E × V / Xs) × sinδ

Voltage drop, 3-ph Vd = √3 × IL × L × (R cosφ + X sinφ)

Energy E (kWh) = P (kW) × t (h)

Capacitor kVAR Qc = V² × 2π × f × C

Short-circuit current Isc = base I / per-unit Z

Star to line voltage VL = √3 × Vph

Delta to line current IL = √3 × Iph

Efficiency η = Output / Input × 100%

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 N. Extra Practice Question Bank
This final set contains additional short-and-detailed question-and-answer pairs
covering frequently asked topics in oral interviews. Read through them once a day
during your preparation period.

Q. Why are conductors in transmission lines stranded?

Stranded conductors are flexible, easier to handle, less prone to mechanical failure
due to vibration and have lower skin effect compared with solid conductors of the
same cross-section.

Q. What is meant by sag in overhead lines?

Sag is the vertical distance between the conductor at the lowest point and the
imaginary straight line joining the two supports. Sag is necessary to keep mechanical
tension within safe limits considering temperature changes and ice/wind loads.
Q. What are the factors affecting sag?
Conductor weight, span length, conductor tension, ambient temperature, ice loading
and wind pressure.

Q. What is meant by ACSR conductor?

Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced — has aluminium strands for current carrying
and a steel core for mechanical strength. Widely used in transmission lines.

Q. What is meant by underground cable?

Cables laid underground in trenches or ducts. They are used in cities and industrial
areas where overhead lines are not practical. Higher cost but better reliability and
aesthetics.

Q. What is meant by cross-bonding of cable sheaths?

A technique used in long HV cable installations to eliminate circulating currents in
metallic sheaths by cross-connecting the sheaths at periodic intervals.

Q. Why is a sheath provided on power cables?

To provide mechanical protection, a moisture barrier, electrostatic shielding and a
path for charging and capacitive currents.

Q. What is meant by water tree in cables?

A tree-like microscopic structure that forms in XLPE insulation due to ingress of
moisture under electric field. Eventually causes failure of the cable. Modern cables
use TR-XLPE (tree-retardant) insulation.

Q. What is meant by transposition of transmission lines?

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 Interchanging the position of three conductors at fixed intervals along the line to
balance the inductance and capacitance of all three phases, reducing communication
interference and voltage unbalance.

Q. Why are insulators used on transmission lines?

To electrically isolate the live conductor from the supporting tower while mechanically
supporting the conductor. Made of porcelain, glass or polymer composite.

Q. What is meant by string efficiency of insulators?

Ratio of voltage across the whole string to (number of insulators × voltage across the
unit nearest to the conductor). It is always less than 100% due to capacitance to
earth; equalised by grading rings or arcing horns.

Q. Why are arcing horns provided on insulator strings?

To divert any flashover from the insulator surface to the horns, protecting the insulator
from damage.
Q. What is the function of dampers on overhead lines?
To absorb vibration caused by wind (aeolian vibration), preventing fatigue failure of
conductors at the clamps.

Q. What is meant by short circuit MVA?

The fault MVA = √3 × VL × Isc. It is the product of the rated voltage and the
prospective short-circuit current. Determines the switchgear rating.

Q. What is meant by SLG, LL, LLL faults?

Single line to ground (most common), line to line, and three line (three phase) faults.
Three-phase faults give the highest fault current but are least frequent; SLG faults are
most common but lower magnitude.

Q. What is meant by symmetrical and asymmetrical fault current?

Symmetrical fault current is the steady-state AC component. Asymmetrical includes a
DC offset component that decays with time and can momentarily double the peak
current. Switchgear must withstand the peak asymmetrical value.

Q. Why is a DC offset present in fault current?

Because the inductance of the system prevents an instantaneous change of current;
the DC component appears so that the total current is continuous through the
moment of fault and decays exponentially based on X/R ratio.

Q. What is meant by X/R ratio at a fault location?

Ratio of system reactance to resistance at the fault point. Determines the time
constant of the DC offset decay and the asymmetrical peak current.

Q. What is the difference between fault clearance time and operating time?

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 Operating time is the time taken by the relay to issue the trip command. Fault
clearance time includes operating time + breaker opening time + arc interruption time.

Q. Why is a fault recorder used?

To capture the waveform of voltage and current during a fault for post-event analysis,
helping to understand the fault behaviour and verify the relay operation.

Q. What is COMTRADE?
COmmon format for TRAnsient Data Exchange — a standard file format used to store
fault recorder data so that it can be read by software from different vendors.

Q. What is a sequence component?

Any unbalanced three-phase system can be decomposed into three balanced sets:
positive sequence (same sequence as system), negative sequence (reverse
sequence), and zero sequence (all three in phase). Used in fault analysis.
Q. Why does an open conductor cause negative sequence current?
Because the loss of one phase creates an unbalance that, by symmetrical
components, contains a negative sequence component. This heats up rotors of
motors and generators.

Q. What is the importance of negative sequence voltage in detecting faults?

It is zero in a balanced healthy system; any abnormal value indicates unbalance such
as open phase or unsymmetrical fault.

Q. What is meant by current chopping in vacuum breakers?

VCBs may interrupt small currents (a few amperes) before the natural current zero,
causing high voltage transients due to L di/dt. Surge capacitors and arresters are
installed to limit this.

Q. What is restriking voltage and recovery voltage?

Restriking voltage is the transient voltage that appears across the breaker contacts
immediately after current interruption; recovery voltage is the steady-state power
frequency voltage that follows. Both are critical for breaker design.

Q. Why does a transformer hum?

The hum is caused by magnetostriction — the slight change in dimension of the core
laminations as the magnetic flux alternates. Higher flux density and looser core
construction increase the hum.

Q. Why is core grain orientation important?

CRGO (cold rolled grain oriented) steel has its grain aligned in the rolling direction.
Flux travelling in this direction encounters minimum reluctance and minimum loss.
Hence CRGO is the standard core material.

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 Q. Why is amorphous metal used in some distribution transformers?
Amorphous (non-crystalline) metal core has very low hysteresis loss, leading to
extremely low no-load loss. Suitable for utility distribution transformers which are
energised 24×7 with low average load.

Q. What is the function of core bolts?

To hold the core laminations together with proper clamping pressure, reducing
vibration and noise. They must be insulated from the laminations to prevent shorted
turns in the core.

Q. What is core earthing?

The core of an oil-filled transformer is earthed at one point to drain induced charges;
multiple earthing points can create circulating currents and hot spots. Core earth
current can be monitored to detect insulation problems.

Q. Why is the no-load loss of a transformer constant?

Because the supply voltage and the core flux are essentially constant; therefore
hysteresis and eddy current losses in the core are constant regardless of load.

Q. Why does the no-load current of a transformer contain harmonics?

Because the core is non-linear (B-H curve saturates). To produce a sinusoidal flux,
the magnetising current must be non-sinusoidal, rich in 3rd, 5th, and 7th harmonics.

Q. What is meant by inrush current of a transformer?

When a transformer is switched on, the residual flux in the core may add to the
steady-state flux, causing the core to saturate and drawing very high magnetising
current (6–10 times rated) for several cycles. Differential protection must be
desensitised to inrush using 2nd harmonic blocking.

Q. Why is the differential relay biased?

To remain stable against unequal CT errors, magnetising inrush and tap changer
operation. Bias (restraint) increases the operating threshold proportionally with the
through current.

Q. What is meant by stability of differential protection?

The ability of the relay to remain inoperative for external faults, when through-fault
current is high, without falsely tripping due to CT saturation.

Q. Why is REF relay called a high-impedance scheme?

Because the relay coil has a high series impedance, and during external faults the
voltage across the relay remains small (the unbalance current circulates through the
low-impedance CT secondary loop). Internal faults produce a high voltage that
operates the relay.

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 Q. Why is REF relay faster than ordinary earth fault relay?
Because it is a unit (zone) protection without time grading; it operates instantaneously
for any earth fault inside the protected zone.

Q. What is the difference between unit and non-unit protection?

Unit protection (differential, REF) protects only a defined zone and is highly selective
without time delay. Non-unit protection (overcurrent, distance) has overlapping zones
and uses time grading.

Q. What are the typical Zone 1, 2, 3 settings of a distance relay?

Zone 1: 80% of line, instantaneous. Zone 2: 120% of line, 0.3–0.4 s delay. Zone 3:
120% of line plus longest adjacent line, 0.8–1.0 s delay. Settings depend on line
lengths and grid topology.

Q. What is mho relay?

A distance relay whose operating characteristic on the R-X plane is a circle passing
through the origin. It is directional and inherently provides directional control.

Q. What is a quadrilateral characteristic?

A polygonal relay characteristic on the R-X plane, allowing independent reach setting
in resistive and reactive directions. Used in modern distance relays for better fault
resistance coverage.

Q. What is power swing?

An oscillation of generator rotor angle following a disturbance, causing apparent
impedance seen by distance relay to vary. Power swing blocking is required to
prevent the relay from tripping during stable swings.

Q. What is out-of-step tripping?

A protection that detects loss of synchronism and trips a unit, separating it from the
system to prevent damage.

Q. Why is a generator equipped with stator earth fault protection?

An earth fault in the stator winding can cause core damage at the fault point. Earth
fault protection trips the unit quickly to limit damage. For unit-connected generators
with NGT, a 100% stator earth fault scheme using third harmonic voltage is used.

Q. What is the function of a TCS (Trip Circuit Supervision)?

Continuously checks the integrity of the trip coil and circuit. Sends an alarm if the trip
coil or circuit becomes open, so that maintenance can fix it before the next fault
occurs.

Q. What is the typical setting of an overload relay?

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 1.0 to 1.2 times the motor full load current. Class 10 trips in 10 seconds at 600%
current, Class 20 in 20 seconds, Class 30 in 30 seconds — selected based on the
motor starting time.

Q. What is the difference between Class 10 and Class 20 overload relay?

Class 10 is faster, used for normal duty motors. Class 20 is slower, used for high
inertia loads that take longer to accelerate.

Q. What is meant by motor service factor?

A multiplier on the rated power that the motor can carry continuously without damage.
Common values: 1.0 for general purpose, 1.15 for premium efficiency motors.

Q. Why does motor insulation life halve for every 10 °C rise?

Because chemical degradation of organic insulation doubles for every 10 °C rise as
per Arrhenius law. This is the basis of insulation classes and continuous temperature
limits.
Q. How is motor winding temperature measured?
Embedded PT100 RTDs in the slot or PTC thermistors in the end winding, connected
to the motor protection relay or temperature monitor.

Q. What is a winding hot-spot?

The location in the winding with the highest temperature, often inside the slot near the
end. Hot-spot temperature is the actual limiting parameter for insulation life.

Q. What is rotor angle stability?

The ability of synchronous machines to remain in synchronism after a disturbance.
Loss of stability leads to loss of synchronism and possibly cascading blackout.

Q. What is voltage stability?

The ability of the power system to maintain steady voltages at all buses after a
disturbance. Loss leads to voltage collapse.

Q. What is frequency stability?

The ability to maintain frequency within acceptable limits after a large generation-load
imbalance. Frequency control involves governor, AGC and load shedding.

Q. What is AGC?
Automatic Generation Control — automatic adjustment of generator output to
maintain system frequency and tie-line power within scheduled limits.

Q. What is meant by spinning reserve?

Generators that are synchronised to the grid and ready to take additional load within
seconds. Maintained to handle sudden loss of generation.

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 Q. Why is reactive power compensation needed?
To maintain voltage at acceptable levels, reduce losses and increase power transfer
capability. Provided by capacitor banks, reactors, synchronous condensers, SVCs
and STATCOMs.

Q. Why is a shunt reactor used on EHV lines?

To absorb the capacitive charging reactive power of long lines and limit voltage rise
during light load (Ferranti effect).

Q. What is series compensation?

Connecting capacitors in series with a transmission line to compensate part of its
inductance, increasing the line power transfer capability.

Q. What is sub-synchronous resonance?

Interaction between a series-compensated line and the torsional modes of nearby
turbo-generators, causing dangerous mechanical oscillations on the shaft. Must be
carefully studied and mitigated.

Q. What is FACTS device SVC?

Static VAR Compensator — a controlled shunt reactive power source using TCR
(thyristor controlled reactor) and TSC (thyristor switched capacitor) for fast voltage
support.

Q. What is STATCOM?
Static Synchronous Compensator — a voltage-source converter-based shunt reactive
compensation device, faster and more compact than SVC.

Q. What is UPFC?
Unified Power Flow Controller — a combination of STATCOM and series static
synchronous compensator, capable of controlling voltage, active and reactive power
simultaneously.

Q. Why is a generator step-up transformer of YNd1 vector group?

Delta on the generator side suppresses third harmonics circulating in the generator;
star on the HV side provides the neutral for solidly earthing the transmission system
and for differential protection.

Q. What is meant by a 'rated voltage 11 kV ±10%' system?

The system voltage is nominally 11 kV but can vary between 9.9 and 12.1 kV; all
equipment is designed to operate continuously within this range.

Q. Why is a transformer thermometer of 'maximum reading' type?

It records the highest temperature reached during the day so that maintenance can
monitor for any abnormal heating, even if temperature dropped before the reading

Electrical Engineering Interview Handbook Page 96

 was taken.

Q. What is meant by sealed tank or hermetically sealed transformer?

A transformer without conservator, where the oil and the gas space above it are
sealed. Oil expansion is accommodated by the corrugated tank walls. Avoids
contamination from atmosphere.

Q. Why are transformer bushings hollow?

Inside the porcelain shell, an oil-impregnated paper insulation surrounds the
conductor; the hollow shape allows graded insulation with capacitor layers for HV
bushings.

Q. What is a condenser bushing?

An HV bushing with a series of conducting layers separated by insulation (paper or
epoxy), grading the voltage uniformly from the conductor to the earthed flange.
Q. Why is a bushing tan delta test important?
It detects deterioration of the bushing insulation, which is a common cause of
transformer failure. Online bushing monitoring with tap-point sensors is used in
critical units.

Q. What is gas chromatography in DGA?

An analytical technique that separates and quantifies individual gases dissolved in
transformer oil based on their physical and chemical properties.

Q. Why is the maximum allowed acetylene very low in DGA?

Acetylene forms only at very high temperatures (above 700 °C) associated with
arcing faults. Even a small concentration indicates a serious internal arcing problem
requiring immediate investigation.

Q. What is dehumidifier breather?

An electronic breather with a heater that regenerates the silica gel automatically when
it becomes saturated, eliminating the need for periodic replacement.

Q. What is bladder type conservator?

A conservator with an internal rubber bladder that separates the oil from the air,
allowing free expansion while preventing oil-air contact and oxidation.

Q. What is the function of a pressure relief valve (PRV)?

Releases pressure inside the transformer tank during severe internal faults,
preventing tank rupture. Operates at 5–10 psi above normal pressure.

Q. Why is a magnetic oil level indicator preferred?

Because it provides a visible indication of oil level and also has electrical contacts for
remote alarm and trip when level falls below safe limit.

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 Q. What is the typical oil quantity in a 31.5 MVA, 132/33 kV transformer?
Roughly 25–30 thousand litres including the conservator. Exact value depends on
design and manufacturer.

Q. Why is silica gel breather installed below the conservator?

To keep it accessible for inspection and replacement at ground level rather than at
the top of the transformer.

Q. What is the function of an oil pump in OFAF cooling?

It forces the oil through the radiators and the windings, increasing the heat transfer
coefficient and allowing higher loading of the transformer.

Q. What is the function of a flow indicator on the oil pump?

It monitors the flow of oil through the cooler and gives an alarm if the pump fails or the
flow is obstructed.
Q. What is online dissolved gas analyser?
A field-installed instrument that continuously monitors the level of one or more key
gases in transformer oil and gives an alarm when limits are exceeded, enabling early
detection of faults.

Q. Why is moisture worse than oil contamination?

Moisture rapidly migrates from oil into the cellulose insulation, accelerating its ageing
and reducing dielectric strength dramatically. Oil can be filtered easily, but paper
cannot be dried in service without offline treatment.

Q. What is online drying of transformer?

A technique using molecular sieves and oil circulation to remove moisture from the
paper insulation while the transformer is in service, extending its life.

Q. What is the difference between online and offline monitoring?

Online monitoring uses sensors installed permanently for continuous measurement
and alarm. Offline monitoring uses portable instruments during scheduled inspection
and shutdown.

Q. Why is a transformer ratio test done at low voltage?

Because we are only verifying the turns ratio, not the insulation. Low voltage is safe
to apply and is sufficient to measure the ratio accurately.

Q. What is the purpose of vector group test?

To verify that the phase relationship and connection of the transformer match the
nameplate, especially important before parallel operation.

Q. Why is the resistance of transformer windings measured at multiple taps?

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 Because a fault in any tap position would not be detected if only one tap is checked.
All taps are checked to ensure healthy contacts and connections.

Q. What is meant by 'reference temperature' in winding resistance test?

All measured resistances are corrected to a standard reference temperature (usually
75 °C) using the temperature coefficient of copper, for comparison with the factory
value.

Q. Why is the polarity of CT important?

Wrong polarity will cause incorrect operation of differential and directional relays. The
polarity mark (P1 to S1 and P2 to S2) must be carefully verified during
commissioning.

Q. What is the difference between 5P10 and 5P20 CT class?

Both are protection CTs with 5% composite error; 5P10 maintains accuracy up to 10
times rated current, 5P20 up to 20 times. Higher ALF (Accuracy Limit Factor) is
needed for systems with high fault current.

Q. Why is metering CT designed to saturate at low current?

To protect the connected measuring instruments from damage during high fault
currents.

Q. What is the difference between IDMT and definite time relay?

Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) operating time decreases with current as per
a curve (standard inverse, very inverse, extremely inverse). Definite time relay
operates after a preset constant time regardless of current.

Q. What is the use of high-set element in an overcurrent relay?

To provide instantaneous tripping for high magnitude faults near the relay location,
while the IDMT element handles lower magnitude faults with time grading.

Q. Why is an inverse curve used for overcurrent protection?

Because higher currents indicate faults closer to the source needing faster clearance;
lower currents may indicate overloads which can be tolerated longer. The inverse
characteristic naturally provides this.

Q. What is meant by directional overcurrent relay?

An overcurrent relay with a directional element (using voltage as reference) so that it
operates only for faults in a specific direction. Used in ring main and parallel feeders
to ensure selectivity.

Q. Why is voltage polarisation required for directional element?

Because direction is determined by the phase relation between current and a stable
reference voltage. The reference must come from a healthy phase even during a

Electrical Engineering Interview Handbook Page 99

 fault.

Q. Why is the synchronising relay (25) needed?

To check voltage magnitude, frequency and phase angle between two systems
before paralleling, preventing damage that would occur if connected out of step.

Q. What is meant by dead bus charging?

Energising a dead busbar from a live source through the breaker after verifying that
the bus is dead and the source is live, typically through a synchronising check relay
with bypass.

Q. What is bus differential protection?

A high-speed differential scheme that compares the sum of currents entering and
leaving a busbar; any imbalance indicates a bus fault and the relay trips all incoming
breakers.
Q. Why is bus protection critical?
Because a busbar fault can result in loss of a major substation and wide outage; fast
clearance limits damage and outage area.

Q. What is the importance of grounding switch interlock?

Prevents closing the earth switch on a live circuit, which would cause a dead
three-phase fault. Mechanical and electrical interlocks are mandatory.

Q. Why are all metallic parts in a substation bonded together?

To ensure equipotential during faults, so that no dangerous voltage difference exists
between any two metal objects that a person might touch.

Q. What is the standard symbol for an earthing switch?

A short line with an arrow pointing down to a line, often drawn at right angles to the
disconnector blade in an SLD.

Q. Why is the substation control room kept air-conditioned?

To maintain the temperature and humidity required by sensitive electronic relays,
PLC, SCADA and battery chargers, ensuring reliable operation and longer life.

Q. What is meant by gas density monitor in an SF6 breaker?

A pressure-temperature compensated gauge that measures the equivalent SF6 gas
density. Alarm at 5% loss, trip lockout at 10% loss to avoid breaker operation with
inadequate insulation.

Q. Why is SF6 gas hazardous to environment?

It is a potent greenhouse gas with global warming potential 23,500 times that of CO2.
Hence leak monitoring, recovery during maintenance and proper disposal are
mandatory.

Electrical Engineering Interview Handbook Page 100

 Q. What is the maintenance of an outdoor transformer?
Daily: oil level, oil temperature, winding temperature, silica gel colour, leakage,
abnormal sound. Monthly: cleaning, tightness check, breather replacement if needed.
Yearly: oil BDV/DGA, IR test, all electrical tests, OLTC oil check. Three to five yearly:
detailed condition assessment, SFRA, internal inspection if required.

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 Closing Note
This handbook has presented the most important theoretical concepts and practical
knowledge required for technical interviews in the electrical engineering domain.
Mastery of these topics, combined with hands-on experience and continuous
learning, will help you stand out in any interview and build a successful career in
power, industrial, substation, testing or HVAC fields. Best wishes for your success.

— End of Book —

Electrical Engineering Interview Handbook Page 102