General Physics — Quick Reference
STUDY GUIDE
General Physics
Kinematics · Newton's Laws · Energy & Momentum · Waves · Thermodynamics · Electricity & Magnetism · Optics · Modern
Physics
This guide condenses the core formulas, laws, and problem-solving patterns from a typical introductory physics sequence
(mechanics + E&M) into a fast, exam-ready reference. Each section pairs key results with a short worked example so you can see
the method applied. Use it to review before exams and to check your setup on problems — it works best alongside real practice,
not instead of it.
1. Kinematics
1.1 Constant Acceleration Equations
v = v₀ + at
x = x₀ + v₀t + ½at²
v² = v₀² + 2a(x − x₀)
Example — Free fall
A ball drops from rest and falls 20 m. Find its speed at impact (g = 9.8 m/s²).
v² = 0 + 2(9.8)(20) = 392 → v ≈ 19.8 m/s
1.2 Projectile Motion
• Horizontal and vertical motion are independent — analyze each axis separately.
• Horizontal velocity is constant (no horizontal force, ignoring air resistance).
Range: R = v₀²sin(2θ)/g (for launch and landing at the same height)
• Vertical motion follows the constant-acceleration equations with a = −g.
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General Physics — Quick Reference
2. Newton's Laws & Forces
2.1 The Three Laws
Law Statement
First (Inertia) An object at rest/in motion stays that way unless acted on by a net force
Second Net force causes acceleration: F_net = ma
Third For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction
2.2 Common Forces
Weight: W = mg
Friction: f ≤ μN (μs for static, μk for kinetic; use = for max static or kinetic)
Spring (Hooke's Law): F = −kx
2.3 Free-Body Diagram Method
• Isolate the object; draw every force acting on it as a vector from its center.
• Choose axes (often along/perpendicular to motion or an incline) and resolve forces into components.
• Apply ΣF = ma independently along each axis.
Example — Block on incline
Block on frictionless incline at angle θ.
Along incline: mg sinθ = ma → a = g sinθ
Perpendicular: N = mg cosθ
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General Physics — Quick Reference
3. Work, Energy & Power
3.1 Work & Kinetic Energy
W = Fd cosθ (θ = angle between force and displacement)
Work–energy theorem: W_net = ΔKE = ½mv_f² − ½mv_i²
3.2 Potential Energy & Conservation
Gravitational PE: U_g = mgh Elastic PE: U_s = ½kx²
Conservation of energy (no friction/non-conservative forces): KE_i + U_i = KE_f + U_f
Example — Energy conservation on a slide
A 2 kg block starts at rest at height 5 m on a frictionless slide.
mgh = ½mv² → v = √(2gh) = √(2·9.8·5) ≈ 9.9 m/s at the bottom.
3.3 Power
P = W/t = Fv (instantaneous power when F and v are parallel)
4. Momentum & Collisions
4.1 Momentum & Impulse
p = mv; Impulse J = FΔt = Δp
Conservation of momentum (isolated system): p_total,before = p_total,after
Collision Type Key Feature
Elastic Both momentum and kinetic energy conserved
Inelastic Momentum conserved; kinetic energy is not
Perfectly inelastic Objects stick together after collision
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General Physics — Quick Reference
5. Circular Motion & Rotation
5.1 Uniform Circular Motion
Centripetal acceleration: a_c = v²/r; Centripetal force: F_c = mv²/r
Centripetal force is not a new force — it's the net inward force (gravity, tension, normal force, etc.) required to keep an object
moving in a circle.
5.2 Rotational Analogs of Linear Quantities
Linear Rotational Relation
x (position) θ (angle) x = rθ
v (velocity) ω (angular velocity) v = rω
a (acceleration) α (angular acceleration) a = rα
F (force) τ (torque) τ = rF sinθ
Rotational form of Newton's 2nd law: τ_net = Iα
m (mass) I (moment of inertia) I = Σmr²
Angular momentum: L = Iω (conserved when τ_net = 0)
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General Physics — Quick Reference
6. Waves & Sound
6.1 Basic Wave Relationships
v = fλ (wave speed = frequency × wavelength)
Period: T = 1/f
• Transverse waves: particle motion is perpendicular to wave travel (e.g., light, string waves).
• Longitudinal waves: particle motion is parallel to wave travel (e.g., sound).
6.2 Sound & the Doppler Effect
Doppler shift (observer moving, source stationary): f_obs = f_source (v ± v_obs)/v
Frequency increases as source and observer approach each other, and decreases as they move apart.
6.3 Standing Waves
Boundary Condition Allowed Wavelengths
String fixed at both ends λₙ = 2L/n
Pipe open at both ends λₙ = 2L/n
Pipe closed at one end λₙ = 4L/n (n odd only)
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General Physics — Quick Reference
7. Thermodynamics
7.1 Temperature & Heat
Q = mcΔT (specific heat); Q = mL (phase change, L = latent heat)
7.2 The Laws of Thermodynamics
Law Statement
Zeroth If A is in thermal equilibrium with B, and B with C, then A is with C
First ΔU = Q − W (energy is conserved; W = work done by the system)
Second Entropy of an isolated system never decreases; heat flows hot → cold spontaneously
7.3 Ideal Gas Behavior
PV = nRT
For an ideal gas, internal energy depends only on temperature — this is why ΔU = 0 for an isothermal process.
8. Electricity & Magnetism
8.1 Coulomb's Law & Electric Field
F = kq₁q₂/r² (k ≈ 8.99×10⁹ N·m²/C²)
Electric field: E = F/q = kQ/r²
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General Physics — Quick Reference
8.2 Circuits
Ohm's Law: V = IR
Power: P = IV = I²R = V²/R
Configuration Equivalent Resistance Equivalent Capacitance
Series R_eq = R₁ + R₂ + … 1/C_eq = 1/C₁ + 1/C₂ + …
Parallel 1/R_eq = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂ + … C_eq = C₁ + C₂ + …
• Kirchhoff's current law: total current into a junction equals total current out.
• Kirchhoff's voltage law: the sum of voltage changes around any closed loop is zero.
8.3 Magnetism
Force on a moving charge: F = qvB sinθ
Force on a current-carrying wire: F = BIL sinθ
Direction found via the right-hand rule: point fingers along v (or I), curl toward B; thumb gives F for positive charge (reverse for
negative).
9. Optics
9.1 Reflection & Refraction
Snell's Law: n₁ sinθ₁ = n₂ sinθ₂
Thin lens/mirror equation: 1/f = 1/d_o + 1/d_i; magnification m = −d_i/d_o
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General Physics — Quick Reference
10. Modern Physics & Self-Test
10.1 Key Relations
Photon energy: E = hf = hc/λ
Mass–energy equivalence: E = mc²
de Broglie wavelength: λ = h/p
10.2 Practice Questions
(a) A car accelerates from rest at 3 m/s² for 5 s. Find its final velocity and distance traveled.
Hint: v = at = 15 m/s; x = ½at² = 37.5 m.
(b) A 4 kg cart moving at 3 m/s collides and sticks to a stationary 2 kg cart. Find the final velocity.
Hint: perfectly inelastic — momentum conserved: (4)(3) = (6)v → v = 2 m/s.
(c) Two 3 Ω resistors are connected in parallel. Find the equivalent resistance.
Hint: 1/R_eq = 1/3 + 1/3 = 2/3 → R_eq = 1.5 Ω.
(d) Light travels from air (n=1.00) into glass (n=1.50) at 30° incidence. Find the refraction angle.
Hint: sinθ₂ = (1.00/1.50)sin30° = 0.333 → θ₂ ≈ 19.5°.
10.3 Common Mistakes to Watch For
Area Frequent Error
Kinematics Mixing up signs for direction (e.g., forgetting a = −g when 'up' is positive).
Forces Confusing normal force with weight — N equals mg only on a flat, non-
accelerating surface.
Energy Applying energy conservation when friction or another non-conservative force is
present.
Circuits Adding resistors in series when they're actually wired in parallel, or vice versa.
Optics Forgetting to measure angles from the normal, not from the surface itself.
10.4 A Simple Review Cycle
• Day 1: Rewrite each boxed formula from memory, then check against this guide.
• Day 2: Work one worked example per section without notes, then compare your steps.
• Day 3: Do mixed practice problems that don't announce their topic — that's the real exam skill.
Good luck — steady review beats a single long cram session every time.
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