Engineering Mathematics — Quick Reference

STUDY GUIDE

Engineering Mathematics
ODEs · Laplace Transforms · Fourier Series · Linear Algebra · Vector Calculus · Complex Analysis · PDEs

This guide condenses the core methods, formulas, and theorems used throughout an engineering mathematics sequence into a fast,
exam-ready reference. Each section pairs the key results with a short worked example so you can see the method applied, not just
stated. Use it alongside your coursework to review concepts, check your setup on problems, and refresh formulas before exams —
it's a companion for practice, not a replacement for working problems yourself.

1. First- and Second-Order ODEs

1.1 Separable & Linear First-Order
Separable: dy/dx = g(x)h(y) → ∫ dy/h(y) = ∫ g(x) dx
Linear: y′ + p(x)y = q(x) → μ(x) = e^∫p dx, y = (1/μ)∫ μ·q dx + C
Example — Linear first-order
Solve y′ + 2y = e^{-x}.
μ = e^{2x}; (e^{2x}y)′ = e^{x} → e^{2x}y = e^{x} + C
y = e^{-x} + Ce^{-2x}

1.2 Second-Order Linear, Constant Coefficients

For ay″ + by′ + cy = 0, form the characteristic equation ar² + br + c = 0:
Roots General Solution
Real, distinct r₁ ≠ r₂ y = C₁e^{r₁x} + C₂e^{r₂x}
Real, repeated r y = (C₁ + C₂x)e^{rx}
Complex α ± iβ y = e^{αx}(C₁cos βx + C₂sin βx)

1.3 Undetermined Coefficients — Trial Forms

Term in g(x) Trial yₚ
Polynomial degree n Anxⁿ + … + A₀
e^{kx} Ae^{kx} (× x^m if k is a root of multiplicity m)
sin kx or cos kx A cos kx + B sin kx

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2. Laplace Transforms
2.1 Core Definition & Properties
L{f(t)} = F(s) = ∫₀^∞ e^{-st} f(t) dt
f(t) F(s)
1 1/s
t^n n!/s^{n+1}
e^{at} 1/(s−a)
sin ωt ω/(s²+ω²)
cos ωt s/(s²+ω²)
e^{at}f(t) F(s−a) (shifting)
f′(t) sF(s) − f(0)
f″(t) s²F(s) − sf(0) − f′(0)

2.2 Solving ODEs with Laplace

• Transform both sides, using initial conditions directly (no separate constant-solving step).
• Solve the resulting algebraic equation for Y(s).
• Invert using tables and partial fractions to recover y(t).
Example — IVP via Laplace
y″ + 4y = 0, y(0)=1, y′(0)=0
s²Y − s + 4Y = 0 → Y(s) = s/(s²+4)
y(t) = cos 2t

2.3 Convolution
(f * g)(t) = ∫₀^t f(τ)g(t−τ) dτ ⇔ L{f * g} = F(s)G(s)

3. Fourier Series & Transforms

3.1 Fourier Series on [−L, L]
f(x) = a₀/2 + Σ [aₙ cos(nπx/L) + bₙ sin(nπx/L)]
aₙ = (1/L)∫_{-L}^{L} f(x)cos(nπx/L) dx, bₙ = (1/L)∫_{-L}^{L} f(x)sin(nπx/L) dx
• Even f(x): only cosine terms survive (bₙ = 0).
• Odd f(x): only sine terms survive (aₙ = 0).

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3.2 Half-Range Expansions
For f defined on [0, L], extend evenly for a pure cosine series or oddly for a pure sine series — this is the standard approach for
PDE boundary-value problems.
Example — Fourier sine series
f(x) = 1 on (0, π), odd extension.
bₙ = (2/π)∫₀^π sin(nx) dx = (2/nπ)(1 − cos nπ)
Nonzero only for odd n: bₙ = 4/(nπ) for n odd.

4. Linear Algebra
4.1 Matrix Operations & Determinants
2×2 determinant: |A| = ad − bc for A = [[a,b],[c,d]]
3×3 (cofactor expansion along row 1): |A| = a₁₁C₁₁ − a₁₂C₁₂ + a₁₃C₁₃

4.2 Eigenvalues & Eigenvectors

det(A − λI) = 0 → eigenvalues λ; (A − λI)v = 0 → eigenvectors v
Example — 2×2 eigenproblem
A = [[4,1],[2,3]]
det(A−λI) = (4−λ)(3−λ) − 2 = λ² − 7λ + 10 = 0
λ = 5, 2
λ=5: (A−5I)v=0 → v = (1,1)ᵀ. λ=2: v = (1,−2)ᵀ

4.3 Systems of Linear Equations

• Gaussian elimination: reduce to row-echelon form, back-substitute.
• A system Ax = b has a unique solution iff det(A) ≠ 0.
• Cramer's rule: xᵢ = det(Aᵢ)/det(A), where Aᵢ replaces column i with b.

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5. Vector Calculus
5.1 Gradient, Divergence, Curl
Operator Definition Result Type
grad f = ∇ f (∂f/∂x, ∂f/∂y, ∂f/∂z) Vector field
div F = ∇ ·F ∂F₁/∂x + ∂F₂/∂y + ∂F₃/∂z Scalar
curl F = ∇ ×F determinant form with ∂/∂x,∂/∂y,∂/∂z Vector field

5.2 Integral Theorems

Green's Theorem: ∮_C (P dx + Q dy) = ∬_D (∂Q/∂x − ∂P/∂y) dA
Divergence (Gauss) Theorem: ∬_S F·n dS = ∭_V (∇·F) dV
Stokes' Theorem: ∮_C F·dr = ∬_S (∇×F)·n dS
• Use Green's/Divergence/Stokes to convert a hard boundary integral into an easier region/volume integral, or vice versa.

6. Complex Analysis
6.1 Cauchy–Riemann Equations
For f(z) = u(x,y) + iv(x,y) to be analytic:
∂u/∂x = ∂v/∂y and ∂u/∂y = −∂v/∂x

6.2 Cauchy's Integral Formula & Residues

f(a) = (1/2πi) ∮_C f(z)/(z−a) dz
∮_C f(z) dz = 2πi · Σ (residues of f inside C)
For a simple pole at z = a: Res(f, a) = lim_{z→a} (z−a)f(z).

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7. Partial Differential Equations

7.1 The Big Three, Classified
Equation Form Type
Heat/Diffusion uₜ = c²uₓₓ Parabolic
Wave uₜₜ = c²uₓₓ Hyperbolic
Laplace uₓₓ + uᵧᵧ = 0 Elliptic

7.2 Separation of Variables — Method

• Assume u(x,t) = X(x)T(t); substitute and separate variables to a constant −λ.
• Solve the resulting ODEs for X(x) and T(t) separately, applying boundary conditions to X first (this yields the allowed λₙ,
i.e. eigenvalues).
• Superpose: u(x,t) = Σ Xₙ(x)Tₙ(t), then match the initial condition using a Fourier series to fix the coefficients.
Example — Heat equation on a rod
uₜ = c²uₓₓ, 0<x<L, u(0,t)=u(L,t)=0, u(x,0)=f(x)
Separation gives Xₙ(x) = sin(nπx/L), Tₙ(t) = e^{-c²(nπ/L)² t}
u(x,t) = Σ bₙ sin(nπx/L) e^{-c²(nπ/L)² t}, bₙ from Fourier sine series of f(x)

8. Quick Formula Index

Topic Key Formula
Wronskian W(y₁,y₂) = y₁y₂′ − y₁′y₂
Variation of parameters yₚ = −y₁∫y₂g/W dx + y₂∫y₁g/W dx
Euler's formula e^{iθ} = cos θ + i sin θ
Taylor series f(x) = Σ f⁽ⁿ⁾(a)(x−a)ⁿ/n!
Parseval (Fourier) (1/L)∫|f|² dx = a₀²/4 + ½Σ(aₙ²+bₙ²)

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9. How to Use This Guide Effectively

9.1 Before You Start a Problem Set
• Skim the relevant section here to reload the formula and the shape of the method — don't re-derive from scratch every time.
• Identify which 'family' the problem belongs to (separable ODE? Laplace-friendly IVP? boundary-value PDE?) before
picking a technique.

9.2 Common Mistakes to Watch For

Area Frequent Error
Undetermined coefficients Forgetting to multiply trial solution by x (or x²) when it duplicates the
homogeneous solution.
Laplace transforms Dropping initial-condition terms when transforming derivatives.
Fourier series Using the full formula for aₙ, bₙ on an even/odd function instead of the simplified
half-range version.
Eigenvalue problems Sign errors in det(A − λI); forgetting to normalize or check eigenvectors satisfy
(A−λI)v=0.
Line/surface integrals Mismatched orientation between the curve/surface and the theorem being applied
(Green's, Stokes', Divergence).

9.3 A Simple Review Cycle

• Day 1: Re-derive each boxed formula once by hand from first principles.
• Day 2: Work one worked example per section from memory, then check against this guide.
• Day 3: Do mixed practice problems that don't tell you which method to use — that's the real exam skill.

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10. Practice Problems (Self-Test)

Try each before checking your method against the relevant section above. Answers/setup hints follow each problem.

10.1 ODEs
(a) Solve y′ − 3y = e^{2x}.
Hint: linear first-order, μ = e^{-3x}; expect y = −e^{2x} + Ce^{3x}.
(b) Solve y″ − 5y′ + 6y = 0.
Hint: characteristic roots r = 2, 3; y = C₁e^{2x} + C₂e^{3x}.

10.2 Laplace
(c) Find L{t²e^{3t}}.
Hint: use the shifting property on L{t²} = 2/s³.

10.3 Linear Algebra

(d) Find the eigenvalues of A = [[2,0],[0,5]].
Hint: diagonal matrix — eigenvalues are the diagonal entries themselves.

10.4 Fourier / PDE

(e) Set up (don't fully solve) the separated ODEs for the wave equation uₜₜ = c²uₓₓ with u(0,t)=u(L,t)=0.
Hint: X″ + λX = 0 with X(0)=X(L)=0; T″ + c²λT = 0.

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11. Final Exam-Day Checklist

11.1 Formulas to Have Cold (No Look-Up Needed)
• Characteristic equation roots → solution form table (Section 1.2).
• Core Laplace transform pairs for 1, t^n, e^{at}, sin/cos, and the derivative rules (Section 2.1).
• Fourier coefficient formulas and even/odd simplifications (Section 3.1).
• Cauchy–Riemann equations and the residue theorem (Section 6).
• Classification table for heat/wave/Laplace equations (Section 7.1).

11.2 Ten-Minute Warm-Up Routine

• Write the characteristic-equation table from memory.
• Write the 8 Laplace pairs from memory, then check against Section 2.1.
• Do one separation-of-variables setup end-to-end without notes.

11.3 During the Exam

• Classify the problem type before writing anything — five seconds of ID saves minutes of false starts.
• Write out boundary/initial conditions explicitly before solving; they determine which constants survive.
• Sanity-check answers: does y(0) match the given IC? Is the eigenvector actually in the null space of (A−λI)?

Good luck — consistent short review sessions beat one long cram every time.

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