ENGINEERING PHYSICS

UNIT V LASERS

INTRODUCTION:
LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Laser technology
started with Albert Einstein in 1917, he has given theoretical basis for the development of
Laser. The technology further evolved in 1960 when the very first laser called Ruby Laser was
built at Hughes Research Laboratoriesby T.H. Mainmann.
CHARACTERISTIC OF LASER RADIATION:
The laser beam has the properties given below which distinguish it from an ordinary beam of
light. Those are
1. Highly directional
2. Highly monochromatic
3. Highly intense
4. Highly coherence

1. Highly directional:
A conventional light source emits light in all directions. On the other hand, Laser emits
light only in one direction. The width of Laser beam is extremely narrow and hence a laser
beam can travel to long distances without spreading.

The directionality of laser beam is expressedin terms of divergence

𝑟2 − 𝑟1
∆𝜃 =
𝑑2 − 𝑑1
Where r1and r2are the radii of laser beam spots at distances of d1 and d2 respectively from laser
source.

2. Highly monochromatic:
A monochromatic source is a single frequency or single wavelength source of light.
The laser light is more monochromatic than that of a convectional light source. This may be
due to the stimulated characteristic of laser light. The band width of convectional
monochromatic light source is 1000A0. But the band width of ordinary light source is 10 A0.
For high sensitive laser source is 10-8 A0.

3. Highly intense:
Laser light is highly intense than the conventional light. A one milli-Watt He-Ne laser is
highly intense than the sun intensity. This is because of coherence and directionality of laser.

DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES ©MRCET (EAMCET CODE: MLRD) 51

ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Suppose when two photons each of amplitude ‘A’ are in phase with other, then young’s
principle of superposition, the resultant amplitude of two photons is 2A and the intensity is 4a2.
Since in laser many numbers of photons are in phase with each other, the amplitude of the
resulting wave becomes ‘nA’ and hence the intensity of laser is proportional to n2A2. So 1mw
He-Ne laser is highly intense than the sun.

4. Highly coherence
A predictable correlation of the amplitude and phase at any one point with other point is
called [Link] case of conventional light, the property of coherence exhibits between a
source and its virtual source where as in case of laser the property coherence exists between
any two sources of same phase.
There are two types of coherence
i) Temporal coherence
ii) Spatial coherence.

Temporal coherence (or longitudinal coherence):

The predictable correlation of amplitude and phase at one point on the wave train w .r. t
another point on the same wave train, then the wave is said to be temporal coherence.

Spatial coherence (or transverse coherence):

The predictable correlation of amplitude and phase at one point on the wave train w. r .t
another point on a second wave, then the waves are said to be spatial coherence (or transverse
coherence).Two waves are said to be coherent when the waves must have same phase &
amplitude.

INTERACTION OF LIGHT WITH MATTER AND THE THREE

QUANTUM PROCESSES:
When the radiation interacts with matter, results in the following three important
phenomena. They are
(i)Induced or Stimulated Absorption
(ii)Spontaneous Emission
(iii)Stimulated Emission

STIMULATED ABSORPTION (OR) INDUCED ABSORPTION (OR) ABSORPTION:

An atom in the lower energy level or ground state energy level (E 1) absorbs the incident photon
and goes to excited state (E2) as shown in figure below. This process is called induced or
stimulated absorption.

DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES ©MRCET (EAMCET CODE: MLRD) 52

ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Let E1 and E2 be the energies of ground and excited states of an atom. Suppose,
if a photon of energy E2−E1 = hν interacts with an atom present in the ground state, the atom
gets excitation form ground state E 1 to excited state E2 . This process is called stimulated
absorption.

Stimulated absorption rate depends upon the number of atoms available in the lowest
energy state as well as the energy density of photons.

SPONTANEOUS EMISSION:

The atom in the excited state returns to ground state emitting a photon of energy (E) =
E2 – E1 = hv, without applying an external energy spontaneously is known as spontaneous
emission.
Let E1 and E2 be the energies of ground and excited states of an atom. Suppose, if
photon of energy E2− E1 = hν interacts with an atom present in the ground state, the atom gets
excitation form ground state E1 to excited state E2
The excited atom does not stay for a long time in the excited state. The excited atom
gets de-excitation after its life time by emitting a photon of energy E2− E1 = hν . This process is
called spontaneous emission.
The spontaneous emission rate depends up on the number of atoms present in the excited state.
The probability of spontaneous emission (P21) is independent of u(𝜗).
𝑃21 = 𝐴21

STIMULATED-EMISSION:

The atom in the excited state can also returns to the ground state by applying external
energy or inducement of photon thereby emitting two photons which are having same energy
as that of incident photon. This process is called as stimulated emission.

Stimulated emission was postulated by Einstein. Let E 1 and E2 be the energies of

ground and excited states of an atom. Let a Photon of energy E 2-E1=hυ interacts with the
excited atom with in their life time The atom gets de-excitation to ground state by emitting of
another photon.

DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES ©MRCET (EAMCET CODE: MLRD) 53

ENGINEERING PHYSICS

These photons have same phase and it follows coherence. This phenomenon is called
stimulated emission

Stimulated emission rate depends upon the number of atoms available in the
excitedstate as well as the energy density of photons.

Comparison between Spontaneous and Stimulated emission:

Spontaneous emission Stimulated emission

1. The spontaneous emission Was 1. The stimulated emission was

Postulated by Bohr. Postulated by Einstein.

2. Additional photons are not required 2. Additional photons are required in

in spontaneous emission. Stimulated emission.

3. One Photon is emitted in 3. Two photons are emitted in

spontaneous emission. stimulated emission.

4. The emitted radiation is incoherent. 5. The emitted radiation is coherent.

5. The emitted radiation is less intense. 6. The emitted radiation is high intense.

Light Amplification:

Light amplification requires stimulated emission exclusively. In practice, absorption

and spontaneous emission always occur together with stimulated emission. The laser operation
is achieved when stimulated emission exceeds the other two processes due to its higher
transitions rates of atomic energy levels.

DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES ©MRCET (EAMCET CODE: MLRD) 54

ENGINEERING PHYSICS

EINSTEIN COEFFICIENTS & THEIR RELATIONS

Einstein coefficients:
Einstein mathematically expressed the statistical nature of the three possible radiative
transition routes (spontaneous emission, stimulated emission, and absorption) with the so-
called Einstein coefficients and quantified the relations between the three processes.
Let N1 be the number of atoms per unit volume with energy E 1 and N2 be the number of
atoms per unit volume with energy E 2. Let ‘n’ be the number of photons per unit volume at
frequency ‘υ’ such that E2– E1= ℎ𝜗 Then, the energy density of photons E= ℎ𝜗 .

 Stimulated absoption: When the photons interact with the atoms it leads to absorption
transition which is called as stimulated absorption. Stimulated absorption rate depends
upon the number of atoms available in the lowest energy state as well as the energy
density photons.
Stimulated absorption rate ∝ N1

= B12 N1
Where B12 is the Einstein coefficient of stimulated absorption.
 Spontaneous emission: The atom in the excited state returns to ground state emitting a
photon of energy (E) = E2 – E1 =hν, without applying an external energy spontaneously
is known as spontaneous [Link] spontaneous emission rate depends up on the
number of atoms present in the excited state.
Spontaneous emission rate N 2
= A21 N 2
Where A21 is the Einstein coefficient of spontaneous emission.
 Stimulated emission: The atom in the excited state can also returns to the ground state
by applying external energy or inducement of photon thereby emitting two photons
which are having same energy as that of incident photon. This process is called as
stimulated emission. Stimulated emission rate depends upon the number of atoms
available in the excited state as well as the energy density of incident photons.
Stimulated emission rate N 2

= B21 N 2
Where B21 is the Einstein coefficient of stimulated emission.
If the system is in equilibrium, the rates of absorption transitions (Stimulated
absorption) are equal to emission transitions(The rate of Spontaneous + Stimulated emission).
The rate of Absorption = The rate of Spontaneous + Stimulated emission

DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES ©MRCET (EAMCET CODE: MLRD) 55

ENGINEERING PHYSICS

According to Boltzmann distribution law

According to Planck’s radiation formula the energy density of photon is given by,

Comparing eq.(1) & eq.(2), we get

POPULATION INVERSION:
The number of atoms present in the excited (or higher) state is greater than the number
of atoms present in the ground energy state (or lower state) is called population inversion.
Let us consider two level energy systems of energies E1and E2as shown in figure. Let
N1 and N2 be the population (means number of atoms per unit volume) of E1and E2
respectively.
According to Boltzmann’s distribution the population of an energy level E, at temperature T
is given by
𝐸
(− 𝑖 )
𝑁𝑖 = 𝑁𝑜 𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑖 = 1,2,3, … . 𝑁𝑖

DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES ©MRCET (EAMCET CODE: MLRD) 56

ENGINEERING PHYSICS

where ‘N0’ is the number of atoms in ground or lower energy states & k is the Boltzmann
constant.
From the above equation the population of energy levels E 1& E2 are given by
E
(− 1 )
𝑁1 = 𝑁𝑜 𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇

𝐸
(− 2 )
𝑁2 = 𝑁𝑜 𝑒 𝑘𝐵 𝑇

At ordinary conditions N1>N2 i.e., the population in the ground or lower state is always
greater than the population in the excited or higher states. The stage of making, population of
higher energy level greater than the population of lower energy level is called population
inversion i.e., N2>N1.

METASTABLE STATE:In general the number of excited particles in a system is smaller

than the non excited particles. The time during which a particle can exist in the ground state is
unlimited. On the other hand, the particle can remain in the excited state for a limited time
known as life time.
The life time of the excited hydrogen atom is of the order of 10 -8sec. However there exist such
excited states in which the life time is greater than 10 -8sec. These states are called as Meta
stable states.
PUMPING MECHANISMS (OR TECHNIQUES):
Pumping:
The process of rising more no of atoms to the excited state by artificial means is called
pumping.
A system in which population inversion is achieved is called as an active system. The
method of raising the particles from lower energy state to higher energy state is called
pumping. (or the process of achieving of population inversion is called pumping). This can be
done by number of ways. The most commonly used pumping methods are
 Optical pumping
 Electrical discharge pumping
 Chemical pumping
 Injection current pumping

DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES ©MRCET (EAMCET CODE: MLRD) 57

ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Optical pumping:
Optical pumping is used in solid laser. Xenon flash tubes are used for optical pumping.
Since these materials have very broad band absorption, sufficient amount of energy is absorbed
from the emission band of flash lamp and population inversion is created. Examples of
optically pumped lasers are ruby, Nd: YAG Laser ( Y3 AL5G12 )
(Neodymium: Yttrium Aluminum Garnet), Nd: Glass Laser
Electrical discharge pumping:
Electrical discharge pumping is used in gas lasers. Since gas lasers have very narrow
absorption band pumping them any flash lamp is not possible. Examples of Electrical
discharge pumped lasers are He-Ne laser, CO2 laser, argon-ion laser, etc
Chemical pumping:
Chemical reaction may also result in excitation and hence creation of population
inversion in few systems. Examples of such systems are HF and DF lasers.
Injection current pumping:
In semiconductors, injection of current through the junction results in creates of
population inversion among the minority charge carriers. Examples of such systems are InP
and GaAs.
PRINCIPLE OF LASER/LASING ACTION:
Let us consider many no of atoms in the excited state. Now the stimulating photon
interacts with any one of the atoms in the excited state, the stimulated emission will occur. It
emits two photons, having same energy &
same frequency move in the same direction.
These two photons will interact with another
two atoms in excited state & emit 8-
photons. In a similar way chain reaction is
produced this phenomenon is called
“Principle of lasing –action”. We get a
monochromatic, coherent, directional &
intense beam is obtained. This is called laser beam. This is the principle of working of a laser.

Components of a LASER:
Any laser system consists of 3-important components. They
are
(i) Source of energy or pumping source
(ii) Active-medium (Laser Material)
(iii)Optical cavity or resonator
(i) Energy Source : It supply energies & pumps the atoms or
molecules in the active medium to excited states. As a result
we get population inversion in the active medium which emits
laser.

DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES ©MRCET (EAMCET CODE: MLRD) 58

ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Ex: Xenon flash lamp, electric field.

(ii) Active medium: The medium in which the population inversion takes place is called as
active medium.
Active-centre: The material in which the atoms are raised to excited state to achieve
population inversion is called as active center.
(iii) Optical-cavity or resonator: The active medium is enclosed between a fully reflected
mirror & a partially reflective mirror. This arrangement is called as cavity or resonator. As a
result, we get highly intense monochromatic, coherence laser light through the non-reflecting
portion of the mirror.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF LASERS
On the basis of active medium used in the laser systems, lasers are classified into several types
I. Solid lasers : Ruby laser, Nd;YAG laser, Nd;Glass
II. Liquid lasers : Europium Chelate laser, SeOCl2
III. Gas lasers : CO2, He-Ne, Argon-Ion Laser
IV. Dye lasers : Rhodamine 6G
V. Semiconductor lasers : InP, GaAs.

RUBY LASER
Ruby laser is a three level solid state laser and was developed by Mainmann in 1960.
Ruby (Al2O3+Cr2O3) is a crystal of Aluminium oxide, in which 0.05% of Al+3 ions are replaced
by the Cr+3 ions. The colour of the ruby rod is pink. The active medium in the ruby rod is Cr +3
ions.
Principle or Characteristics of a ruby laser:
Due to optical pumping, the chromium atoms are raised to excited states then the atoms come
to metastable state by non-radiative transition. Due to stimulated emission the transition of
atoms takes place from metastable state to ground state and gives a laser beam.
Construction:
 In ruby laser 4cm length and 5mm diameter rod is generally used.
 Both the ends of the rods are highly polished and made strictly parallel.
 The ends are silvered in such a way, one becomes partially reflected and the other end
fully reflected.
 The ruby rod is
surrounded by xenon
flash tube, which
provides the pumping
light to excite the
chromium ions in to
upper energy levels.

DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES ©MRCET (EAMCET CODE: MLRD) 59

ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Xenon flash tube emits thousands joules of energy in few milli seconds, but only a part
of that energy is utilized by the chromium ions while the rest energy heats up the
apparatus.
 A cooling arrangement is provided to keep the experimental set up at normal
temperatures.
Working:
 The energy level diagram of chromium ions is shown in figure.
 The chromium ions get excitation into higher energy levels by absorbing of 5600A0 of
wave length radiation.
 The excited chromium ions stay in the level H for short interval of time (10 -8 Sec).
 After their life time
most of the
chromium ions are
de-excited from H
to G and a few
chromium ions are
de-excited from H
to M.

 The transition between H and M is non-radioactive transition i.e. the chromium ions
gives their energy to the lattice in the form of heat.
 In the Meta stable state the life time of chromium ions is 10 -3 sec.
 Due to the continuous working of flash lamp, the chromium ions are excited to higher
state H and returned to M level.
 After few milli seconds the level M is more populated than the level G and hence the
desired population inversion is achieved.
 The state of population inversion is not a stable one.
 The process of spontaneous transition is very high.
 When the excited chromium ion passes spontaneously from H to M it emits one
photon of wave length 6943A0.
 The photon reflects back and forth by the silver ends and until it stimulates an excited
chromium ion in M state and it to emit fresh photon in phase with the earlier photon.
 The process is repeated again and again until the laser beam intensity is reached to a
sufficient value.
 When the photon beam becomes sufficient intense, it emerges through the partially
silvered end of the rod.
 The wave length 6943A0 is in the red region of the visible spectrum on returning to
ground state (G).

DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES ©MRCET (EAMCET CODE: MLRD) 60

ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Uses of Ruby laser:

- Used in distance measurement using ‘pulse echo technique’
- Used for measurement of plasma properties such as electron density and temperature.
- Used to remove the melanin of the skin.
- Used for recording pulsed holograms.
- Used as target designators and range finders in military.
Draw backs of Ruby laser:
- It requires high pumping power.
- The efficiency of ruby laser is very small. It is a pulse laser.

He-Ne LASER
It was discovered by A. Javan & his co-workers in 1960. It is a continuous wave gas laser. It
consists of mixture of He & Ne in 10:1 ratio as a active medium.

Principle/Characteristics of He-Ne laser:

This laser is based on the principle of stimulated emission, produced in the He & Ne. The
population inversion is achieved due to the interaction between He & Ne [Link] gas
lasers, we can achieve highly coherent, directional and high monochromatic beam.

Construction:
 In He-Ne gas laser, the He and Ne gases are taken in the ratio 10:1 in the discharge
tube.
 Two reflecting mirrors are fixed on either ends of the discharge tube, in that, one is
partially reflecting and the other is fully reflecting.
 In He-Ne laser 80cm length and 1cm diameter discharge tube is generally used.
 The output power of these lasers depends on the length of the discharge tube and
pressure of the gas mixture.
 Energy source of laser is provided by an electrical discharge of around 1000V through
an anode and cathode at each end of the glass tube.

DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES ©MRCET (EAMCET CODE: MLRD) 61

ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Working:
 When the electric discharge is passing through the gas mixture, the electrons
accelerated towards the positive electrode.
 During their passage, they collide with He atoms and excite them into higher levels.
 F2 and F3 form F1. In higher levels F2 and F3, the life time of He atoms is more.
 So there is a maximum possibility of energy transfer between He and Ne atoms
through atomic collisions.
 When He atoms present in the levels F2 and F3 collide with Ne atoms present ground
state E1, the Ne atoms gets excitation into higher levels E 4 andE6.

 Due to the continuous excitation of Ne atoms, we can achieve the population inversion
between the higher levels E4 (E6) and lower levels E3 (E5).
 The various transitions E6→ E5, E4→ E3 and E6→ E3 leads to the emission of
wavelengths 3.39A⁰, 1.15 A⁰ and 6328A0.
 The first two corresponding to the infrared region while the last wavelength is
corresponding to the visible region.
 The Ne atoms present in the E3 level are de-excited into E2 level, by spontaneously
emission of photon.
 When a narrow discharge tube is used, the Ne atoms present in the level E2 collide
with the walls of the tube and get de-excited to ground level E1.
Uses of He-Ne laser:
- Used in laboratories foe all interferometric experiments.
- Used widely in metrology in surveying, alignment etc.
- Used to read barcodes and He-Ne laser scanners also used for optical character
recognition.
- Used in holography.
CO2 laser :
The CO2 laser was one of the gas laser,these are the highest power continuous wave lasers that
are currently available,they are also quite efficient .The ratio of output power to pump power
can be as large as 20%.

DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES ©MRCET (EAMCET CODE: MLRD) 62

ENGINEERING PHYSICS

The CO2 laser produces a beam of infrared light with the principle wavelength bands centering
around 9.6 and 10.6 µm.
Principle: The principle of carbon di oxide laser is transition between vibrational states of the
same electronic states by achieving population inversion between these states.
For the laser action two points are important ,one is the population inversion between the two
levels and second increased density of the incident radiation.
Vibrational states in co2 molecules:
A carbon dioxide molecule has a carbon atom at the centre with two oxygen atoms attached,
one at both sides. Such a molecule exhibits three independent modes of vibrations. They are

a) Symmetric stretching mode.

b) Bending mode
c) Asymmetric stretching mode.

a) Symmetric stretching mode :In this mode of vibration, carbon atoms are at rest and both
oxygen atoms vibrate simultaneously
along the axis of the molecule departing
or approaching the fixed carbon atoms

b)Bending mode:
In this mode of vibration, oxygen
atoms and carbon atoms vibrate
perpendicular to molecular axis.
.

c)Asymmetric Stretching Mode :

In this mode of vibration, oxygen atoms
and carbon atoms vibrate asymmetrically,
i.e., oxygen atoms move in one
direction while carbon atoms in the other
direc

Consturction:

DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES ©MRCET (EAMCET CODE: MLRD) 63

ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 It consists of a quartz tube 5 m long and 2.5 cm in the diameter.

 This discharge tube is filled with gaseous mixture of CO2 (active medium), helium and
nitrogen with suitable partial pressures.
 The terminals of the discharge tubes are connected to a D.C power supply.
 The ends of the discharge tube are fitted with NaCl Brewster windows so that the laser
light generated will be polarized.
 Two concave mirrors one fully reflecting and the other partially form an optical
resonator.

Working :
Figure shows energy levels of nitrogen and carbon dioxide molecules.

 A mixture of CO2 , N2 and helium or water vapour is used as active medium here.
 When an electric discharge occurs in the gas, the electrons collide with nitrogen molecules
and they are raised to excited states. This process is represented by the equation.

N2 + e* = N2* + e
N2 = Nitrogen molecule in ground state e* = electron with kinetic energy
N2* = nitrogen molecule in excited state e= same electron with lesser energy
 Now N2 molecules in the excited state collide with CO2 atoms in ground state and excite
to higher electronic, vibrational and rotational levels. This process is represented by the
equation

N2* + CO2 = CO2* + N2

N2* = Nitrogen molecule in excited state.
CO2 = Carbon dioxide atoms in ground state
CO2* = Carbon dioxide atoms in excited state
N2 = Nitrogen molecule in ground state.

DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES ©MRCET (EAMCET CODE: MLRD) 64

ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Since the excited level of nitrogen is very close to the E5 level of CO2 atom, population in
E5 level increases.
 As soon as population inversion is reached, any of the spontaneously emitted photon will
trigger laser action in the tube. There are two types of laser transition possible.
 [Link] E5 to E4 : This will produces far IR radiation of laser beam at the wavelength
10.6μm
 [Link] E5 to E3:This laser transition will produce a laser beam of wavelength 9.6μm in IR
region. Normally 10.6μm transition is more intense than 9.6μm transition. The power output from
this laser is 10kW.

E3 and E4 levels also metastable states and the co 2 molecules at these levels fall to the lower
level E2 through inelastic collisions with unexited co 2 molecules, then again tends to closer
ground state through thermal [Link] nature of output may be continuous wave or
pulsed wave.
Advantages:

1. The construction of CO2 laser is simple and the output of this laser is continuous.
2. It has high efficiency
3. It has very high output power.
4. The output power can be increased by extending the length of the gas tube.

Disadvantages:

1. The contamination of oxygen by carbon monoxide will have some effect on laser action
2. The operating temperature plays an important role in determining the output power of
laser.
3. The corrosion may occur at the reflecting plates.
4. Accidental exposure may damage our eyes, since it is invisible (infrared region) to our
eyes.

Applications:

1. High power CO2 laser finds applications in material processing, welding, drilling,
cutting soldering etc.
2. The low atmospheric attenuation (10.6μm makes CO2 laser suitable for open air
communication.
3. It is used for remote sensing.
4. It is used for treatment of liver and lung diseases.
5. It is mostly used in neuro surgery and general surgery.
6. It is used to perform microsurgery and bloodless operations.

DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES ©MRCET (EAMCET CODE: MLRD) 65

ENGINEERING PHYSICS

APPLICATIONS OF LASERS
Due to high intensity, high mono-chromaticity and high directionality of lasers, they are
widely used in various fields like
1. communication
2. computers
3. chemistry
4. photography
5. industry
6. medicine
7. military
8. scientific research
1. Communication:
 In case of optical communication, semiconductors laser diodes are used as optical
sources.
 More channels can be sent simultaneously Signal cannot be tapped as the band
width is large, more data can be sent.
 A laser is highly directional and less divergence, hence it has greater potential use
in space crafts and submarines.
2. Computers :
 In LAN (local area network), data can be transferred from memory storage of one
computer to other computer using laser for short time.
 Lasers are used in CD-ROMS during recording and reading the data.
3. Chemistry :
 Lasers are used in molecular structure identification.
 Lasers are also used to accelerate some chemical reactions.
 Using lasers, new chemical compound can be created by breaking bonds between
atoms or molecules.
4. Photography :
 Lasers can be used to get 3-D lens lessphotography.
 Lasers are also used in the construction of holograms.

5. Industry :
 Lasers can be used to blast holes in diamonds and hard
steel.
 Lasers are also used as a source of intense heat.
 Carbon dioxide laser is used for cutting drilling of metals and nonmetals, such as
ceramics plastics, glass etc.
 High power lasers are used to weld or melt any material.
 Lasers are also used to cut teeth in saws and test the quality of fabric.

DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES ©MRCET (EAMCET CODE: MLRD) 66

ENGINEERING PHYSICS

6. Medicine :
 Pulsed neodymium laser is employed in the treatment of liver cancer.
 Argon and carbon dioxide lasers are used in the treat men of liver and lungs.
 Lasers used in the treatment of Glaucoma.
7. Military :
 Lasers can be used as a war weapon.
 High energy lasers are used to destroy the enemy air-crafts and missiles.
 Lasers can be used in the detection and ranging likes RADAR.
8. Scientific research:
 Lasers are used in the field of 3D-photography.
 Lasers used in Recording and reconstruction of hologram.
 Lasers are employed to create plasma.
 Lasers used to produce certain chemical reactions.
 Lasers are used in Raman spectroscopy to identify the structure of the molecule.
 Lasers are used in the Michelson- Morley experiment.
 A laser beam is used to confirm Doppler shifts in frequency for moving objects.

DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES ©MRCET (EAMCET CODE: MLRD) 67

ENGINEERING PHYSICS

FIBER-OPTICS

INTRODUCTION TO OPTICAL FIBER:

Fiber optics is a branch of physics which deals with the transmission & reception of light
waves using optical fibers which acts as a guiding media. The transmission of light waves by
fiber optics was first demonstrated by John Tyndall in 1870.
Optical Fiber:
Optical fiber is a thin & transparent guiding medium or material which guides the information
carrying light waves. It is a cylindrical wave-guide system which propagates the data & speech
signals in the optical frequency range.
A light beam acting as a carrier wave is capable of carrying more information than radio waves
& microwaves because of its high frequency as shown below.
Radio waves - 104 Hz , Micro waves - 1010 Hz, Light waves - 1015 Hz
Construction:
An optical fiber is a very thin, flexible transparent
made with plastic or glass.
It has cylindrical shape consisting of three layers or
sections
1 ) The Core
2 ) The Cladding
3 ) The Outer jacket or Buffer jacket
1)The Core:It is the central layer surrounded by another layer called cladding. Light is
transmitted within the core which has refractive index (n1). It is a denser medium. Core is made
of silica (SiO2).
2)The Cladding:It is the second layer, surrounded by a third layer called the outer jacket. It
has refractive index n2 which is less than the refractive index of core i.e (n1 >n2 ). It acts as a
rarer medium. It keeps the light within the core because n1>n2. To lower the refractive index of
cladding the silica is doped with phosphorous or bismuth material.
3)The Outer or Buffer Jacket:It is the third layer it protects the fiber from moisture &
abrasion. To provide necessary toughness & tensile strength, a layer of strength member is
arranged surrounding buffer jacket. It is made of polyurethane material.
Working Principle of Optical Fiber:
Total Internal Reflection: The principle of optical fiber is total internal reflection.
Condition for Total Internal Reflection:
1) The light ray should move from denser to rarer medium.
2) The refractive index of core must be greater than cladding i.e. n1>n2
3) The angle of incidence (i) must be greater than the critical angle(θc) i.e. i>θc.
𝑛
4) The critical angle𝜃𝑐 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑛2 .
1

DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES ©MRCET (EAMCET CODE: MLRD) 68

ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Explanation:
Let us consider a denser medium & rarer medium of refractive indices n1 & n2 respectively and
n1>n2. Let a light ray move from denser to rare medium with ‘i’ as the angle of incidence & ‘r’
as angle of refraction. The refracted ray bends away from the normal as it travels from denser
to rarer medium with increase of angle of incidence ‘i’.

In this we get three cases

Case-1: When i<θc, Then the light ray refracts into rarer medium as shown in figure.

Case-2: When i= θc , then the light ray traverses along the two media as shown in figure.
For the two media, applying Snell’s law
𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟

(∴ 𝑖 = 𝜃𝑐 & 𝑟 = 90°)

𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛90
𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐 = 𝑛2
𝑛2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑐 =
𝑛1

Where n1>n2
For air, n2 =1,
1
𝜃𝑐 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1
𝑛1

Case-3:When i> θc, then the light ray reflected back into the medium as shown in figure

ACCEPTANCE ANGLE & ACCEPTANCE CONE:

Def: Acceptance angle is the maximum angle of incidence at the core of an optical fiber so that
the light can be guided though the fiber by total internal reflection. This angle is called as
acceptance angle. It is denoted by ‘αi’.

DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES ©MRCET (EAMCET CODE: MLRD) 69

ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Consider a cross-sectional view of an optical fiber having core & cladding of refractive
indices n1 and n2.
 Let the fiber be in air medium (no). The incident light while entering into the core at ‘A’
makes an incident angle of ‘αi’ with the fiber-axis.
 In core it travels along AB & is incident at part B on cladding interface.
 Let αr be the angle of refraction at part ‘A’ & ‘θ’ be the angle of incidence at ‘B’.
 When ‘θ’ is greater than the critical angle ‘θc’, then total internal reflection takes place
into the core & light takes the path BD.
 Due to multiple total internal reflections the propagation of light ray takes place
through the fiber.
 Applying Snell’s law at AC core-air interface :-
𝑠𝑖𝑛α𝑖 𝑛1
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛α𝑟 𝑛𝑜
𝑛𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛α𝑖 = 𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛α𝑟 → (1)

 Let a normal ‘BC’ be drawn from the point ‘B’ to the fiber axis. Then from ∆ABC, we
get

α𝑟 = 90° − 𝜃 → (2)

Substitute eq - (2) in eq - (1)

𝑛𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛α𝑖 = 𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛(90° − 𝜃)

𝑛𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛α𝑖 = 𝑛1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 → (3)

 To get total internal reflection at

point B

(Core-Classing Interface) i.e.

 Let the maximum angle of incidence at point A be α𝑖 (max)for which .

From eqn (3), we get

𝑛𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛α𝑖 = 𝑛1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 → (4)

α𝑖 (max) = α𝑖 , when 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑐
𝑛1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 α𝑖 (max) = 𝑛𝑜
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑐 → (5)

𝑛2
We know that 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐 = 𝑛1

𝑛22 𝑛12 − 𝑛22 √(𝑛12 − 𝑛22 ) √(𝑛12 − 𝑛22 )

𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑐 = √(1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑐2 ) = √(1 − ) => √ = ∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑐 =
𝑛12 𝑛12 𝑛1 𝑛1
→ (6)

DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES ©MRCET (EAMCET CODE: MLRD) 70

ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Substitute the eq(6) in eq(5) , we get

𝑛1 𝑛12 − 𝑛22
𝑠𝑖𝑛 α𝑖 (max) = √
𝑛0 𝑛1
𝑛1 − 𝑛22
2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 α𝑖 (max) = √
𝑛0
(OR)
𝑛2 − 𝑛22
α𝑖 (max) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 √ 1 → (7)
𝑛0
For air medium, n0=1 α𝑖 (max) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 √ 𝑛21 − 𝑛22 → (8)
Fractional Index Change (∆):

It is the ratio of refractive index difference in core & cladding to the refractive index of core.
n1 -n2
∆=
n1
𝑛1 − 𝑛2 = ∆𝑛1 → (1)

NUMERICAL APERTURE (N.A.):

Def:It is defined as light accepting efficiency of the fiber and is equal to sine of the acceptance
angle of the fiber i.e. 𝑁. 𝐴. = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 α𝑖 (max)

𝑛12−𝑛22
N.A=𝑠𝑖𝑛 α𝑖 (max) = √ 𝑛0

𝑛1 −𝑛2
We know that ∆ = 𝑛1
𝑛1 − 𝑛2 = ∆𝑛1 → (2)
𝑊𝑒𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 , 𝑁. 𝐴. = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 α𝑖 (max) = √𝑛22 − 𝑛12 for air n0=1
𝑁. 𝐴. = √(𝑛1 + 𝑛2 )(𝑛1 − 𝑛2 )
𝐼𝑓𝑛1 = 𝑛2 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑁. 𝐴. = √2𝑛1 × ∆𝑛1
𝑁. 𝐴. = 𝑛1 √2∆→ (3)
TYPES OF OPTICAL FIBERS:

DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES ©MRCET (EAMCET CODE: MLRD) 71

ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Optical fibers can be classified based on either the mode they support or the refractive index
profile of the fiber. They can also be classified based on the material of the fiber.

Based on Mode:
The rays travelling in the fiber by total internal reflection are called modes.
1) Single mode fibers:

 If the thickness of the fiber is so small that it supports only one mode then the fiber is
called single modefiberor mono mode fiber.
 The core diameter of this fiber is about 8 to 10µm and the outer diameter of cladding is
60 to 70µm.

2)Multi mode fibers:

 If the thickness of the fiber is very large that it supports more than one mode then the
fiber is called multi mode fiber.
 The core diameter of this fiber is about 50 to 200µm and the outer diameter of cladding
is 100 to 250µm.

Based on refractive index profile:

1) Step-Index Optical fiber:

 In a step-index optical fiber, the entire core has

uniform refractive index n1 slightly greater than
the refractive index of the cladding n2.
 Since the index profile is in the form of a step,
these fibers are called step-index fibers.
 The transmission of information will be in the
form of signals or pulses.
 These are extensively used because distortion and transmission losses are very less.
 Step-index optical fibers are of two types.

DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES ©MRCET (EAMCET CODE: MLRD) 72

ENGINEERING PHYSICS

They are
( i) Single mode step-index fiber
( ii) Multi-mode step-index fiber
Transmission / propagation of signal in Step-index fibers:
 Generally the signal is sent through the fiber in digital form i.e. in the form of pulses.
 The same pulsed signal travels in different paths.
 Let us now consider a signal pulse travelling through step index fiber in two different
paths (1) and (2).
 The pulse (1) travelling along the axis of the fiber and pulse (2) travelling away from
the axis.
 At the receiving end only the pulse (1)which travels along the fiber axis reaches first
while the pulse(2) reaches after some time delay.
 Hence the pulsed signal received at the other end is broadened. This is called internal
dispersion.
 This reduces transmission rate capacity of the signal.
 This difficulty is overcome by graded index fibers.

2) Graded index optical fiber:

 In this fiber, the refractive index of the core varies radially.
 It has maximum refractive index at its centre,
which gradually falls with increase of radius and
at the core-cladding interface matches with
refractive index of cladding.
 Variation of refractive index of the core with
radius is given by
x p
n(x) = 𝑛1 [1 − 2Δ (a) ]2
Where 𝑛1 -> refractive index at the centre of the core
a-> radius of the core
𝑛1 −𝑛2
Δ-> Fractional index change,∆ = 𝑛1

p-> grating profile index number

 This fiber divided into two types.
( i ) Single-mode graded index fiber
( ii ) Multi-mode graded index fiber

DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES ©MRCET (EAMCET CODE: MLRD) 73

ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Transmission / propagation of signal in Step-index fibers:

 Let us now consider a signal pulse
travelling through graded index
fiber in two different paths (1) and
(2).
 The pulse (1) travelling along the
axis of the fiber though travels along
shorter route it travels through higher refractive index.
 The pulse (2) travelling away from the axis undergo refraction and bend as shown in
fig. though it travels longer distance, it travels along lesser refractive index medium.
 Hence both the pulses reach the other end simultaneously.
 Thus the problem of inter model dispersion can be overcome by using graded index
fibers.
Based on types of materials:
1) glass-glass optical fiber
2) glass-plastic optical fiber
3) plastic-plastic optical fiber
ATTENUATION (POWER-LOSS) IN OPTICAL FIBERS
When light propagates through an optical fiber, then the power of the light at the output end is
found to be always less than the power launched at the input end. The loss of power is called
Attenuation. It is measured in terms of decibels per kilometer.
Attenuation:It is defined as the ratio of the optical power output (P out) from a fiber of length
‘L’ to the power input (Pin).
10 𝑃𝑖𝑛
𝐴𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝛼 ) = − ( ) 𝑑𝐵/𝑘𝑚
𝐿 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
Attenuation occurs because of the following reasons
(1) Absorption (2) Scattering loss 3) Bending loss
(1) Absorption:
 It occurs in two ways, i)Absorption by impurity or
impurity absorption
ii) Intrinsic absorption or internal absorption
 Impurity absorption: The impurities present in the
fiber are transition metal ions, such as iron,
chromium, cobalt & copper. During signal
propagation when photons interact with these impurity atoms, then the photons are
absorbed by atoms. Hence loss occurs in light power.

DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES ©MRCET (EAMCET CODE: MLRD) 74

ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 Intrinsic absorption or internal absorption: The fiber itself as a material has a

tendency to absorb light energy however small it may be. The absorption that takes
place in fiber material assuming that there are no impurities in it, is called intrinsic
absorption.
(II) Scattering loss:
 When the signals travels in the fiber, the photons may
be scattered due to variations in the refractive index
inside the fiber. This scattering is called as Rayleigh
scattering. It is also a wavelength dependent
1
loss.𝑅𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 ∝ 𝜆4
(III)Bending losses:
 These losses occur due to (a) Macroscopic bending (b) Microscopic bending
 Macroscopic bending: If the radius of core is large
compared to fiber diameter causes large curvature at the
bends. At these bends, the light will not satisfy the
condition for total internal reflection & light escapes
out from the fiber. It is called as macroscopic bending.
 Microscopic bending: These are caused due to non-
uniform pressures created during the cabling of the
fiber or during the manufacturing the fiber. It causes
irregular reflections. This lead to loss of light by
leakage through the fiber.
OPTICAL FIBER IN COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
The most important application of optical fibers occurs in the field of communication.
Fiber optic communication systems comprise of the following units.

DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES ©MRCET (EAMCET CODE: MLRD) 75

ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Information signal source:

 The information signal to be transmitted may be voice, video or computer data (analog
signals).
 In order to communicate through optical fiber, the analog signals are converted into
electrical signals.( by Analog to Digital converter)
 The converted electrical signals are passed through the transmitter.
Transmitter:
 The transmitter is a modulator device used to receive electrical input signal, and then
modulate it into digital pulses for propagation into an optical fiber.
 The modulator consists of a driver and a light source as shown in fig.
 The driver receives the electrical signals and then converts into the digital pulses.
 These digital pulses are converted into optical signals after passing through a light
source, generally either light emitting diodes (LED’s) or a semi conductor laser is used
as light source.
 The optical signals are then focused into the optical fiber as shown in fig.
Optical Fiber (or) Transmission medium:
 The optical fiber is used as transmission medium between the transmitter and the
receiver.
 The optical signals are then fed into an optical fiber cable where they are transmitted
over long distances using the principle of total internal reflection.
Receiver:
 The receiver is a demodulator device used to receive the optical signals from the optical
fiber and then convert into electrical signals.
 The demodulator consists of a photodetector, an amplifier and a signal restorer.
 The optical signals which are emerging from the optical fiber are received by photo
detector.
 The photodetector converts the optical signals into electrical signals.
 The electrical signals are then amplified by the amplifier and the amplified electrical
signals are converted into digital form.
 The amplified electrical signals are fed to a signal restorer where the original voice is
recovered.
Advantages of Optical Fibers in communication system:
 High data transmission rates and bandwidth.
 Low losses.
 Small cable size and weight.
 Immunity to EM radiations.
 Safety due to lack of sparks.
 Data security.

DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES ©MRCET (EAMCET CODE: MLRD) 76

ENGINEERING PHYSICS

APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL FIBERS:

1) Due to high band-width, light can transmit at a higher rate up to 1014 to 1015 Hz. Than radio
or micro-frequencies.
2) Long distance signal transmission.
3) They are used for exchange of information in cable television, space vehicles, sub-marines
4) Optical fibers are used in industry in security alarm systems, process control & industrial
automation.
5) They are used in pressure sensors in biomedical & engine control applications.

DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SCIENCES ©MRCET (EAMCET CODE: MLRD) 77