MATRIX: A matrix is an ordered rectangular array of numbers or functions.

The numbers or functions are

called the elements or the entries of the matrix.
We denote matrices by capital letters.

𝟏
−𝟐 𝟓 ‫ 𝟐ۍ‬+ 𝒊 𝟑 − 𝟐‫ې‬
𝑨=቎ 𝟎 ඥ𝟓቏ , 𝑩 = ‫𝟑 ێ‬. 𝟓 −𝟏 𝟐‫ۑ‬
‫ێ‬ 𝟓‫ۑ‬
𝟑 𝟔 ඥ𝟑 𝟓
‫ۏ‬ 𝟕‫ے‬
• Horizontal lines are called rows.
• Vertical lines are called columns of the matrix.

Order of a matrix: A matrix having m rows and n columns is called a matrix of order m × n ( read as an m by
n matrix).

𝐴=[ 1 2 3 ] First row

5 7 0 Second row is a 2 × 3 matrix

First Second Third Cloumn

Column Column

• The n number of elements in an m × n matrix will be equal to mn.

• If the elements of a matrix are real numbers, then it is said to be a real matrix

−1 4 0
𝐴=቎ 0 2 ඥ3቏ 𝑖𝑠 3 × 3 real matrix
6 0 5

• If the elements are complex numbers, then it is said to be complex matrix.

𝐴 = ൤ξ2 𝑖 5 − 4𝑖 ൨ 𝑖𝑠 2 × 3 complex matrix

11 2 + 3𝑖 0
• In general, an m × n matrix has the following rectangular array
 𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 …. 𝑎1𝑗 …. 𝑎1𝑛
‫𝑎ۍ‬ 𝑎22 𝑎23 ..… 𝑎2𝑗 …. 𝑎2𝑛 ‫ې‬
‫𝑎ێ‬21 𝑎32 𝑎33 …. 𝑎3𝑗 …. 𝑎3𝑛 ‫ۑ‬
‫ ێ‬31 ‫ۑ‬
𝐴=‫ ێ‬: : : …. : …. : ‫ۑ‬
‫𝑖𝑎 ێ‬1 𝑎𝑖2 𝑎𝑖3 …. 𝑎𝑖𝑗 …. 𝑎𝑖𝑛 ‫ۑ‬
‫ ێ‬: : : …. : ∷: : ‫ۑ‬
‫𝑚𝑎ۏ‬1 𝑎𝑚2 𝑎𝑚3 … : ….. 𝑎𝑚𝑛 ‫ے‬

Or 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚 × 𝑛 , 1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑚, 1 ≤ 𝑗 ≤ 𝑛 𝑖, 𝑗 ∈ 𝑁.

The numbers or functions 𝑎𝑖𝑗 are called the elements of the matrix A. The elements
Of A are having double subscript notation. The first subscript indicates the row and the
second subscript indicates the column in which the elements stands.
Example 𝑎23 it means the element lie in the second row , third column.

Types of Matrices:

Column matrix:
A matrix is said to be a column matrix if it has only one column.
−2
𝐴 = ൥ 3 ൩ is a column matrix of order 3× 1
0
In general , 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚 × 1 is a column matrix of order m × 1.
Row Matrix:
A matrix is said to be a row matrix if it has only one row.
𝐵 = [√5 −4 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 2 ] is a row matrix of order 1 × 4.

In general, 𝐵 = [𝑏𝑖𝑗 ]1 × 𝑛 is a Of order 1 x n

row matrix

Null matrix or Zero matrix:

A matrix is said to be zero matrix or null matrix if all its elements are zero. We denote zero
matrix by 0.
0 0 0
[0], ቂ ቃ, [0 0 0 ] are all zero matrix.
0 0 0

Square Matrix:
A matrix in which number of rows are equal to the number of columns, is said to be a square
matrix. Thus an 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix is said to be a square matrix if 𝑚 = 𝑛 and is known as a square
matrix of order ‘n’.
 1 −2 8
𝐴 =൥0 7 −9 ൩
5 11 3
is a square matrix of order 3.

𝐵 = [3] is a square matrix of order 1

In general , 𝐴 =[𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚 × 𝑚 is a square matrix of order m.

Note: If 𝐴 =[𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚 × 𝑚 is a square matrix of order m, then elements (entries)

𝑎11 , 𝑎22 , 𝑎33 … … . 𝑎𝑚𝑚 are said to constitute the diagonal, of the matrix A.
1 −3 1
𝐴 = ൥2 4 −1൩then the elements of diagonal of A are 1, 4, 6.
3 5 6

Note:
Trace: Trace of the matrix is the sum of diagonal elements.
2 3 9
𝐴 = ൥4 −6 8൩
0 7 5
Tr(A) = 2 – 6 + 5 = 1.

Diagonal Matrix:
A square matrix 𝐴 =[𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚 × 𝑚 is said to be diagonal matrix if all its non- diagonal
elements are zero.
𝐴 = [ 4 ] is a diagonal matrix of order 1.
−2 0 0
𝐴 = ൥ 0 0 0 ൩ is a diagonal matrix of order 3.
0 0 5
A matrix 𝐴 =[𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚 × 𝑚 is said to be diagonal matrix if 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗.
Scalar Matrix:
A diagonal matrix is said to be a scalar matrix if all the diagonal elements are equal
3 0 0
−1 0
𝐴 = [3] , 𝐵=ቂ ቃ, 𝐶 = ൥0 3 0൩
0 −1
0 0 3
A square matrix 𝐴 =[𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚 × 𝑚 is said to be scalar matrix if
𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗.
𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑘, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑖 = 𝑗, for some constant k.
Identity matrix or Unit matrix:
A square matrix is called unit matrix if all its non-diagonal elements are zero and all diagonal
elements unity. We denote the identity matrix of order n by 𝐼𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝐼
 1 0 0
1 0
𝐼 = [1], 𝐼 = ቂ ቃ , 𝐼 = ൥0 1 0൩ 𝑎re identity matrices of order 1,2 and 3 respectively.
0 1
0 0 1
A square matrix 𝐴 =[𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚 × 𝑚 is said to be identity matrix if 𝑎𝑖𝑗 =0, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑖≠𝑗; 𝑎𝑖𝑗 =1, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝑖=𝑗.
Lower Triangular Matrix:
A square matrix is called lower triangular matrix if all its elements above the diagonal is
zero.
2 0 0
2 0
[5], ቂ ቃ, ൥−1 −3 0൩ are lower triangular matrix of order 1,2 and 3 respectively.
1 5
0 6 2
Upper Triangular Matrix:
A square matrix is called upper triangular matrix if all its elements below the diagonal is zero.
3 0 −1
2 −3
[0], ቂ ቃ, ൥0 −3 5൩ are lower triangular matrix of order 1,2 and 3
0 −5
0 0 7
respectively.
Equal Matrices:
Two matrices 𝐴 =[𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] and B = [𝑏𝑖𝑗 ] are said to be equal i.e., A = B if they are of the
same order and their corresponding elements are equal.
2 3 2 3
ቂ ቃ and ቂ ቃ are equal matrices.
0 5 0 5
Operations on Matrices
Addition of Matrices: In general, if 𝐴 =[aij ] and B = [bij ] are two matrices of the same
order, say 𝑚×𝑛. Then, the sum of the two matrices A and B is defined as a matrix
𝐶=[𝑐𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚 × 𝑛 , where 𝑐𝑖𝑗 = 𝑎𝑖𝑗 + 𝑏𝑖𝑗 , for all possible values of i and j.
2 5 −4
𝐴 = ቈඥ3 1 −1቉ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 == ൤ ൨ 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐴 + 𝐵
2 3 0 3 1 8

𝐴 + 𝐵 = ቈඥ3 + 2 6 −5቉
5 4 8
Note: If two matrices are not of the same order, their sum is not defined.
Multiplication of a matrix by a scalar: If A=[𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚 × 𝑛 is a matrix and k is a scalar, then
kA is another matrix which is obtained by multiplying each element of A by the scalar k.
In other words, 𝑘𝐴=k[𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚 × 𝑛 = [𝑘𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚 × 𝑛
3 1 1.5
If 𝐴 = ቎ඥ3 7 −2 ቏ then find 3A
2 0 5
3 1 1.5 9 3 4.5
3A= 3቎ඥ3 7 −2 ቏ = ቎3ඥ3 21 −6 ቏
2 0 5 6 0 15
Negative of a matrix: The negative of a matrix is denoted by −𝐴. We define −𝐴=(−1)𝐴.
3 −5
If A= ൤ ൨ 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 − 𝐴
𝑥 −7
 3 −5 −3 5
−𝐴 = ሺ−1ሻ𝐴 = ሺ−1ሻ ൤ ൨= ൤ ൨
𝑥 −7 −𝑥 7
Difference of matrices: If 𝐴 =[aij ] and B = [bij ] are two matrices of the same order, say
𝑚×𝑛. Then, the difference 𝐴 − 𝐵 is defined as a matrix 𝐷 = [𝑑𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚 × 𝑛 , where
𝑑𝑖𝑗 = 𝑎𝑖𝑗 − 𝑏𝑖𝑗 , for all possible values of i and j. In other words, 𝐷=𝐴−𝐵=𝐴+(−1)𝐵, that is sum
of the matrix A and the matrix − 𝐵.
1 −8 −6 5
A= ቂ ቃ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = ൤ ൨ 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐴 − 𝐵
9 4 7 −9
7 −13
𝐴−𝐵 =ቂ ቃ
2 13
Properties of matrix addition: The addition of matrices satisfy the following properties
Commutative law: If 𝐴 =[aij ] and B = [bij ] are matricesof the same order, say 𝑚 × 𝑛.
Then 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐵 + 𝐴
A + B = [aij ] + [bij ]= [aij + bij ]
= [bij + aij ] (addition of numbers is commutative)
= ([𝑏𝑖𝑗 ] + [𝑎𝑖𝑗]) = 𝐵 + 𝐴.
Associative law: For any three matrices 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] , 𝐵 = [𝑏𝑖𝑗] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 = [𝑐𝑖𝑗]

are matrices of the same order, say 𝑚 × 𝑛. Then (𝐴 + 𝐵) + 𝐶 = 𝐴 + (𝐵 + 𝐶).

(𝐴 + 𝐵) + 𝐶 = ([𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] + [𝑏𝑖𝑗]) + [𝑐𝑖𝑗]

= [𝑎𝑖𝑗 + 𝑏𝑖𝑗] + [𝑐𝑖𝑗]

= [(𝑎𝑖𝑗 + 𝑏𝑖𝑗) + 𝑐𝑖𝑗]
= [𝑎𝑖𝑗 + (𝑏𝑖𝑗 + 𝑐𝑖𝑗)] (addition of numbers is associative)
= [𝑎𝑖𝑗] + [(𝑏𝑖𝑗 + 𝑐𝑖𝑗)]
= [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] + ([𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] + [𝑐𝑖𝑗])
= 𝐴 + (𝐵 + 𝐶).
Existence of additive identity: Let 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] be an m× 𝑛 matrix and 0 be an m× 𝑛
matrix, then 𝐴 + 0 = 0 + 𝐴 = 𝐴. In other words, 0 is the additive identity for matrix
addition.
The existence of additive inverse: let 𝐴 =[𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚 × 𝑛 be any
𝑖𝑗
matrix, then we
have another matrix as −𝐴 = [−𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚 × 𝑛 such that

𝐴 + (−𝐴) = (−𝐴) + 𝐴 = 0. So −𝐴 is the additive inverse of A or negative of A.

Properties of scalar multiplication of a matrix: If 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = [𝑏𝑖𝑗] aretwo matrices

of the same order, say 𝑚 × 𝑛, and k and l are scalars, then
 (i) 𝒌(𝑨 + 𝑩) = 𝑲𝑨 + 𝑲𝑩
𝑘(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝑘([𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] + [𝑏𝑖𝑗]) = [𝑘(𝑎𝑖𝑗 + 𝑏𝑖𝑗)]
= [(𝑘𝑎𝑖𝑗) + (𝑘𝑏𝑖𝑗)]

= [𝑘𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] + [𝑘𝑏𝑖𝑗]
= 𝑘[𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] + 𝑘[𝑏𝑖𝑗 ] = 𝑘𝐴 + 𝑘𝐵
(ii) ሺ𝒌 + 𝒍ሻ𝑨 = 𝑲𝑨 + 𝒍𝑨
(𝑘 + 𝑙)𝐴 = (k + l)[𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] = [(𝑘 + 𝑙)𝑎𝑖𝑗]

= [𝑘𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] + [𝑙𝑎𝑖𝑗]
= 𝑘[𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] + 𝑙[𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] = 𝑘𝐴 + 𝑙𝐴.

Multiplication of matrices: The product of two matrices A and B is defined if the number of
columns of A is equal to the number of rows of B. Let 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] be and 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix and 𝐵 =
[𝑏𝑖𝑗 ] be and 𝑛 × 𝑝 matrix. Then the product of the matrices A and B is the matrix C of
order 𝑚 × 𝑝. Then C =[𝑐𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚 × 𝑝 is the product of A and B.
[𝑐𝑖𝑗] = Sum of the product of elements of 𝑖𝑡ℎ row of A with the correspondingelements of 𝑗𝑡ℎ
column of B.
1 −2
1 −2 −4
For example, if 𝐴 = ቂ ቃ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = ൥ 2 7 ൩ 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝐵
5 3 0
4 −3
1ሺ1ሻ + ሺ−2ሻሺ2ሻ + ሺ−4ሻሺ4ሻ 1ሺ−2ሻ + ሺ−2ሻሺ7ሻ + ሺ−4ሻሺ−3ሻ
𝐴𝐵 = ൤ ൨
5ሺ1ሻ + ሺ3ሻሺ2ሻ + ሺ0ሻሺ4ሻ ሺ5ሻሺ−2ሻ + ሺ3ሻሺ7ሻ + ሺ0ሻሺ−3ሻ
1 − 4 − 26 −2 − 14 + 12 −29 −4
=ቂ ቃ=ቂ ቃ
5 + 6 + 0 −10 + 21 − 0 11 11

Properties of multiplication of matrices:

The associative law: For any three matrices A, B and C. Then
(𝐴𝐵)𝐶 = 𝐴(𝐵𝐶).
The distributive law: For any three matrices A, B and C.
(i) 𝐴(𝐵 + 𝐶) = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐶
(ii) (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶 + 𝐵𝐶.
The existence of multiplicative identity: For every square matrix A, there existan identity
matrix of same order such that 𝐼𝐴 = 𝐴𝐼 = 𝐴.

Note: Matrix multiplication is not commutative in general. But in few cases matrix
multiplication is commutative. Multiplication of diagonal matrices of same order will be
commutative.
Transpose of a matrix:
If 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗]𝑚 ×𝑛 matrix, then the matrix obtained by
interchanging the rows and columns of A is called the transpose of A. Transpose of A is
denoted by 𝐴1 𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑇.
1
If A =[𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚 × 𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 A = [𝑎𝑗𝑖 ]𝑛 × 𝑚

Note: * Transpose of a row matrix is column matrix.

* Transpose of a column matrix is row matrix.
* Transpose of a matrix of order 𝑚 × 𝑛 is 𝑛 × 𝑚.

Properties of transpose of the matrices:

For any matrices A and B of suitable orders, we have
(𝑖) (𝐴1)1 = 𝐴 .
(𝑖𝑖) (𝐴 + 𝐵)1 = 𝐴1 + 𝐵1.
(𝑖𝑖𝑖) (𝑘𝐴)1 = 𝑘𝐴1.
(𝑖𝑣) (𝐴𝐵)1 = 𝐵1𝐴1.
Symmetric matrix:
A square matrix 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗] is said to be symmetric if 𝐴1 = 𝐴, that is [𝑎𝑖𝑗] = [𝑎𝑗𝑖] for
all possible values of i and j.
Skew symmetric matrix:
A square matrix 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗] is said to be symmetric if 𝐴1 = −𝐴, that is 𝑎𝑗𝑖 = −𝑎𝑖𝑗 for
all possible values of i and j. Now, if we put 𝑖 = 𝑗, we have
𝑎𝑖𝑖 = −𝑎𝑖𝑖 . Therefore 2𝑎𝑖𝑖 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑖𝑖 = 0 for all i’s. This means that all the
diagonal elements of a skew symmetric matrix are zero.
Theorem: For any square matrix A with real number entries, A + A1 is a symmetric matrix
and A – A1 is a skew symmetric matrix.
Proof : Let B = A + A1
B1 = (A + A1)1
= A1 + (A1)1 ( as (A + B)1 = A1 + B1 )
= A1 + A ( as (A1)1 = A )
= A + A1 ( as A + B = B + A )
=B
Therefore B = A + A1 is a symmetric matrix.
Let C = A − A1
C1 = (A − A1)1
= A1− (A1)1 ( as (A − B)1 = A1− B1 )
= A 1− A ( as (A1)1 = A )
= −(A − A1 )
=−C
Therefore C = A − A1 is a skew symmetric matrix.
Theorem: Any square matrix can be expressed as the sum of a symmetric and a skew
symmetric matrix.
Proofoof: Let A be a square matrix, then we write
1 1
𝐴 = ሺ𝐴 + 𝐴1 ሻ + ሺ𝐴 − 𝐴1 ሻ
2 2
1 1
𝐴 =𝑃+𝑄 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑃 = ሺ𝐴 + 𝐴1 ሻ, 𝑄 = ሺ𝐴 − 𝐴1 ሻ
2 2
1
𝑃 = ሺ𝐴 + 𝐴1 ሻ
2
1
1 1 1ሻ
𝑃 = ( ሺ𝐴 + 𝐴 )
2

1
= ሺ𝐴 + 𝐴1 ሻ1 ሺ𝑎𝑠 ሺ𝑘𝐴ሻ1 = 𝑘𝐴1
2
1
= ሺ𝐴1 + ሺ𝐴1 ሻ1 ሻ ሺ𝑎𝑠 ሺ𝐴 + 𝐵ሻ1 = 𝐴1 + 𝐵1 ሻ
2
1
= ሺ𝐴1 + 𝐴ሻ ሺ𝑎𝑠 ሺ𝐴1 ሻ1 = 𝐴ሻ
2
1
= ሺ𝐴 + 𝐴1 ሻ ሺ𝑎𝑠 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐵 + 𝐴ሻ
2
 =𝑃
1
Therefore 𝑃 = ሺ𝐴 + 𝐴1 ሻ is a symmetric matrix
2
1
Let 𝑄 = ሺ𝐴 − 𝐴1 ሻ
2
1
1
𝑄1 = ( ሺ𝐴 − 𝐴1 ሻ)
2

1
= ሺ𝐴 − 𝐴1 ሻ1 ሺ𝑎𝑠 ሺ𝑘𝐴ሻ1 = 𝑘𝐴1
2
1
= ሺ𝐴1 − ሺ𝐴1 ሻ1 ሻ ሺ𝑎𝑠 ሺ𝐴 − 𝐵ሻ1 = 𝐴1 − 𝐵1 ሻ
2
1
= ሺ𝐴1 − 𝐴ሻ ሺ𝑎𝑠 ሺ𝐴1 ሻ1 = 𝐴ሻ
2
1
= − ሺ𝐴 + 𝐴1 ሻ
2

= −𝑄
1
Therefore 𝑄 = ሺ𝐴 − 𝐴1 ሻ is a skew symmetric matrix.
2

Thus, any square matrix can be expressed as sum of a symmetric and a skew symmetric
matrix.
If A and B are symmetric matrices of the same order, then show that AB is symmetric if
and only if A and B commute, that is AB = BA.
Soln: Since A and B are both symmetric matrices, therefore 𝐴1 = 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵1 = 𝐵
Let AB is symmetric, then ሺ𝐴𝐵ሻ1 = 𝐴𝐵
But ሺ𝐴𝐵ሻ1 = 𝐵1 𝐴1 = 𝐵𝐴
Therefore 𝐵𝐴 = 𝐴𝐵.
Conversely, if 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴, then we shall show that AB is symmetric
ሺ𝐴𝐵ሻ1 = 𝐵1 𝐴1
= 𝐵𝐴
= 𝐴𝐵
Hence AB is symmetric.
Theorem: If A and B are invertible matrices of the same order, then
ሺ𝐴𝐵ሻ−1 = 𝐵 −1 𝐴−1
Proof: we know that ሺ𝐴𝐵ሻሺ𝐴𝐵ሻ−1 = 𝐼
Pre multiply both sides by 𝐴−1
𝐴−1 ሺ𝐴𝐵ሻሺ𝐴𝐵ሻ−1 = 𝐴−1 𝐼
 ሺ𝐴−1 𝐴ሻ𝐵ሺ𝐴𝐵ሻ−1 = 𝐴−1 ( 𝑎𝑠 𝐴−1 𝐼 = 𝐴−1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 matrix multiplication is associative)
𝐼𝐵ሺ𝐴𝐵ሻ−1 = 𝐴−1 ሺ𝑎𝑠 ሺ𝐴−1 𝐴ሻ = 𝐼ሻ
𝐵ሺ𝐴𝐵ሻ−1 = 𝐴−1 ሺ𝑎𝑠 𝐼𝐵 = 𝐵ሻ
Pre multiply both sides by 𝐵−1
𝐵 −1 𝐵ሺ𝐴𝐵ሻ−1 = 𝐵 −1 𝐴−1
𝐼ሺ𝐴𝐵ሻ−1 = 𝐵 −1 𝐴−1 ሺ𝑎𝑠 𝐵 −1 𝐵 = 𝐼ሻ
ሺ𝐴𝐵ሻ−1 = 𝐵 −1 𝐴−1 ሺ𝑎𝑠 ሺ𝐴𝐵ሻ−1 = ሺ𝐴𝐵ሻ−1 ሻ