Biocomposite Material Production Methods
Biocomposite: Power from Nature
Environmentally Friendly: Offers a low carbon footprint and the use of renewable resources.
Lightweight and Durable: Improves fuel efficiency, particularly in the automotive and aviation
industries.
Market Growth: The biocomposite market is expected to grow at an annual rate of 15% through
2031 [1].
Fundamental Principles in Biocomposite Production
Things to pay attention to during the production process:
1. Good adhesion of the reinforcing material to the polymer matrix
2. Homogeneous distribution of fibers or particles within the matrix
3. Resistance to production conditions such as heat, humidity and mechanical stresses
4. Optimization of environmental properties such as stability and biodegradability
Traditional Biocomposite Production Methods
Production methods developed for biocomposite manufacturing are tailored to suit different
application areas.
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1- Hand Lay-up[3], [4], [5]
In this production method, the reinforcement material is placed onto the mold by hand. The
resin used as the matrix material is applied using a brush, roller, or spray method.
Production Stages:
1- Mold Preparation
• The mold surface is cleaned.
• Release agent is applied.
2-Placement of reinforcement fibers
• Reinforcement fibers are laid into the mold by hand.
3- Resin Application
• Epoxy, or vinyl ester resin is applied to the fibers using a brush or roller.
4- Lamination
• The desired thickness is achieved by applying layers of fiber and resin in sequence.
5-Curing and Demolding
• The resin is expected to harden at room temperature or under a specific heat.
• The part is removed from the mold and cleaned.
Figure 1- Hand placement diagram [6]
Advantages
• Simple and low-cost production method.
• Large and complex-shaped parts can be produced.
• Mold cost is low.
Disadvantages
• Production speed is low.
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• Product thickness and resin ratio control is difficult.
• Mechanical properties may be lower compared to automated methods.
• There is a risk of resin fumes and solvents in terms of worker health.
Youtube: Manual Composite Layup& Spray Up
2- Compression Molding [4], [7]
It is based on the principle of placing the material mixtures (matrix, reinforcement, and
additives) prepared prior to production into a mold and shaping them under heat and high
pressure.
Production Stages:
1-Preforming
The material mixture is converted into forms such as pellets, granules, or plates before being
placed into the mold.
2- Compression - Heating
• The preformed material is placed in the mold.
• The mold is closed, providing high pressure and heat flow.
• Heat and pressure cause the material to melt and take the shape of the mold.
3- Cooling-Demolding
• The mold is cooled carefully.
• Once the composite has hardened, it is removed from the mold.
Figure 2- Compression moulding [7]
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Advantages
• Suitable for the production of high-fiber biocomposites.
• The cost of mold parts is low.
• Suitable for large-scale production.
Disadvantages
• Production speed is low.
• There is excessive material waste.
Application Areas
• Automotive parts
• Aviation and aerospace industry
• Construction industry
• Electricity industry
Youtube: Silicone phone cases compression molding
3- Injection Molding [8],[9]
It is based on the principle of melting the pelletized biocomposite material mixture in an
injection machine, injecting it into a mold under high pressure, and then hardening it.
Production Stages:
1- Preparation of the Melt
• Polymer granules are fed into the machine barrel and melted by heating.
• A screw system melts the material.
• A homogeneous solution is formed.
2- Injection
• The molten material is injected into a mold under high pressure.
• The injection speed and pressure are carefully controlled.
3-Cooling/curing
• The molten material solidifies as it cools.
• This stage determines the mechanical strength.
4- Demolding
• The mold is opened, the part is removed.
• Ejector pins, air ejectors, and other ejection methods can also be used in this section.
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Figure 3- Injection Moulding Machine [9]
Advantages:
• Suitable for producing large quantities of parts.
• Production is fast and highly efficient.
• Low labor costs.
• Complex geometries can be produced.
• Waste generated after production can be recycled.
Disadvantages:
• Mold costs are high.
• High pressure and heat can damage natural fibres and biopolymers.
• Mold filling problems.
Youtube: Injection Molding Animation
4-Extrusion [10],[11],[12]
It is a production method in which the materials used in biocomposite production are shaped
by being pushed through a mold with the help of screws.
Production Stages:
1- Material preparation:
• The matrix and reinforcement phases are prepared.
• The reinforcement fibre/particle is mixed to ensure
• It is evenly distributed within the polymer.
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2- Feeding and Melting/Plasticizing
• The matrix, a mixture of natural fibers and additives, is fed into the extruder's feed
hopper.
• The material melts as it passes through the heater.
3-Cooling and Solidification
• The molten material coming out of the extruder solidifies by cooling in a water bath,
cooler, or with air.
4-Cutting
• The product is cut to the desired length.
• It is usually converted into granular form and sent for subsequent processes (injection
molding).
Figure 4- Extrusion Process[10]
Advantages
•Suitable for mass production
•Low unit cost for large-scale production
•Relatively efficient material usage
•Controllable fiber-matrix mixture
Disadvantages
•High thermal pressure and shear stresses can damage natural fibers
•The reinforcing effect may decrease due to fiber breakage and length loss.
Youtube: Extrusion Processes
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5- Resin Transfer Molding-RTM [13],[14],[15], [16],[17]
It is a closed process based on the principle of injecting liquid resin onto the reinforcement
material, which has been shaped into a preform and placed in a suitable mold, and then curing
it.
Procuction Stages
1-Placement of the Reinforcement
• The fiber is cut according to the shape of the product to be produced.
• The prepared fiber fabrics are placed in the mold.
• The mold is compressed to create a closed cavity.
2-Mold Injection
• Resin and additive material are injected into the mold using a pump or pressure.
• Fibers are impregnated.
3-Polymerization
• Once the resin completely fills the mold, the mold is baked to allow the resin to
polymerize and harden.
4-Curing
• The resin hardens under specific temperature and pressure.
5-Demolding
• The cured and hardened material is removed from the mold.
Figure 5- Resin Transfer Molding- RTM [16]
Advantages
• Less mold is needed due to lower pressure and temperature.
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• High repeatability.
• The process is healthier as toxic gas emissions can be controlled.
• Product production speed is higher.
Disadvantages
• The flow of fibers and resin saturation limit the choice of reinforcement material.
• Viscosity limits the choice of resin.
• The mold affects the properties of the manufactured product.
Youtube: Resin Transfer Molding
6- Pultrusion [18],[19],[20]
It is a method based on the principle of pulling fibers that have been passed through a resin bath
from a hot mold.
Production Stages :
1-Fiber Feeding
• The fibers are pulled through the spools and pass through the guide plates.
2-Resin Bath
• The fibers pass through the bath containing various resins and are completely saturated
with resin.
3-Pre- forming
• The resin-saturated fibers pass through the forming section before molding.
• The fibers, stripped of excess resin, are aligned and shaped into the desired form.
4-Curing
• The fibers are pulled from the heated mold at a specific speed.
• During this process, the resin polymerizes and hardens.
5-Cutting
• The material coming out of the mold is pulled through the pulling unit.
• The hardened material is cut to the desired lengths using an automatic saw.
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Figure 6- Pultrusion [21]
Advantages
• Continuous production with low labor and high efficiency.
• Low equipment cost.
• High resistance to corrosion and chemicals.
• Durable structures with a long service life.
Disadvantages
• Only products with a fixed cross-section can be produced.
• The viscosity of the resins must be low.
Youtube: The Pultrusion Process
Critical Factors to Consider in Production
Moisture and Thermal Stability of Fibers
Moisture control and appropriate processing temperatures are essential to prevent the
degradation of fibers at high temperatures (especially above 200°C).
Matrix-Fiber Interface Compatibility
Chemical (silane) or physical (plasma) surface modifications increase adhesion and charge
transfer between the two phases.
Homogeneous Mixing
The even distribution of fibers within the matrix without clumping is critical for consistent
mechanical properties. Air bubbles must be prevented.
Sustainability Criteria
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The biodegradability and recycling potential of the material must be considered at the end of
production.
Modern Automated Production Processes
The industrial-scale production of biocomposites uses automated lines to ensure high
efficiency.
These systems incorporate every stage, from mixing the raw materials to producing the final
pellets.
Innovative Techniques: Nanomaterials and Hybrid Composites
1- Nanomaterial Reinforcement
Additives such as nanofibers, graphene, and nanokaolin increase the material's mechanical
strength by up to 30%.
2- Hybrid Composite Approach
Superior strength and toughness are achieved by combining natural fibers with carbon or glass
fibers.
3- Additive Manufacturing (3D Printing)
It offers rapid prototyping and mass production capabilities for complex and customized
geometries.
The Role of Nanomaterials in Biocomposites
Materials with diameters ranging from 2 to 800 nanometers are defined as nanofibers. These
types of nanomaterials serve as the reinforcing phase in biocomposites. Nanomaterials have a
high surface area and bond strongly to the matrix phase. They improve the mechanical strength,
thermal stability, and barrier properties of the material [22], [23].
o Increases the strength and hardness of the composite at the macro scale.
o Increases the material's durability by reducing water vapor and gas permeability.
o Fire retardant and UV stabilizing nanoadditives provide protection against outdoor
environmental conditions.
o Natural nanomaterials enable biocomposites to be sustainable and have a low carbon
footprint.
Due to these properties, nanomaterials are used in biocomposite applications across many
different industries. Applications include packaging and food packaging, protective coatings
against fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture, structural parts in the automotive industry, and
building materials in the construction industry [24], [25].
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Production of Nanofibers
Drawing Method:[23],[26]
• Nanofibers are obtained by dipping and withdrawing a polymer solution droplet using
a micro-sized pipette or micro-directing device.
• The filament-like structure drawn from the polymer solution using a pipette solidifies
and takes the form of a nanofiber.
• It is a simple technique that does not require special equipment.
• The fiber diameter varies depending on the drawing speed and solution viscosity.
• It can only be applied on a laboratory scale.
• It is not suitable for mass production.
Figure 7- Drawing method[27]
Mold Synthesis Method:[23],[28]
•Nanofibers are obtained using a pressure-resistant, porous membrane mold.
•The polymer solution is passed through the mold at a specific pressure.
•Fibers are obtained according to the shape and dimensions of the mold.
•Production speed is low.
•Mold cost is high.
•Fiber diameter and length can be controlled.
Phase Separation Method:[23],[29]
• It is based on the principle of phase separation due to physical incompatibility when the
polymer dissolves in a solvent.
• The dissolution of polymers consists of the stages of gelation, solvent removal, freezing,
and freeze-drying.
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• Solvent selection and process conditions are critical.
• Homogeneous nanofibers are obtained.
Figure 8- Phase Separation Method [30]
Self-Assembly Method:[23], [31]
• It is the formation of a regular structure through the self-assembly of molecular units
via non-covalent interactions.
• The self-organization of nano-structures results in the formation of a fibrous structure.
• The resulting structure is more regular and stable than single components.
Electrospinning Method:[23], [32], [33]
• It is the production of nanofibers by passing a polymer solution under a high-voltage electric
field, where it flows as a fine jet and accumulates as fibers on a grounded surface.
• Fiber fineness can be controlled.
• Electrostatic force is used for fiber production.
• Fiber production in different sizes ranging from nanometers to micrometers is achieved.
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Figure 9- Schematic illustration of the electrospinning method.[34]
Hybrid Composite Approach [35]
Hybrid composites are advanced materials formed by combining at least two different types of
reinforcing materials (such as natural fibers and carbon fibers) with a matrix phase. This
approach aims to optimize the properties of the final material compared to single-fiber
reinforcement.
Optimized Mechanical Properties: The combination of different fiber types ensures balanced
properties such as high strength, stiffness, and impact resistance are achieved.
Cost Effectiveness: The use of natural fibers reduces production costs while maintaining
performance.
Lightweight and Environmental Benefits: The low density of natural fibers reduces material
weight. Furthermore, the reduced use of synthetic materials offers advantages in terms of
biodegradability and sustainability.
Application Areas[35]
The advanced properties of hybrid composites make them ideal for a wide range of applications:
•Automotive Industry: Interior panels, body parts, and lightweight structural components.
•Construction: High-performance insulation materials and structural support elements.
•Aviation and Defense: Non-critical parts such as secondary structures and internal fittings.
•Consumer Goods: Sports equipment, furniture, and other durable consumer goods.
Hybrid Composite Application Example: Automotive Interior Panels
Hybrid composites are used in the automotive industry
•to reduce vehicle weight
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•to increase fuel efficiency.
Particularly in non-critical parts such as interior panels and trunk lids, the combination of
natural fibers with synthetic fibers offers significant advantages in terms of both cost-
effectiveness and environmental sustainability.
Such applications enhance the vehicle's overall performance while minimizing the
environmental footprint of production processes [36].
3D Printing Method in Biocomposite Production [37], [38], [39]
3D printing is a method of developing three-dimensional products by layering materials
obtained from the combination of substances such as bio-based polymers and natural fibers.
Design Freedom: It offers the ability to create products with complex internal structures and
customized geometries that are difficult or impossible to achieve with traditional manufacturing
methods.
Layered Manufacturing: Production is carried out by adding material layer by layer, starting
from a digital model. This minimizes material waste.
Rapid Prototyping: Ideal for rapid prototyping and small-scale, personalized production. It
significantly shortens product development cycles.
Production Stages:
1- Raw Material Preparation
• Matrix and reinforcement are mixed in specific proportions.
• The mixture is extruded into filament form.
2- Modeling
• A digital model is created using CAD (Computer Aided Design).
3- Slicing
• The printer software model is divided into layers to determine the printing properties.
4-Printing
• The filament is melted at high temperatures.
• Layers are combined to create the product.
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Figure 10- Schematic diagrams of FDM (A) and DIW (B) 3D printing.[39]
Application Areas:
Biomedical field: Biodegradable implants, orthopedic plates
Packaging sector: Recyclable and biodegradable packaging
Automotive and construction: Interior parts, concrete
Design and furniture: Tables, chairs, decorative products
Industrial / Research Examples
1. ColorFabb (Netherlands) – Woodfill®
PLA + 30% wood powder blended biocomposite filament.
Used in the furniture and architectural modeling industries.
2. MateriTech / NatureWorks – PLA–Hemp fiber filament
Biocomposite material developed for 3D printing automotive interior trim parts.
3. Research example: “3D printed PLA/bamboo fiber biocomposites for lightweight
applications” (Li et al., Composites Part C, 2023)
A 10% bamboo fiber addition provided a 25% higher tensile modulus compared to PLA.
4. Biomedical example: “3D printed chitosan/PLA scaffolds for bone regeneration” (Wang
et al., Biomaterials Advances, 2022)
Cell adhesion has increased, and biodegradability has become controllable.
Natural Fiber Processing and Biological Binder Applications
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The use of natural fibers and biological binders is of great importance in the production of
biocomposite materials to ensure environmental sustainability and enhance mechanical
performance. These approaches aim to optimize the material's mechanical properties while
reducing its environmental footprint.
Natural Fiber Processing [40]
Natural fibers are reinforcement materials obtained from plants and animals. They are generally
prominent for their environmentally friendly and biodegradable properties. Before being used
as reinforcement in biocomposites, natural fibers undergo various processes to increase their
compatibility with the matrix and improve their mechanical properties. Cleaning, drying,
surface modification, and compatibility with the matrix are some of these processes.
Before fibers can be used as a reinforcing phase, they must be cleaned of foreign substances.
Chemical or physical methods can be used in this process.
• Chemical Treatments: Hydroxyl groups on the fiber surface are modified using methods
such as alkali, silane, or acetylation to increase adhesion to the matrix.
• Mechanical Treatments: The size and fineness of the fibers are adjusted to ensure
homogeneous distribution.
• Drying: Removing moisture reduces water absorption, which negatively affects fiber
performance.
Biological Binder Applications
By using biological-based binders instead of traditional synthetic resins, the environmental
footprint of biocomposites is reduced and their biodegradability is increased.
• Starch and Protein-Based Binders: Natural polymers such as plant starches and soy proteins
offer good adhesive properties.
• Natural Resins: Resins such as lignin, tannin, or bio-based epoxies offer more sustainable
alternatives compared to their synthetic counterparts.
Application Methods: These binders can be applied to fibers using different techniques such
as impregnation, coating, or mixing with the matrix.
Effective processing of natural fibers and the use of environmentally friendly biological binders
are critical for enhancing sustainability and performance in biocomposite production. These
approaches aim to optimize the material's mechanical properties while reducing its
environmental footprint.
Kronospan / Egger Group – Lignin & Tannin-Based Adhesive MDF/Particleboard [41]
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Products created by combining wood chips with lignin/tannin-based biological resin binders.
Product: Formaldehyde-free or low VOC emission MDF and particleboard.
Binder: Lignin-tannin mixture bio-based resin (formaldehyde-free).
Environmental impact: Developed using renewable resources, resulting in a low carbon
footprint.
Durability: Resistant to moisture and swelling.
Application areas: Furniture, interior panel systems, cladding, lamination.
Figure 11- Particleboard, HPL Edge-Banded Countertops, Acoustic panels [41]
FlexForm Technologies-Natural Fiber Composite Automotive Panels [41]
Application: Natural fibers + bio-based/thermoplastic binder.
Product: Automotive interior trim, seat backs, trunk panels.
Binder: Polypropylene + bio-based additives or biopolymer resin (PBS, PLA).
Application area: Automobile manufacturers such as Ford, GM, Chrysler (e.g., Ford Escape
interior panels).
FlexForm is used in door panels, door supports, ceiling linings, side and rear walls, seat backs,
luggage racks, columns, center consoles, loading platforms, and luggage linings. FlexForm is
currently used in the interior trim components of non-commercial aircraft by the world's largest
personal aircraft manufacturer.
FlexForm MT (Non-woven mat) - Unlike wood products that need to be replaced every few
years and fiberglass, which is harmful to the environment, difficult to process, and requires
significant amounts of fossil fuels in its production, it is made from Bast Fibers, a product that
is grown annually.
FlexForm LD (Low-density sheet) - Pre-processed to enable use in forced hot-air heating
systems for 2D and 3D applications. Allows for variable geometry in shaping. An ideal bonding
board. Available in sheet form.
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Figure 12- FlexForm Applications [42]
Testing and Analysis Methods for Biocomposites [43],[44],[45]
Various tests and analyses are conducted to determine the mechanical strength, thermal
stability, and morphological properties of biocomposites. Some of these basic tests and analyses
are as follows.
Mechanical Tests
• Tensile test
• Compression test
• Bending test
• Fatigue test
• Impact resistance test
Morphological and Structural Characteristics
• Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
• Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)
• X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS)
• X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)
Thermal Analyses
• TGA (Thermogravimetric Analysis),
• DSC (Differential Scanning Calorimetry)
• TMA (Thermal Expansion Analysis)
Physical Properties
• Density
• Porosity
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• Unit Volume Weight
• Water Absorption
19
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