Chapter 4: Turning Effects of Forces
1. The Moment of a Force
1.1 Turning Effect
Turning effect: the effect a force has when it causes (or would cause, in
the absence of resistive forces) an object to rotate around a pivot.
Without a pivot point to anchor the movement, a force will simply push
an object forward in a straight line (translation) rather than causing it to
spin or rotate.
Pivot (also called the fulcrum): the fixed point about which an object
turns/rotates (e.g. a door hinge).
1.2 Moment
Moment: the turning effect of a force about a pivot.
Moment = force × perpendicular distance from the pivot.
1.3 Factors Affecting the Size of a Moment
A moment is larger when:
1. The force is bigger. (Directly proportional)
2. The force acts further from the pivot. (Directly proportional)
3. The force acts best at 90° (right angles) to the object — this produces
the greatest possible moment for a given force and distance.
Pushing at any other angle produces a smaller turning effect than
pushing at 90°.
1.4 Practical Applications of Moments
Opening a door: push as hard as possible, as far from the hinge (pivot) as
possible, and at right angles to the door — this is why door handles are
placed at the edge farthest from the hinge.
Crowbar (lifting a rock): pull near the end of the bar and at 90° to
maximise the turning effect.
Wheelbarrow: long handles increase the moment of the lifting force for
a given effort.
Spanner with a longer handle: increases the moment for a given applied
force, making it easier to undo a tight bolt.
Trees in wind: a stronger wind exerts a greater force → greater moment
→ more likely to blow the tree over. A taller tree has its wind force (and
weight) acting further from its base/pivot point → greater moment →
more likely to be blown over than a shorter tree.
2. Calculating Moments
2.1 Key Equation
moment of a force=force × perpendicular distance from the pivot
Symbol Quantity SI Unit
newton
Moment Turning effect of a force
metre (Nm)
Force (F) Applied force newton (N)
Perpendicular Shortest (right-angle) distance from the
metre (m)
distance (d) pivot to the line of action of the force
2.2 Units
Standard SI unit: newton metre (Nm) — no special named unit exists for
moment in the SI system.
If distances are given in cm, the moment is expressed in N cm.
Caution: never mix Nm and Ncm within the same calculation — convert
to consistent units first.
3. Equilibrium
3.1 Definition
Equilibrium: the state in which no net (resultant) force and no net
(resultant) moment act on a body — i.e. two or more things are
balanced.
3.2 Conditions for an Object to Be in Equilibrium
For an object to be in equilibrium, both of the following must hold
simultaneously:
1. No resultant force — the forces acting on it are balanced.
2. No resultant turning effect (moment) — the turning effects of the forces
acting on it are balanced.
3.3 Consequences of an Unbalanced System
If a resultant force acts on an object → the object will start to move
(accelerate) in the direction of the resultant force.
If a resultant moment acts on an object → the object will start to rotate.
3.4 Directional Convention for Moments
Clockwise: turning in the same direction as the hands of a clock.
Anticlockwise: turning in the opposite direction to the hands of a clock.
A beam/see-saw is balanced when the clockwise and anticlockwise
moments about the pivot are equal (see Principle of Moments, Section
4).
4. The Principle of Moments
4.1 Statement of the Principle
Principle of Moments: When an object is in equilibrium, the sum of the
anticlockwise moments about any point equals the sum of the clockwise
moments about the same point.
Total clockwise moment =Total anticlockwise moment ∑CM=∑AcM
This principle can be used to find an unknown force or an unknown
distance, provided all other forces/distances are known and the system
is in equilibrium.
4.2 Beam / See-saw as a Model System
A see-saw is an example of a beam: a long, rigid object pivoted at a
point.
Each weight/force acting on one side produces a moment tending to
rotate the beam in one rotational direction; for balance, the clockwise
and anticlockwise moments must cancel.
4.4 Worked Example 4.2 — Multiple Moments on Each Side
Problem (Figure 4.11): Beam is 2.0 m long, weight 20 N. a 10 N force acts
downward at one end. Find force F (downward, at 0.5 m on the near side) to
balance the beam.
Step 1 — Identify clockwise and anticlockwise forces:
Clockwise: 20 N at 0.5 m, and 10 N at 1.5 m from the pivot.
Anticlockwise: force F at 0.5 m from the pivot.
Step 2 — Apply Principle of Moments:
Total clockwise moment =Total anticlockwise moment
Step 3 — Substitute and solve:
(20 N ×0.5 m)+(10 N ×1.5 m)=F × 0.5 m 10 N m +15 N m=F ×0.5 m25 N m=F × 0.5 m
25 N m
F= =50 N
0.5 m
Key extension: this example demonstrates applying the principle of moments
when more than one moment acts on the same side of the pivot — the
individual moments on each side must first be summed before equating totals.
Note: brackets are used to enforce order of operations — multiplication
(force × distance) performed before addition of separate moments.
5. Force Balance in Equilibrium (Vertical/Contact Forces)
5.1 Beyond Moments — The Force Condition
Even when moments balance, there must also be no resultant force for
full equilibrium (see Section 3.2).
Example (Figure 4.12, see-saw system): downward forces are the two
children's weights (500 N, 300 N, 400 N... i.e. the three weights) plus the
weight of the see-saw itself (200 N), acting through its midpoint (the
pivot).
An upward contact force at the pivot balances all downward forces.
5.2 Calculating Contact Force
Since the system is in equilibrium, the resultant force must be zero, so:
Contact force=sum of all downward forces
Example: (500 + 200 + 400 + 300) N = 1400 N, acting upwards at the
pivot.
5.3 Moment of Forces Acting Through the Pivot
A force acting through the pivot (e.g. the contact force, or the weight of
the beam itself if it acts at the pivot) has a perpendicular distance of
zero from the pivot.
Therefore, such a force has zero moment (contact force called normal
force) about the pivot — it contributes to the force balance but not to
the moment balance.
6. Stability and Centre of Gravity
6.1 Centre of Gravity
Centre of gravity: the single point at which all the mass (and hence
weight) of an object can be considered to act; the object behaves as if its
entire mass were concentrated there (ignoring any spin).
The force of gravity acts on every part of an object's mass; rather than
drawing a separate weight arrow for each part, a single weight arrow
through the centre of gravity is used to represent the total gravitational
force.
Locating Centre of Gravity by Symmetry
For symmetrical objects, the centre of gravity lies on the axis of
symmetry.
o Sphere/ball: at the geometric centre (highly symmetrical).
o Person: on the axis of symmetry, roughly level with the navel,
because half the mass lies on each side of the axis.
o Pyramid, cube, table, pencil: centre of gravity lies along the axis of
symmetry (may lie in empty space outside the physical material —
e.g. a table's centre of gravity is in the air below the table top,
between the legs).
6.2 Stable vs Unstable Objects
Stable: an object that is unlikely to topple over, typically because it has a
low centre of gravity and a wide base.
Unstable: an object likely to topple over, typically because it has a high
centre of gravity and a narrow base.
6.3 Mechanism of Toppling (Tilted Glass Example, Figure 4.19)
(a) Upright: weight acts straight down through the centre of gravity;
contact force from the table acts straight up; both forces are in line
(collinear) → object is in equilibrium.
(b) Slightly tilted: contact pivot shifts to the edge of the base in contact
with the table. The line of action of the weight is still to the left of this
new pivot → produces an anticlockwise moment → this moment tends
to rotate the object back to the upright position (restoring/righting
moment).
(c) Tilted further: once the line of action (center of gravity) of the weight
passes beyond the edge of the base, the weight now acts to the right of
the pivot → produces a clockwise moment → this moment tips the
object completely over.
General rule/law: an object topples over once the line of action of its
weight (through the centre of gravity) falls outside the base of the object
(i.e. beyond the edge of support).
6.4 Design Applications of Stability
Self-righting lifeboats: designed with a low centre of gravity so
gravitational moments return the boat to an upright position after
capsizing.
Tightrope/high-wire artists: use long poles to help maintain balance;
adjusting the pole's position shifts the overall centre of gravity to keep it
above the base (the point of contact with the wire/feet). Frequent small
adjustments allow smooth balance.
Double-decker buses (tilt testing): vehicles are tested by tilting to a
required angle (e.g. at least 28°) before they may carry passengers, to
check they do not topple.
o Buses topple when the centre of gravity's line of action passes
beyond the wheel base (edge of support).
o More passengers on the upper deck raises the centre of gravity →
reduces stability.
o Sandbags placed on the lower deck (not the upper deck) are used
to lower the centre of gravity → increases stability.
Cyclist stability: a cyclist is in equilibrium when weight and contact force
(and friction, if present, e.g. when leaning/turning) balance; leaning
introduces unbalanced moments/forces that can result in a fall unless
corrected (e.g. by countering the moment with body position or friction
force).
7. Finding the Centre of Gravity Experimentally
7.1 Principle
Balancing is the key technique for locating an object's centre of gravity.
A uniform metre ruler balances at its midpoint, so the centre of gravity
of a uniform ruler lies at its midpoint.
7.2 Method for an Irregular Lamina (Plane Lamina)
Lamina: a flat, two-dimensional shape/sheet.
Procedure:
1. Suspend the card (lamina) freely from a pin through a hole near its
edge.
2. The card hangs so that its centre of gravity lies directly below the
point of suspension — this occurs because the weight (acting
through the centre of gravity) and the contact/support force at the
pin naturally align vertically, so there is no net moment about the
pin.
3. Hang a plumb-line from the same pin and mark the vertical line it
indicates on the card.
4. Repeat the process using two more (different) pinholes, obtaining
three lines in total.
5. The centre of gravity lies at the intersection of the lines (where all
three cross at a single point).
Reasoning for using three points (rather than two): two lines are
theoretically sufficient to define a unique intersection point, but a third
line is used to reveal and check for inaccuracies in the experimental
method.
7.3 Assumptions/Conditions
The card/lamina must be free to swing freely about the pin (negligible
friction at the suspension point) so that it settles under gravity alone
with no external moment preventing rotation.
8. Summary of Key Relationships
Concept Relationship / Rule
Increase force, increase distance from pivot, and/or
Maximising moment
apply force at 90° to the object
Force acting through Perpendicular distance = 0 → moment = 0
Concept Relationship / Rule
the pivot
Stability Increased by low centre of gravity + wide base
Occurs when the line of action of weight (through
Toppling condition
centre of gravity) falls outside the base of support
Centre of gravity of
At the midpoint
uniform ruler
Centre of gravity of Found by suspension method — intersection of three
irregular lamina plumb-line markings
9. Key Vocabulary (Definitions)
Turning effect: when a force causes an object to rotate, or would cause
rotation if there were no resistive forces.
Pivot: the fixed point about which a lever turns; also known as the
fulcrum.
Moment: the turning effect of a force about a pivot; force ×
perpendicular distance from the pivot.
Equilibrium: when no net force and no net moment act on a body.
Anticlockwise: turning in the opposite direction to the hands of a clock.
Clockwise: turning in the same direction as the hands of a clock.
Principle of moments: when an object is in equilibrium, the sum of
anticlockwise moments about any point equals the sum of clockwise
moments about the same point.
Stable: an object unlikely to topple over, often due to a low centre of
gravity and wide base.
Unstable: an object likely to topple over, often due to a high centre of
gravity and narrow base.
Centre of gravity: the point at which all the mass of an object can be
considered to be located, and through which its weight acts.
Lamina: a flat, two-dimensional shape.