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MUHAMAMD FAISAL
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PHYSICS
1
 DEFINITIONS
REST

A body which does not change its position with respect to its surrounding is called at rest
position. For example if we put a book on the table, it will remain in rest until we exert a force on
it and change its position.

MOTION

The body which changes its position with respect to its surrounding is called motion. For
example a ball is rolling on the ground.

RECTILINEAR MOTION

The motion of a body in a straight line is called rectilinear motion e.g. car moving on a
straight road.

CIRCULAR MOTION

The motion of a body along a circular path is called circular motion e.g. motion of planets.

ROTATIONAL MOTION

When a body spins or rotates about a fixed point or axis its motion is called rotational
motion e.g. motion of fan.

OSCILLATORY OR VIBRATORY MOTION

The to and fro motion at regular intervals of time is called vibratory or oscillatory motion
e.g the periodic swings of a simple pendulum.

NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION

In the absence a net force a body at rest will remain at rest and body in motion will
continue its motion in a straight line with uniform velocity. According to Newton’s 1 st law of
motion in the absence of a net force a body at rest will remain at rest. If we place a book on the
table it will always remain on the table unless a force is applied on it or any body picks it up from
the table. According to 2nd part of first law of motion, a body in motion will continue its motion in
a straight line with uniform speed for example if we kick off a football according to the law it
should continue move is a straight line with uniform velocity, but it comes to rest after covering
some distance. This is due to the reason that some forces are acting on the foot ball those
forces are:

1) Gravitational pull of the earth

2) Resistance of the football with the surface of ground.
3) Air friction on the football.
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 If we remove these three forces in case of space then the football will continue its motion
in the straight line with uniform speed.

INERTIA

The inability of matter to change its position is called inertia. If a bus suddenly starts
moving, the passenger standing in the bus will fall in the backward direction, if the bus suddenly
stops and now the passenger will fall forward.

A glass is covered with a postcard and a coin placed on this post card. When the post
card is suddenly struck with finger it falls away and the coin drops in to the glass.

Because the force which is applied with finger does not affect the coin but it only affect
the postcard.

Thus due to this force the post card falls away while coin remains its state of internal and
drops in to the glass.

SECOND LAW OF MOTION

When an external force acts on a body it will accelerate the body in the direction of force,
magnitude acceleration is directly proportional to the applied force and inversely proportional to
its mass.
a F

a  f/m

a = kf/m……..(1) where k is constant of proportionality and k=1

Putting the value of k in eq. (1)

a = 1f/m , a = f/m , F= ma

NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF MOTION

Every action has reaction which is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. Every
action is equal but opposite in direction.

Walking on the ground is an interesting example of Newton third law of motion. By

walking we press the ground in the backward direction by feet, ground has a reaction pushes
our feet forward making us to walk.

Flying of birds in the air is also example of Newton third law of motion, birds push the air
down with help of their feather, on the result they fly in the air.

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EQUATION OF MOTION

1st equation of motion

Suppose a car is moving with its initial velocity vi, after time t its final velocity becomes vf , the
produce acceleration is a ,
So, in mathematically form:
Initial velocity = Vi m/sec
Time = t sec
Final velocity = vf m/sec
The acceleration a m/sec
Change in velocity = vf - vi

As, a= v/t……..(1) and v= vf – vi

Putting the value of v in eq. (1)

a = vf - vi => at = vf - vi
t

vf = vi + at  The above equation is called 1st Equation of Motion

SECOND EQUATION OF MOTION

As we know that, distance covered = Average velocity X time

S = Vav X t (1)

Since Vav = Initial Velocity (vi) + Final Velocity (vf)

2
Since Vav = vi + vf
2
Putting this in equation - 1
S = (vf + vi) x t
2
S = (vi + at + vi) x t - Since vf = vi + at
2
S = (2vi + at) x t
2
S = 2vit + at²
2
S =2vit + at²
2 2
S = vit + ½ at²

S = vi t + ½ at2  The above equation is called 2nd Equation of Motion

3rd EQUATION OF MOTION”

S = Vav + t Since Vav = vi + vf

2
S = (vf + vi) x t (1)
2
The value of T is from 1ST equation of motion
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 Vf = Vi + at
Vf - Vi = at
Vf - vi = t
a
t = Vf - Vi
a

Putting the value of t in equation (1)

2 2
S = (Vf + Vi) (Vf - Vi) since a – b = (a + b)(a – b)
2 a

S = Vf2 - Vi2
2a

2as = Vf2 - Vi2  3rd Equation of motion

MOTION LAW UNDER GRAVITY

The most common example of motion with nearly constant acceleration is falling of body
on earth this acceleration is due to the pull of earth (gravity). If a body moves towards earth
neglecting resistance and small charges in acceleration with altitude. This body is referred as
free falling body. This motion is called free fall.

Such type of vertical motion under the action of gravity is good example of uniformly
acceleration motion. The acceleration produced in falling bodies due to the attraction of earth is
called acceleration due to gravity. Equations of motion under gravity are:

Vf = Vi + gt
S = Vit + ½ gt2
2gs = Vf2 - Vi2

In SI system value of g is 9.8 m/sec2.

Motion of body

R Under gravity

DISTANCE

The measurement/space/interval between two points is called distance.

DISPLACEMENT

The shortest distance between two pints is called displacement.

Symbol for displacement is S

SI unit m
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 Dimension L

VELOCITY

Rate of change of displacement is called velocity.

OR

Speed in a particular direction is called velocity. It is a vector quantity and its unit is m/sec.
V = d /t.

UNIFORM VELOCITY

When a body covers equal distance in equal interval of time then its velocity is called
uniform velocity.

VARIABLE VELOCITY

If a body covers unequal displacement in equal interval of time is called variable velocity.

AVERAGE VELOCITY

Total displacement divided by total time is called average velocity.

Vav = vf + vi
2
ACCELERATION

The rate of change of velocity with respect to time is called acceleration. Its unit is
m/sec2.
a = vf - vi (Dimension = Lt-2)
t
A B C D
5’ 8’ 11’
For example 1sec 1 sec 1 sec

Let a body start from a point A and reach to a point B at a distance of 5 feet in first
second; from point B to a point C at a distance of 8 feet in second; and from a point C to
a point D at a distance of 11 feet in third second. Here, in this example, there is an
increase of velocity by three feet after every second. This increase in velocity is called
acceleration.

If a body moves with an increasing velocity its motion is said to be accelerated. It moves
with a decreasing velocity, its motion is said to be restarted.

NEGATIVE ACCELERATION

If the velocity of moving body is decreasing with passing of time its acceleration is called
negative acceleration or retardation.

POSITIVE ACCELERATION

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 When the velocity of moving body is increasing with passage of time its acceleration is
called positive acceleration.

INSTANTANEOUS ACCELERATION

The acceleration of a moving body at a particular instant time is called instantaneous

acceleration.

UNIFORM ACCELERATION

When the value of average and instantaneous acceleration is equal then we can say that
body is moving with uniform acceleration.

OR

If the velocity of moving body change by an equal amount in equal interval of time, then
the body is said to be moving with uniform acceleration.

BODY OR MATTER

Any thing, which occupies space, has some mass and some weight is called a body or
matter.

WEIGHT

Any body, which has some mass and is attracted toward the earth due to gravity, is said
to possess weight.

W = mg
MASS

The quantity of matter present in a body is called mass of that body:

SI Unit = Kg
Symbol = m

WORK

When a force F acts on a body and moves at through a distance ‘S’ in the direction of
force then the work done ‘W’ is equal to the product of force is displacement.
OR
We define the work done as “the work by a force acting on an object that moves in the
same direction as the force is equal to the magnitude of the force multiplied by the distance
through which the force acts. It F is the magnitude of force acting on the body and ‘S’ is
distance covered in the direction of motion then. Or Work is a dot product of force and
displacement.

Mathematically it is expressed as
Work = Force x Distance
W = FxS

Therefore the work done is W = F Cos x S

W = FS Cos
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Where  = angle between force (F) and displacement (S)

UNIT OF WORK

In SI system unit of work is Joule or Newton - Meter.

JOULE

It is defined as when a force of one Newton moves a body through a distance of one
meter in the direction of force. The work done is called one Joule i.e.

1 J = 1N x 1M

UNIT IN (CGS) In CGS system of units the unit of work is Erg. Which is defined as when a
force of one dyne moves a body through a distance of one centimeter. Then work done is
called one Erg. (In the direction of force).

UNIT IN FPS

The unit of work in British Engineering system is foot pound. It may defined as when a
force of one pound act on a body and moves at through a distance of one foot in the direction of
force then work done is called foot pound.

POWER

Rate of doing work is called power.

P = W/t

In SI system the unit of power is watt. If a body does work on Joule in one second then
its power will be equal to one watt.

EFFORT: It is the force directly applied to a machine for doing work on the machine. It is
denoted by ‘P’.

LOAD: It is a weight lifted by the machine and is denoted by ‘W’

MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE: If a weight ‘W’ is raised by a machine when an effort ‘P’ is

applied, the ratio of load and effort (W/P) is called the mechanical advantage of the machine.
Hence,
MA = W/P

MECHANICAL ADVANTAGES: The mechanical advantage of any machine is defined as, “The
ratio between Load and Effort”.

MA = Load = W
Effort P

MA of fixed pulley

MA = W = 1 or, W = P
P
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 Or
MA = 1

MA of moveable pulley

As we know that:

MA = W  (1)
P

Since W = 2P putting this in equation (1)

Since MA = 2P
P
MA = 2
MA of in Clined plane

MA = L
H

MA of Lever

MA = W
P

MA of Screw

MA = 2 d
h

MA of Screw Jack

MA = 2 d Distance through which the effort is moved

h Height through which the load is raised

MA of Wheel & Axle

MA = 2  R
2  r
R= Radius of Wheel
MA = R/r r= Radius of Axle

Force

Force is an agent which produces or tends to produce, stops or tends to stop the motion
of the body. In MKS system the unit of force is Newton (N).

F= ma
2
1 N= 1(Kg m/ses )

ONE NEWTON 1 Newton is that force which produces acceleration of 1 meter/sec 2 in a

body of mass 1 kg.

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In FPS system

1 pound = 1 Slug F/sec2

In CGS system

1 dyne = 1 gm cm/sec2

RESULTANT FORCE

Resultant of two or more forces is a new force which produces the some effect as
produces by all the force being added together.

RESOLUTION OF FORCE

The process of splitting a vector or force in to rectangular parts is called the resolution of
that force.

COMPOSITION OF FORCE

The process in which a force is obtained from its rectangular components is called
composition of a forces.

ENERGY

The capability of doing some work is known as energy.

KINETIC ENERGY

The Kinetic energy (K.E) of a body is defined as the energy possessed by body due to its
motion.
OR

The energy due to the motion of a body is called Kinetic energy e.g in the running water
Kinetic energy is due to the flow of water.

KE = ½mv2

POTENTIAL ENERGY

Potential energy of a body is the energy possessed by it by virtue of its configuration or

simply the energy due to the position of a body is called potential energy.

or

The energy possessed by body due to its height is called P.E.

PE = mgh

MAGNET

A ferromagnetic substance that has a permanent magnetic field, they can attract iron,
nickel and cobalt.
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NATURAL MAGNET

A permanent natural accruing magnet consisting of iron oxide ‘Fe 3 O4“ is known as
natural magnet.

ARTIFICIAL

A man made magnet is called artificial magnet. It is made by proper rubbing of an iron
bar by natural magnet.

Pole

Magnet has maximum power of attraction of repulsion on its ends, these ends are called pole.

SOUTH POLE

If a magnet is suspended freely then its point towards south is called South Pole, similarly
North Pole.

Magnet field

The region around magnet where its force is being felt is called magnetic field.

LINE OF FORCE

The path of a north magnetic pole in a magnetic filed represents the line of magnetic force.

MAGNETIC LINE OF FORCE - DEFINITION: A curve inside a magnetic field which represents
the direction of magnetic field at a particular point. This direction can be obtained by drawing a
tangent to the curve at that point.

PROPERTIES OF MAGNETIC LINE OF FORCE: Magnet lines of forces possess following

properties:

1. Magnet lines of forces are continuous lines, emerging from the North Pole and
entering the magnet through its South Pole.
2. Magnetic lines of force never cut each other.
3. Magnetic lines of induction contract longitudinally.
4. Magnetic lines of force repel each other laterally.
5. Magnetic lines of force can pass more easily through iron then through air.

ELECTRIC LINE OF FORCE - DEFINITION: The path of a positive charge along which it
moves in an electric field is called Electric Lines of force.

PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC LINES OF FORCE: Electric lines of force possess following

properties:

1. Electric lines of forces originate from positive charge and terminate at negative
charge.
2. Electric lines of forces never cut each other.
3. Electric lines of forces repel each other laterally.
4. Electric lines of forces contracts longitudinally.
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ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION: It has been experimentally observed that whenever
magnetic flux passing through a conductor is changed continuously then an EMF
(Electromagnetic Force) is produced in the conductor during this charge which causes some
current to pass through the conductor. The EMF is called induced EMF, the current is called
Induced Current and the phenomenon is called Electromagnetic Induction.

EXPLANATION: In 1830s, it was experimentally observed that whenever magnetic flux is

changed then a current is produced in a conductor present in that magnetic field. There are
various ways by which magnetic flux can be charged. It can be charged by moving the
conductor in that magnetic field, by moving the magnet, by changing the current of an
electromagnet, by rotating a coil inside a magnetic field. The induced current is produced only in
that period of time in which the magnetic flux is charged. This whole phenomenon is called
“Electromagnetic Induction”.

CONDUCTOR

Some metallic solids such as gold, sliver, copper are so close each other that the
outermost orbit of these atom overlap resultant forces of orbit of an atom becomes negligible
and these electrons do not remain bound to any particular atom but all shared among all such
electron are called free electron.

In metallic solids, these electron moves from place to place in a gas. Substances which
contain large no of free electron are to the conductor electric charges.

CAPACITOR

Capacitor is device to store energy/charge.

B A

+
_

If we fixed two metallic plates ‘A’ positively charge particles. This can be done by rubbing
a glass rod against silk cloth and then touching at with plates. This process may needed many
to enhance amount of charges on the plates. This increases its potential. It must be kept in
mind that this cannot be continued indefinitely. After a while the plate ’A’ cannot be charged any
more. Amount of work done in carrying positive charge to plate is converted into electrical
potential energy.

It is used to store a charge and P.E. The capacitor is show in the fig is called parallel
plate capacitor.

Capacitor can be of other shape also. If an insulator such as brass, is introduced

between the plates, its capacity to store charge increases experiment have also establish that
increase in the area of plates of a capacitor or the reduction in the distance between then also
enhance its capacity to store change.

TYPES OF CAPACITOR

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There are two types of capacitor.

(1) Fixed capacitor

(2) Variable capacitor

A capacitor whose component is fixed is called fixed capacitor.

The value of its capacity depends upon its design and remains constant. (e.g) Paper
capacitor. Another example of fixed capacitor is Mica capacitor.

It is formed using mica between two metallic plates and it is covered by an insulator
material for conducting.

This capacitor in a circuit two leads connecting to the plates by increasing the plates
capacity of the capacitor can be increased. Insulator material is used plates are connecting thus
other shown in the fig.

VARIABLE CAPACITOR

If the distance between its plates can be charged thus it will be act as a variable
capacitor.

Fixed capacitor is made of many capacitors and air is used as insulating material
between plates.

A variable capacitor is described in the tuning circuit of a radio set. By charging its
capacity, different radio station can be used.

UNIT OF CAPACITY OF A CAPACITOR

When charge Q is transferred on the plates of capacitor, potential difference between the
plates also increases.

In other words, the charge Q is the plate of a capacitor is directly proportional to the
electric proportional deference V, between them.
Q V

Q = CV

Where C is called capacity of the capacitor. Its value depends upon the size of the
capacitor, the distance between its plates and the insulator inserted between them.

Substituting V =1 Volt (1)

Q= C

It shows that if the potential deference between the plates of a capacitor is 1 volt thus the
quantity of charge store on its plates is equal to its capacity.

The unit of the capacity is called farad capacity of that capacitor which stores a charge of
one coulomb if the potential deference between the plates is one volt. Generally capacitor have
capacity in F and Pico farad.

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 1 F = 10-6F
1 Pico F = 10-12F

ONE FARAD: The capacity of capacitor will be one farad, if the charge store on each plate
of capacitor is one coulomb and the potential difference between its plates is one volt.
Mathematically:

1F = 1 Coulomb
1 Volt

PROBLEMS No 1

If the potential difference between the parallel plates of a capacitor is 850v. If one each
plates there is a charge of 6 Coulomb. Find the capacity of capacitor?

SOLUTION

Potential difference V = 850

Charge Q = 6  Coulomb .006 Coulomb
Q = CV
C = Q/V
C = .0006
850
C = 7.05 x 10-6 farad. Or 7.05  F (Answer)

CAPACITORS IN SERIES COMBINATION

In series combination of capacitors, the charge stored on each capacitor is same or equal, while
potential difference is different.

C1 C2 C3
a b c

Q Q Q

CONSTRUCTION OF A FIXED CAPACITOR

PAPER CAPACITOR

It is cylindrical in shape consisting of two aluminum foils between which used greased
paper or a plastic sheet is used as an insulator. These are rolled in an insulated cylinder.

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MICA CAPACITOR

Another example of a fixed capacitor is a mica capacitor. It is formed by using mica

between two metallic plates. Generally, it is covered by a plastic or insulated material.

For connecting this capacitor in a circuit two leads connected to the plates or used. If a
capacitor of large capacity is required, then a stack of metallic plates is used. Insulating
material is placed between each of its pairs and alternate metallic plates are connected
together.

CAPACITOR IN PARALLEL COMBINATION

In parallel combination of capacitor, the charge stored on each capacitor is different while
potential is same.
Q1 C1

a Q2 C2 b
ive ive
Q3 C2

PRIMARY CELL

Such cell which working does not depend upon any external source are called primary
cells e.g. volali cells, donial cell etc.

In these cells, the current is produced by the chemical action between its various
components.

SECONDARY CELLS

Primary cells are un-rechargeable. There is another class of cells which can be
recharged after they have run down by passing current through them from a external source.
As a result, the cell regains its chemical potential energy which is again used to deliver current
just like a primary cell.

Such types of rechargeable cells are called secondary cells or accumulators.

ELECTRIC CURRENT

The flow of charges through a conducting wire is called electric current. The flow of
charge infect is flow of free electrons which caused by the application of an electromotive force.
The rate of flow of charge through a certain cross-section is called current. If the quantity of
charge is ‘q’ then current is given by:

I = Q
t SI unit of current is ampere (A).
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ONE AMPERE: If one coulomb charge flows through a conductor in one second then
current passing the conductor will be one ampere. Mathematically:

1 Amp = 1 Coulomb
1 Sec

WORK POWER & ENERGY IN CIRCUITS

Suppose ‘Q’ charges are flowing through a section of a conductor in ‘t’ seconds. The
current flowing through a conductor will be, I = Q
t
Q=It

If V is the potential difference applied across the conductor their work done in
transforming ‘Q’ charge will be:

W = QV
Using Equation (i)
W = ItV

This work appears in the form of heat energy.

Heat energy = ItV

Since V =IR

Heat energy = It . IR

Or
Heat Energy = I2Rt

Since,
I = V => I2 = V2
R R2

Therefore,
Heat energy = V2 RT
R2

Heat energy = V2 t
R

Since, Power is defined as the rate of doing work.

Therefore P = W
t

or, W = QV

P = QV
t

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 P = IV

Since, V = IR

P = I IR

Or, P = I2R

Since I = V
R

Or, I2 = V2
R

P = V2 x R
R2

P = V2
R

OHM’S LAW

INTRODUCTIONS: In order to describe relation between current passing through a conductor

and potential difference across it, Geurge Simen Ohm presented a law which is called Ohm’s
Law.

STATEMENT: According to Ohm’s Law, the current passing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across the conductor, provided that the physical state of
the conductor remains same.

MATHEMATICALLY EXPRESSION: If ‘V’ is the potential difference across a conductor and

‘I’ is the current through the conductor and if the physical state of the conductor remains same
then according to Ohm’s Law,

IV
I = KV

Where ‘K’ is a constant called conductance of the conductor. But, K=1/R

Since I = 1 V or V = IR
R

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF OHM’S LAW

RESISTANCE OR ELECTRIC CIRCUIT RESISTANCE: Qualitatively it can be defined as

“The measure of opposition to the flow of free electrons due to their collision with the atoms of
conductor is called Resistance. Quantitatively it can be defined as, “If the current flowing
17
through the conductor is 1 Amp them the potential difference across the conductor is known as
the resistance of the conductor”. Mathematically,

R = V/I
Unit of resistance is volt/amp called Ohm. It is denoted by 
ONE OHM: If the current flowing through the conductor is 1 Amp and potential difference
across the conductor is 1 Volt then resistance of the conductor will be 1 Ohm. Mathematically,

1 Ohm = 1 volt
1amp

ELECTROLYSIS: The process in which dissociated ions electrolyte moves towards their
respective electrodes and deposit their in the form of neutral specie on the passage of electricity
is called Electrolysis.

ATOMIC NUMBER: The number of protons present in the nucleus of an atom is called Atomic
Number. It is denoted by ‘Z’

ATOMIC MASS: The sum of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom is
called Atomic Mass. It is denoted by ‘A’

STRUCTURE OF ATOM

Molecule is the smallest particles of an element or compound. It can exist independently

and contain all the properties of the element or compound. A molecule is composed of one or
more than one atom. An atom composed of three elementary particles. Particles called
neutron, proton and electron.

Central part of the atom where practically the centre mass of the atom is concentrated.
Contain neutron and proton while the third particle electrons revolve around the nucleus.

Orbit

Electron

Nucleus
Neutron

Proton

PROTON

It is a positively charged particle and is found in the nucleus of the atom. It is considered
to a heavy particle, because it is about 1840 times more massive than the electron.

NEUTRON

It is neutral particle. It has no charge on it. It is confined in the nucleus of the atom
having mass nearly equal to proton.
18
ELECTRON

It is very light and negatively charged particle. The amount of charged on it, is equal to
that of proton. Electron is very light particle and revolves around the nucleus. An atom may
contain one (or) more that one electron since an atom in normal state is a neutral particle,
therefore, no of proton in a nucleus is equal to the no of electron revolving around.

RADIO ACTIVITY: The phenomenon of radioactivity was discovered in 1896 by a French

scientist, Henery Becquerel. The phenomenon in which radiation are emitted from heavy
element having atomic number greater than 82 is called radio activity.

ATOMIC BOMB: An atomic bomb is a war weapon. It is assembly is based on the principle
that if a fission chain reaction is uncontrolled then the energy released will be enormous. Sub
critical masses of uranium are placed at the two ends of the hollow tube, such that the two
masses can be brought suddenly together by igniting an explosive material when the two
masses combine, they give use to a critical mass and uncontrolled fission chain reaction starts
and the bombs explodes.

HYDROGEN BOMB: A hydrogen bombs is also a war weapon. The heat energy released
in the explosion of a hydrogen bomb is for greater then the released from the explosion of an
atom bomb the principle of the hydrogen bomb assembly is based on the fusion process. The
hydrogen bom\b needs a tremendous amount of heat for its detonation that is why a hydrogen
bomb is also called a thermo nuclear bomb.

DENSITY: The mass per unit volume of a substance is called its density. If ‘m’ is the mass of
a body and ‘v’ is its volume then density is given by d = m/v

Suppose the volume of a body of a mass 2400 kg is 3 3 meter. Then its density is equals
to 800 kg. The density of different substances is different. Usually solids are denser than
liquids and liquids are denser than gases.

RELATIVE DENSITY: The relative density is density of a substances divided by the density
of water. Former name is specific gravity & the relative density of H 2O 1000 kg/m3. Therefore
the relative density of any substance is 1/1000 of its density.

ELASTICITY: The phenomenon of returning to its original shape and size after the force is
removed is called elasticity.

STRESS: When a force is applied on a body to change, the length, volume or shape of a
body. The value of this force per unit area is called stress.

STRESS = Force
Area
F/A N/m2  unit of Stress
It is denoted by Sigma (6) i.e. 6 is equal to F/A

STRAIN: If a wire of length L changes its length by ‘l’ meter by applying a forces, this strain
is equal to change in length of wire divided by original length of force.

Strain = L / L
It is denoted by epsilon (),  = L / L It has no unit.

19
SPECIFIC GRAVITY: It is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of some
standard substance for liquid and solids, water is the standard substance. Thus Specific
Gravity = Density of Substance
Density of Water

FUNDAMENTAL UNITS

Fundamental units are so named because they cannot derived from others. Moreover,
they cannot be resolved any thing more fundamental. The units for measurement of time,
length and mass are called fundamental units.

DERIVED UNIT: The unit of the other typical quantity derived from the fundamental unit are
known as derived units.

INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNIT

International system of units is based on the following seven fundamental quantities:

Unit Symbol
1. Length meter m
2. Mass Kilogram Kg
3. Time Second ec
4. Current Ampere A
5. Temperature Kelvin K
6. Luminous intensity
or light intensity candela cd
7. Amount if substance Mole mol
The units of these fundamental quantities are called fundamental.

SYSTEM OF UNIT

1. MKS system of unit

2. CGS system of unit
3. FPS system of unit

METER

It is the distance between two mass point on a platinum and iridium rod OC 0 is taken as
standard, which is placed in international bureau of weights and measures near Paris (severs).

MULTIPLE OF METER

1 Decca meter = 10’ 1 Hectometer = 102

1 Kilometer = 103 1 Mega meter = 106
1 Giga meter = 109 1 Tera meter = 1012

SUB MULTIPLE OF METER

1 Decimeter = 10-1 1 Centimeter = 10-2

1 Millimeter = 10-3 1 Micrometer = 10-6
1 Nanometer = 10-9 1 Picometer = 10-12

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ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

The atmospheric, air because of its weight, exerts pressure on the surface of earth or on
every thing on the earth including ourselves.

This pressure is called atmospheric pressure.

EXPERIMENT: To prove that air exerts pressure in the upward direction. Fill a common
glass with water and place a cardboard, coated with liquid paraffin, over the top of it. Turn it over
carefully. The cardboard remains intact and does not allow the water to flow out due to pressure
of air from below. This shows that air exerts pressure in upward direction.

ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE

When an object is immersed in a liquid an upward forces or up thrust acts upon it which
is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by it. This phenomena is discovered by
Archimedes, a green philosopher, therefore it is called Archimedes principle.

SIMPLE OR MERCURY BAROMETER

Atmospheric pressure is measured in a laboratory by a device, called a mercury barometer. It

consist of a thin walled glass tube. Mercury is used as a liquid to measure air pressure in the
tube.

Mercury

1 atm = 760 mm (Mercury)

ANEROID BAROMETER

Aneroid barometer contains no liquid and is commonly used for household purposes. The
word Aneroid comes from a Greek word meaning ‘Not Wet’.

It consists of an air tight box, made of very thin and flexible metal. Some of the air is
removed from the box and, as a result, the flexible top becomes very sensitive to change in air
pressure from the outside.

When the pressure of atmosphere increase, the top of the box is pressed down and when
the pressure decreased, the top rises again. The motion of the top of the box is transferred by a
system of springs lever, and chain to a pointer that move along a scale. The number on the
scale at which the pointer comes to rest indicate the barometric or atmospheric pressure.

FUNCTION OF BAROMETER

i. It is used to measure height of different mountains.

ii. It is used to measure atmospheric pressure.
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iii. It is used to indicate the nature of the weather.

BUOYANCY

Buoyancy is the force or up thrust offered by the liquid to maintain, or tend to maintain.
The equilibrium of a body immersed in it.

It is always equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the body.

HEAT

Total K.E of the molecules of a body is equal to its heat energy.

Heat is or the quantity of energy in the body while temperature is only its measure and is
the property of body.

Heat or thermal energy of a body is the potential and kinetic energy of its particles that
can be developed as heat. When two bodies are brought in contact with each other, the heat
passes from the one body at a high temp to the one body at a lower temp until a common temp
is attained by both the bodies.

DIFFERENCE
HEAT TEMPERATURE
i. It is a kind of energy i. It is a thermal condition which determines
the direction of the flow of heat.

ii. It is measured in calories by means of ii. It is measured in degree by means of

calorimetric experiments. thermometer.

iii. It is total KE of molecules iii. It is average KE of molecules.

UNIT OF HEAT: Heat is a form of energy its measurement or carried out in the unit of energy
which is SI unit is Joule.

JOULE: When a force of one Newton through a distance of one meter in the direction of
forces the work is equal to one Joule.

CALORIE: The amount heat energy required to raise the temperature of one gram (1 gm) of
air free water from 14.5C to 15.5C is equivalent to One Calorie.

1 Calorie = 4.184 J
1 B.T.U = 252 Cal
B.T.U = 1.054 x 100 Joule

ONE BRITISH THERMAL UNIT (B.T.U): The amount of heat of energy required to raise
the temperature of one lb (1/32 slug) of air free water from 63F to 15.5F is equivalent to 1 BTU.

TEMPERATURE

Average K.E of the molecules of a body is called temperature.

OR

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Degree of hotness or coldness of a body is called temperature.

We can measure the temperature of body with the help of thermometer.

CELSIUS SCALE

In this scale melting point of ice is 0 0C and boiling point of water is 100 0. It is divided in to
100 equal parts. Each part is called 10C. It is also called Celsius scale.

FAHRENHEIT SCALE

In this scale the melting point of ice is 32F and boiling point of water is 212F. There are
180 equal division between these two points.

KELVIN SCALE

Unit in this scale is Kelvin denoted ‘K’. It has same magnitude as in Celsius.

As the lowest possible temperature at which molecules energy is minimum is 273 0C or

460F or ok so 0 temperature on the Kelvin scale equal to this absolute lower limit. Hence this
scale is also known as absolute temperature scale. In Kelvin scale the melting point of ice is
273k and boiling point of water is 373K. There are 100 equal division between these two points.

T(0.C) = 5/9 [T(0F) – 32]

T(0F) = [9/5 T(0C)] + 32

T(K) = T(0C) + 273

METHOD OF MAKING FORMULA

T(0.C) = T(0F) – 32
100 180

5
0
T( .C) = 100 {T(0F) – 32}
180
9

T(0.C) = 5/9 [T(0F) – 32]

PYROMETER

A temperature device or an instrument that can measure temperature beyond the range
of thermometer. But now in addition a device that can measure thermal radiation in any
temperature range. It can measure temperature upto range of 1500 0C.

GAS THERMOMETER

There are two types of gas thermometer:

(a) Constant pressure gas thermometer.

(b) Constant volume gas thermometer.
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CONSTANT PRESSURE GAS THERMOMETER

Thermometer in which volume of given no, of gas at constant pressure is used the
measurement of temperature.

CONSTANT VOLUME GAS THERMOMETER

A thermometer in which pressure inserted by a constant volume of gas is used for the
measurement of temperature.

In these thermometers hydrogen or Nitrogen gas is used & they can measure the
temperature from –2000C to 16000C.

LIQUID IN GLASS THERMOMETER

Mercury and colored alcohol are used commonly. Mercury freezes at –39 0C and boil at
357 C. Alcohol freezes at –115 0C and boil at 780C. Therefore more suitable for lower
0

temperature.

EXPANSION

EXPANSION OF SOLID

When an iron wire is heated, its molecules vibrate more violently and they push one
another away, due to which wire expands.

Expansion of solids can be demonstrated by the following ring & ball experiment:

Place the ring and ball apparatus on a table. See that the ball passes through the ring
easily. Now, heat the ball sufficiently and try to pass it through the ring again. You will find that
the ball does not pass through the ring. This prove that solids expand on heating.

LINEAR EXPANSION

When a solid is heated it increases in length, and the expansion in length is called linear
expansion.

SUPERFICIAL EXPANSION

When a solid is heated increases in area and the expansion in area is called the
superficial expansion.

CUBICAL EXPANSION

When a solid is heated volume increases and the expansion in volume is called cubical
expansion.

THE EXPANSION OF LIQUIDS

If the gasoline tank of an automobile is filled on a cool morning and the car is than proved
in the sun, some of the gasoline may overflow the tank.

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 Heat causes the gasoline to expand by increasing the amplitude of vibration of its
molecules and thus making than to move away from each other slightly.

The principle of expansion of liquids has many useful applications.

Thermometers contain either mercury or alcohol because these liquids expand uniformly
as the temperature rises.

Furthermore, liquids do not have a definite shape and take the shape of their container.

 Liquids cannot be heated naked as solids.

 Expansion of a liquid cannot be determined by the process applied to the solids.
 It is always heated in container which also expands, along with the expansion of
the liquids, one the application of heat.

EXPERIMENT-1

Drop a sheet burning paper in to an empty milk bottle to drive out some of its air by way
of heating it.

Put a peeled hard boiled egg in the mouth of the bottle. As the air in the bottle cools, it
contracts and inside pressure decreases. Immediately, the push of the atmosphere will force
the egg in to the bottle.

The relation ship between volume, temperature and pressure of the gas can be shown by
the following three laws:

1. Temperature remaining constant, the volume of gas is inversely proportional to its

pressure.

2. Pressure remaining constant, the volume of a gas is directly proportional to its

temperature.

3. Volume remaining constant, the pressure of a gas is directly proportional to its

temperature.

ANOMALOUS BEHAVIOR OF WATER

The first effect of cooling warm water is to make it smaller in volume or contract. This
goes on steadily until the temperature of four degrees centigrade (4 0C) is reached. From, this
point, if the cooling is continued, the water no longer contracts and begins to expand. This
expansion continuous until the temperature of 0 0C is reached and the water begins to change in
to solid ice which is much larger in volume than the water from which it is formed.

Conversely, if some water be taken at a temperature of, 1 0C, and allowed to get warmer,
it will steadily get smaller in volume up to the temperature of 4 0C and after this the volume will
increase as the temperature rises until it boils.

EXPANSION OF GASES

You must have experienced that a ball after a long time becomes so loose that, with a
small force, it can be pressed.

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When such a ball is brought near the fire it becomes tight again.

This show that the gas inside ball expands on heating and makes the ball tight.

ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE

If we keep the pressure constant and go on lowering the temperature the volume will
decrease until at a temperature of 273 0 the gas will have no volume. Such a temperature is
called absolute temperature.

DISTINCTION BETWEEN EXPANSION LIQUID AND GAS

1. The expansion of solid & liquid is very small but the expansion of gases is very great.

2. The expansion of solid & liquid is not uniform, but the expansion of gases is uniform.

3. In case of solids, linear & superficial expansion can be measured but, in case of liquids
and gases, cubical expansion be measured only as they do not have their own shape.

APPLICATION IN DAILY LIFE

a. A Gas is Left Between the Iron Rails

In hot season, iron rails expands and the space between them allows their
expansion and keeps them in a straight position.

b. When a Compound Made of Irom and Brass is Heated it Gets Bend

All metals expands on heating accordingly to their own nature. When a compound
bar made of iron and brass is heated, the brass side expands more than the iron
side and due to this unequal expansion the bar bends towards iron side.

c. Iron Tyres have to be Heated Before They are Fitted to the Wheels

Tyres are made of the same diameter as that of the wheels on heating they
expand and fit easily on the wheels on cooling they contract and clasp the wheel
very tightly.

d. Glass Stopper can be Loosened by carefully Heating the Neck of the

Bottle

When the neck of a bottle is carefully heated for a short time it expands before the
heat passes into the stopper and so the stopper becomes loose.

e. A Hot Glass Chimney Cracks When Suddenly Brought in Contract with

Cold Water

Glass is a bad conductor of heat, viz heat can pass very slowly through it when a
hot lamp chimney is brought in contact with cold water the portion in contract with
water contracts while the neighboring portions do not. Due to this unequal
expansion, chimney cracks immediately.

f. Water pipes with Closed Taps Burst in Cold Countries

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 Change from the solid to liquid state is always accompanied by a change in
volume. Majority of substances occupy large volume in the liquid state than in the
solid state, but water occupies less volume than the ice.

In cold countries generally water inside the pips freezes. As we know that
water expands on freezing, it needs more space. In case of pipes with closed tap,
frozen water does not get any extra space and forces out by bursting the pipes.

It has been found that 1 CC of water at 00 becomes 1.09 CC of ice at 00C.

MODE OF TRANSMISSION OF HEAT

There are three modes of transmission of light heat.

I) Conduction
II) Convection
III) Radiation

CONDUCTION

In the process of conduction, heat is transferred from one atom to another or molecule to
molecule with out the movement of his substance or mass from one point to another.

If one end of rod is placed in the flame and other end seem becomes hot. The heat in
this case moves slowly from one end to other. As the rod is solid so the molecules cannot
moves from one place to another.

The molecules however can vibrate about their mean position.

Amplitude of the vibration depends upon the temperature. Greater the temperature the
greater will be the amplitude. A layer of molecules near the end which receive kicks from the
neighboring molecules. The molecules of this layer will receive H energy & their amplitude will
increase.

Similarly, these molecules can start kicking, molecules of nearest layer.

In this way heat transferred layer to layer. The heat molecules donot move from place to
place but only vibrate about their mean. This mode of transferring of heat is called conduction.

CONVECTION

The process of heat energy transferred by the migration of substance or bulk movement
of the gas or in liquid from one portion to other is called convection.

Propagation of heat from one portion of the body to another by this way movement of its
heated particles are called convection.

Let is see how water is heated in a glass in order to make motion of heat particles visible.
We put a few crystal of KM long potassium per magnet at the bottom, when bottom is heated, it
expand & so becomes lighter. Then the cold water above it becomes lighter.

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 The coloured hot layer rises to the top and cold water comes down to the bottom along
the sides. The current of water thus set up in the flask. By heat is called convection current.

Gases are also by similar process as gas molecules can move from place to place in a
gas. Heat is transferred this mode of transferring of heat is called convection.

Examples of daily life are ventilation of wind, sea breeze, land breeze and moon soon.

RADIATION

Heat energy from the sun comes to us after travelling million of km through space.

In this case neither conduction nor convection is involved in transmission of heat from
sun to earth.

In this case the third mode of transmission of heat is involved which known as radiation.

In which heat is transferred from one place to another.

The hot objects emit radiation, which carry energy. When other objects receive these
radiation they becomes hot and in this way energy goes on transferring to other objects.

GOOD CONDUCTOR OF HEAT Those substances to which heat can passed easily
from one end to another called good conductor of heat. For example, metals are the best
conductor of heat.

BAD CONDUCTOR OF HEAT

The substances through which heat cannot pass from one end to the other are known as
bad conductor of heat.

For example wood, plastics, nonmetallic liquids and gases are bad conductor of heat.

THERMAL EXPANSION OF SOLIDS

Material bodies expand on healing and their ability to expand depends upon their
molecular structure since thermal energy is involved therefore this phenomena is called thermal
expansions.

SOUND

Sound is a form of energy which is produced by vibrating body with a particular frequency.

or

Sound is the branch of physics which deals with origin, propagation & reception of vibration.

Humane ears can heard a sound having frequency between 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz (20
KHz). It is called audible sound.

IMPORTANT THINGS FOR PRODUCTION OF SOUND

There are following three things which are necessary for the production of sound.
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 i) Vibrating body
ii) Medium
ii) Receiver

VIBRATING BODY

A vibrating body is necessary to produce sound. Sound travels in the form of waves, to
prove that vibrating body is necessary to produce sound, take a tuning fork, strike it on a rubber
pad.

The prongs of tuning fork will vibrate, if you take it near your ears, a sound will be heard,
that will travel in the form of waves.

Hence by example, it is proved that vibrating body is essential to produce sound.

MEDIUM

For the propagation of sound materials medium is necessary, because waves cannot
travel without medium, sound cannot travel through space because, it has not material medium.

To prove this that medium is necessary for the production of sound, take an electric bell,
suspend it in to a bottle and then make it air tight, switch on the bell. You will hear the sound of
bell, because air is present in the bottle as a material medium.

Now discharge the air present in the bottle with the help of vacuum pump then switch on
the bell, you will observe that rod of bell is continuous striking the bell but sound is not heard. It
is because of space (no air) in the bottle. From this experiment it is proved that sound can not
be transferred from one place to another place with out medium. Hence medium is necessary
for the production of sound.

RECEIVER

To hear a sound receiver is also must because with out receiver we are unable to listen a
sound. One of the examples of receiver is human ear, when waves of sound strike on the layer
of air, it vibrates and we listen sound.

CLASSIFICATION

i) AUDIBLE SOUND
That sound which can be heard by human ear is called audible sound. The
frequency of this is between 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz.

ii) INFRA SONIC

Sound having frequency less than 20Hz is called infra sonic it cannot be heard by
human ear.

iii) ULTRA SONIC

That sound is called ultra sonic whose frequency is greater than 20,000 Hz.
Human ear is unable to hear this sound.

TYPE OF SOUND

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There are two types of sound.

i) Noise ii) Musical sound

NOISE

The sound, which producing a tarring or displeasing effect in our ears in called noise. For
examples, Jingling of keys, clapping of hands, roar and railing of vehicles and sound of human
striking on some thing. These voices have no regular frequency and periods.

MUSICAL SOUND

The sound which produces a pleasant sensation in the ear is called musical sound.

For example, sound produced by tuning fork, sound produces by plucking the string of
star, sound produced by open or close organ pipe.

It has series of same impulses following each other regularly, at equal interval in quick
succession, without any sudden changes in loudness.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND WAVE

Sound wave has following characteristics:

i) Loudness
ii) Pitch of sound
iii) Quality of sound

LOUDNESS

It is that characteristics of sound by which we can distinguish between a loud and faint
sound.

Whenever two friends are taking to each other then their voices are low but we address a
public, gathering our voice is loud. The loudness of sound depends on following factors.

i) Amplitude of vibrating body

ii) Direction of wind
iii) Distance of sound source from receiver
iv) Area / size of vibrating body
v) Density of medium

PITCH OF SOUND

The property of sound by which we can distinguish between shrill and grave sound is
called pitch of sound.

It depends on the frequency i.e. the greater the frequency higher the pitch (voice will be
shrill) smaller the frequency the smaller the pitch (Voice will be grave). The sound of body,
women cats are shrill than the sound of man due to more frequency.

QUALITY
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 If we hear violin, sitar, orgam pipe, which are being which are being played
simultaneously in a hall, then it is easy to identity the sound of each one of that instruments.

The property of sound by which we can identify a sound of same loudness and same
pitch but originating from different instrument is called quality of sound that enables us to
recognize the sound of an individual person whom to we know.

WAVE

Propagation of disturbance in the medium is called wave.

or

Transfer of energy in medium is called wave.

TYPE OF WAVES

There are two types of waves

i) Transverse waves
ii) Longitudinal waves

TRANSVERSE WAVES

Such waves in which the particles of medium vibrate perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of waves are called transverse waves.

Suppose a stone is dropped in to a pond of still (stationary) water.

It will produce circular waves in water.

CREST

The portion of wave in which particles of medium are higher than their mean position is
called crest.

TROUGH

The portion of wave in which particles of medium are lower that it mean position is called
trough.

WAVE LENGTH

The distance between two consecutive crest or two consecutive trough of the wave is
called wave length.

TIME PERIOD

Time required to complete one vibration or oscillation is called time period. It is devoted
by T.

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FREQUENCY

The number of waves passing through a certain reference point in one second is called
frequency.

AMPLITUDE

It is the maximum distance of wave particles from its mean position.

LONGITUDNAL WAVES

Waves which the particles of medium vibrate in the direction of propagation of waves.

Examples are waves produced in spring sound waves, waves produced by tuning.

COMPRESSION

The portion of wave where particles are very close to each other is called compression.

REFRACTION

The portion of wave where particles are away from each other is called refraction.

WAVE LENGTH
The distance between the centre of two consecutive compression or refraction is called
wave length.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND WAVE

ii) Amplitude of body.
iii) Surface area of vibrating body
iv) Distance of sounding body
v) Direction of wind

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DENSITY OF MEDIUM

The loudness of sound also depends upon the density of medium through which sound is
traveling (e.g.) A faint sound is heard if it is traveling through hydrogen gas is louder sound will
be heard. It is traveling in the air, because density of air is more as compared to density of H2.

Air Hydrogen

a. Louder Sound b. Less Sound

Describe Newton’s formula for the velocity of sound and explain how it was corrected by
Laplace?

Newton’s Formula:

Sound waves produced in a medium travel in all the directions. The velocity of sound in a
medium depends upon the density. The lighter the medium, the more quickly will the sound
wave move from point to point in the medium. Thus sound wave travel faster in hydrogen then
in oxygen, as hydrogen is lighter then oxygen. The sound wave travels faster in solids than
gases or liquids because solids have greater elasticity than fluids.

The velocity of sound depends on density and elasticity.

Laplace Correction:

Sound waves travel in air as compressions and rarefactions. Laplace said that compressions
and rarefactions in air take place so rapidly that rise in temperature during compression cannot
be balanced by fall of temperature during rarefaction. So the air (gas) is unable to keep the
temperature constant. Therefore Boyl’s law is not applicable.

Define and explain Intensity and loudness of sound. Define Doppler’s effects.

Intensity.

The amount of energy transmitted per second through a unit area held perpendicular to the
direction of propagation of sound waves. It is denote by ‘I’.

Loudness of Sound.

The magnitude of auditory sensation produced by sound is called Loudness of sound. It is

denote by ‘L’.

Doppler’s Effects.

The apparent change in the pitch of sound caused by the relative motion of either the source of
sound or the listener is called Doppler’s Effect.
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Example:

IF a whistling engine is approaching a listener standing on a platform, then greater sound will be
heard by the listener and when the engine is moving away from the stationary listener, low
sound will be heard by the listener.

PREPARED BY: MUHAMMAD FAISAL

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