MODULE 4
PROJECT SCHEDULING
Learning objectives
COMPONENTS OF PROJECT SCHEDULING
CRITICAL PATH METHOD
PROGRAM EVALUATION AND REVIEW TECHNIQUE
GANTT CHARTS
RESOURCE LEVELLING
AGILE SCHEDULING
COMPONENTS OF PROJECT SCHEDULING
Introduction to Project Scheduling
• Definition: Planning, developing, and managing a timeline for project activities.
• Systematic process which helps to estimate time, establish dependencies between tasks, and allocate
resources.
The goal of Project Scheduling
• Efficient resource, time, and budget allocation.
• Ensures timely completion, adherence to budget, and scope compliance.
COMPONENTS OF PROJECT SCHEDULING
Relationship between Project Scope and Scheduling
Project Scope:
Defines project boundaries and objectives.
Outlines what needs to be achieved.
Project Scheduling:
Involves creating a plan to accomplish those objectives within a specified timeframe.
COMPONENTS OF PROJECT SCHEDULING
What does the Project Team do for Scheduling?
• The project team breaks down the project into smaller, manageable tasks/ activities.
• The team needs to sequence all the tasks/ activities. Sequencing involves determining the order in
which activities need to be performed.
• The team needs to identify dependencies between tasks, such as which tasks must be completed
(first) before others can start.
• The team needs to estimate the time required to complete each activity. After estimating the
duration of all activities, the team estimates the duration of the entire project.
COMPONENTS OF PROJECT SCHEDULING
Importance of Effective Project Scheduling
• Effective project scheduling is crucial for project managers to optimise resource utilisation, meet
timelines, and accomplish project objectives.
• It serves as a roadmap for the project team, facilitating monitoring and control throughout the project
lifecycle.
• A well-defined schedule fosters enhanced communication and coordination among team members,
stakeholders, and project participants.
COMPONENTS OF PROJECT SCHEDULING
Project Management Tools and Approaches
Various project management tools and methodologies aid in creating and managing project schedules.
The five most commonly employed project scheduling methodologies are:
CRITICAL PATH METHOD
Critical Path Method (CPM), also known as network diagram
analysis, is a systematic approach to scheduling project activities.
It identifies the most critical tasks and ensures timely project
completion.
CPM utilises a visual representation of a project's tasks and their
interdependencies to facilitate scheduling.
CRITICAL PATH METHOD
Serial Activities
Serial activities are those activities that flow from one to the next in sequence.
CRITICAL PATH METHOD
Concurrent Activities
When the nature of the work allows for more than one activity to be accomplished at the same time,
these activities are called concurrent activities. When concurrent activities are available, parallel project
activity paths are constructed through the network.
CRITICAL PATH METHOD
Merge Activities
Merge activities are those activities with two or more immediate predecessors. The start of the merge
activity is subject to the completion of the longest prior activity.
CRITICAL PATH METHOD
Burst Activities
Burst activities are those with two or more immediate successor activities.
CRITICAL PATH METHOD
Labelling Nodes
An activity node includes eight (8) pieces of information that are all related to that activity.
CRITICAL PATH METHOD
Identifying & Sequencing Project Activities
• The first step in project scheduling is to identify all the project activities.
• Next, is to determine the sequence of all activities.
Activity Description Predecessors
Consider an example of developing a new A Project Kick-off None
website which has a total of six activities. B Design Phase A
C Content Development A
Activities and their predecessors are on the D Coding B
table. E SEO & Marketing Strategy C
F Launch & Monitoring D, E
CRITICAL PATH METHOD
Identifying & Sequencing Project Activities
The network diagram starts from the left with the activity which has no predecessor.
Activity Description Predecessors
A Project Kick-off None
B Design Phase A
C Content Development A
D Coding B
SEO & Marketing
E C
Strategy
F Launch & Monitoring D, E
Information for a New Website Development Activity Network Diagram
CRITICAL PATH METHOD
Estimating Duration of Project Activities
The total duration of any project can be calculated once all individual activities are estimated.
In the construction project example, the six activities’ estimated durations are presented in the table.
Activity Description Predecessors Estimated Duration
(weeks)
A Project Kick-off None 5
B Design Phase A 5
C Content Development A 6
D Coding B 6
E SEO & Marketing Strategy C 9
F Launch & Monitoring D, E 2
CRITICAL PATH METHOD
Estimating Duration of Project Activities
The following network diagram shows the estimated durations for each activity.
Activity Description Predecessors Estimated
Duration
(weeks)
A Project Kick-off None 5
B Design Phase A 5
C Content Development A 6
D Coding B 6
SEO & Marketing
E C 9
Strategy
F Launch & Monitoring D, E 2
Information for the New Website Development with Network Diagram with Duration
Estimated Duration
CRITICAL PATH METHOD
Estimating Duration of Project Activities
Each network diagram may have multiple
paths, similar to routes. Paths are identified
by assessing all possible sequences of
precedence activities from the beginning
node to the end.
There are two different paths from the
beginning node to the end node.
Path One is A - B - D - F
Path Two is A - C - E - F
CRITICAL PATH METHOD
Estimating Total Duration of the Project
The length of each path in the network can be calculated by adding their individual activity durations.
Path One: A - B - D - F = 18 weeks (5 weeks + 5 weeks + 6 weeks + 2 weeks)
Path Two: A - C - E - F = 22 weeks (5 weeks + 6 weeks + 9 weeks + 2 weeks)
The longest path in the network determines the total time needed to complete the project. In the
example, Path Two (A - C - E - F) has the longest duration of 22 weeks, making it the critical path.
The critical path has no float or slack time, indicating any delay in its activities will delay the overall
project. If any activity on the critical path takes longer to complete, the total project duration will increase
accordingly.
CRITICAL PATH METHOD
Estimating Total Duration of the Project
Constructing a critical path involves a forward pass and a backward pass.
The forward pass is an additive process that calculates the earliest times an activity can begin and end,
starting from the first activity.
The backward pass is a subtractive process that determines the latest times activities can begin and
end, starting from the last activity.
Completing both passes helps determine individual activity float and, ultimately, the project's critical path.
CRITICAL PATH METHOD
Estimating Earliest Start & Finish Time
The forward pass helps determine the earliest start time (EST) for each activity and the earliest finish
time (EFT) for each activity. The forward pass begins with the first activity.
• The beginning activity always starts immediately, i.e. at time zero. So, the EST for the first activity
will be 0 days/ weeks.
• EFT of an activity is equal to the sum of its EST and Duration, i.e. EFT = EST + Duration.
• The EST of a successor activity will be the same as the EFT of its predecessor activity.
• For a merge activity, its EST will be the EFT of its predecessor activity that has a higher value.
CRITICAL PATH METHOD
Estimating Earliest Start & Finish Time
Activity A: EST = 0 weeks; EFT = 5 + 0 = 5 weeks
Activity B: EST = 5 weeks; EFT = 5 + 5 = 10 weeks
Activity C: EST = 5 weeks; EFT = 5 + 6 = 11 weeks
Activity D: EST = 10 weeks; EFT = 10 + 6 = 16 weeks
Activity E: EST = 11 weeks; EFT = 11 + 9 = 20 weeks
Activity F: EST = 20 weeks; EFT = 20 + 2 = 22 weeks
CRITICAL PATH METHOD
Estimating Latest Start & Finish Time
The backward pass helps determine the latest start time (LST) for each activity and the latest finish
time (LFT) for each activity. The backward pass begins with the last activity.
• The last activity’s LFT is the same as its EFT.
• LST of an activity is equal to the difference between its LFT and Duration, i.e. LST = LFT –
Duration.
• The LFT of a predecessor activity will be the same as the LST of its successor activity.
• For a burst activity, its LFT will be the LST of its successor activity that has a lower value.
CRITICAL PATH METHOD
Estimating Latest Start & Finish Time
Activity F: LFT = 22 weeks; LST = 22 – 2 = 20 weeks
Activity E: LFT = 20 weeks; LST = 20 – 9 = 11 weeks
Activity D: LFT = 20 weeks; LST = 20 – 6 = 14 weeks
Activity C: LFT = 11 weeks; LST = 11 – 6 = 5 weeks
Activity B: LFT = 10 weeks; LST = 10 – 5 = 9 weeks
Activity A: LFT = 5 weeks; LST = 5 – 5 = 0 weeks
CRITICAL PATH METHOD
Estimating the Float
Float indicates the amount of time an activity can be delayed without delaying the overall project.
Activity float can be found using either of these equations:
Float = Latest Finish Time (LFT) – Earliest Finish Time (EFT)
Float = Latest Start Time (LST) – Earliest Start Time (EST)
The project's critical path always has a float of 0 days/ weeks. This indicates that the critical path is the
network path with no activity slack or float associated with it.
CRITICAL PATH METHOD
Estimating the Float
Float: LFT – EFT or LST – EST
Activity A: (5 – 5) or (0 – 0) = 0 weeks
Activity B: (14 – 10) or (9 – 5) = 4 weeks
Activity C: (11 – 11) or (5 – 5) = 0 weeks
Activity D: (20 – 16) or (14 – 10) = 4 weeks
Activity E: (20 – 20) or (11 – 11) = 0 weeks
Activity F: (22 – 22) or (20 – 20) = 0 weeks
The critical path links with the nodes with no slack: A – C – E – F.
PROGRAM EVALUATION AND REVIEW TECHNIQUE
Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) is a project
scheduling technique.
PERT utilises network diagrams and probability analysis to plan and
schedule project activities.
Similar to CPM, PERT also employs a network diagram to identify the
sequence of all tasks/ activities.
PERT is preferred over CPM when project tasks/ activities involve high
uncertainty and variability.
PROGRAM EVALUATION AND REVIEW TECHNIQUE
In Critical Path Method (CPM), there's only one-time estimate for each activity. This approach suits
projects with stability and low uncertainty.
In Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT), three estimated durations are considered for each
activity:
Optimistic Time (O) is the shortest time the activity could take under ideal conditions.
Most Likely Time (M) is the best estimate of the time required under normal conditions.
Pessimistic Time (P) is the longest time the activity could take under adverse conditions.
For each activity, these estimates are converted into expected time and standard deviation.
PROGRAM EVALUATION AND REVIEW TECHNIQUE
Expected Time
Expected time for each activity of a project is calculated using three estimates of duration.
The formula for calculating expected time (also known as mean time) is as follows:
optimistic + (4 × most likely) + pessimistic O + 4M + P
Expected time = =
6 6
Expected time is also known as mean time. It is a weighted average that places more emphasis on the
most likely time (M).
PROGRAM EVALUATION AND REVIEW TECHNIQUE
Example: Expected Time
Consider a construction project to build a new office building. One of the activities in this project is
pouring the foundation. The project manager collects estimates from the team: optimistic time (O) is 10
days, most likely time (M) is 15 days, and pessimistic time (P) is 20 days.
Find the expected time of the activity.
O + 4M + P 10 + (4 × 15) + 20
Expected time = = = 15 days
6 6
PROGRAM EVALUATION AND REVIEW TECHNIQUE
Example: Expected Time Analysis
• With the expected time information, the project manager can plan the project schedule accordingly.
• He can also allocate resources and set realistic expectations for the client or other stakeholders.
• Expected time estimates assist in determining the critical path and overall project timeline, especially
for activities dependent on specific milestones.
• Expected time estimates provide a basis for estimating project costs related to labour, resources, and
other expenses in budgeting.
• Overall, the expected time calculation in PERT is a valuable tool for project scheduling, ensuring
projects are completed on time and within budget.
PROGRAM EVALUATION AND REVIEW TECHNIQUE
Standard Deviation
The standard deviation (σ) of each project activity can be calculated using the following formula:
Pessimistic – Optimistic P–O
Standard deviation (σ) = =
6 6
This formula represents the variability or uncertainty associated with each activity.
It provides a measure of how much the task duration might deviate from the expected time estimate.
PROGRAM EVALUATION AND REVIEW TECHNIQUE
Example: Standard Deviation
Consider a construction project to build a new office building. One of the activities in this project is
pouring the foundation. The project manager collects estimates from the team: optimistic time (O) is 10
days, most likely time (M) is 15 days, and pessimistic time (P) is 20 days.
Find the standard deviation of the activity.
P–O 20 – 10
Standard deviation (σ) = = ≈ 1.67 days
6 6
PROGRAM EVALUATION AND REVIEW TECHNIQUE
Example: Standard Deviation Analysis
• The standard deviation indicates that the actual duration of pouring the foundation task may vary by
approximately 1.67 days from the expected time.
• The standard deviation provides a measure of the variability or uncertainty associated with task/
activity durations.
• A higher standard deviation indicates greater variability, implying higher risk.
• Project managers can use this information to identify activities with higher uncertainty.
• They can then focus on mitigating potential risks associated with those activities.
PROGRAM EVALUATION AND REVIEW TECHNIQUE
Minimum Time and Maximum Time
• The maximum and minimum times for each activity can be calculated using the expected time and
standard deviation.
• These metrics provide a comprehensive understanding of task duration variability in PERT analysis.
• The formulas to find the maximum time and minimum time to complete an activity are as follows:
Maximum time = Expected time + (3 × standard deviation)
Minimum time = Expected time – (3 × standard deviation)
• Minimum time and maximum time calculations establish a range for the expected duration of each
project activity/ task.
PROGRAM EVALUATION AND REVIEW TECHNIQUE
Example: Minimum Time and Maximum Time
Take the previous example of pouring the foundation of a new office building. The expected time found is
15 days, and the standard deviation is 1.67 days.
Find the minimum and maximum times to complete the task of pouring the foundation.
Maximum time = Expected time + (3 × standard deviation)
Maximum time = 15 days + (3 × 1.67 days) = 20.01 days
Completing the foundation pouring task
Minimum time = Expected time - (3 × standard deviation) will probably take between 9.99 days and
Minimum time = 15 days - (3 × 1.67 days) = 9.99 days 20.01 days.
PROGRAM EVALUATION AND REVIEW TECHNIQUE
Minimum Time and Maximum Time
• The maximum and minimum times provide upper and lower bounds for each task’s expected
duration. This helps project managers identify and assess risks associated with task completion.
• Tasks with wider ranges between their maximum and minimum times may pose higher risks to the
project timeline and budget.
• Project managers can allocate resources based on the expected minimum and maximum duration of
different tasks.
• They can adjust resource availability to accommodate potential variations in task durations within
their respective ranges.
GANTT CHARTS
A Gantt chart is a visual representation of a project schedule. It displays a
graphical illustration of a project's planned duration, start and finish dates
for each task, and dependencies between tasks.
A Gantt chart acts as a visual roadmap, helping the project team understand
what needs to be done, when, and how tasks relate to each other.
It is also an effective tool for visually tracking actual project progress during
implementation.
GANTT CHARTS
• Each task/ activity in a project is represented by a
horizontal bar on the Gantt chart.
• The length of the bar corresponds to the duration of
the task, while its position on the timeline indicates
the start and end dates.
• The horizontal axis of the chart represents time,
typically displayed in days, weeks, or months.
GANTT CHARTS
• Gantt charts describe task dependencies by illustrating the relationships between different tasks.
For instance, if Task B depends on the completion of Task A, their bars may be linked to indicate
the sequence.
• Additionally, as the project progresses, the Gantt chart can be updated to reflect the actual start and
end dates of tasks.
• The planned and actual progress of each task can be presented using two different horizontal bars,
facilitating easy tracking of the project's progress against the planned schedule.
GANTT CHARTS
The Gantt chart below illustrates some of the activities involved in a network server installation project.
Each of the nine (9) tasks is represented by
horizontal bars.
The project was initially planned to be completed
in 16 weeks.
The chart shows the actual status or progress of
the project after week 10.
Some tasks have two horizontal bars, while
others have only one. This is because some
planned tasks have already started by the end of
week 10.
GANTT CHARTS
The Gantt chart below illustrates some of the activities involved in a network server installation project.
Task 1 is represented by two horizontal bars.
• The first bar indicates the planned duration,
which was 2 weeks.
• The second bar represents the actual
duration, also 2 weeks.
• Hence, the length of both horizontal bars for
Task 1 is identical.
Task 2, Task 3, and Task 5 have progressed well
and were completed on time as per the planned
schedule.
GANTT CHARTS
The Gantt chart below illustrates some of the activities involved in a network server installation project.
However, as of the end of Week 10, the progress of
Tasks 4, 6, and 9 is behind the planned schedule.
• Task 4, initially scheduled to be completed by
Week 8, was finished by Week 9.
• Task 6, planned to start at Week 9, experienced a
delayed start and commenced at Week 10.
• Task 9's progress is also lagging, almost stalled
after Week 6, posing a risk of delaying the entire
project.
By comparing planned and actual progress in a
Gantt chart, the project team can identify delays or
deviations and take corrective actions promptly to
ensure timely project completion.
RESOURCE LEVELLING
Resource levelling is a scheduling technique aimed at ensuring the
distribution of resources is balanced and optimised over the
project’s duration.
The objective is to even out the allocation of various project
resources, including team members, equipment, or materials, to
prevent both resource overloading and underutilisation.
The concept behind resource levelling is to minimise fluctuations in
resource demand without extending the project's overall duration.
RESOURCE LEVELLING
Example: Resource Levelling
In the given gardening project, there are six activities that need to be completed by Week 24. The project
involves utilising a single type of resource, which is the gardener or labourer. Here is how the labourer is
distributed across activities:
• Activities B, C, and D require 1 labourer each
• Activities A and E require 2 labourers each
• Activity F requires 3 labourers
Resource levelling can be explained using a Gantt chart and resource histogram.
RESOURCE LEVELLING
Example: Resource Levelling
Activities A, B, C and F are critical activities.
Activities D and E are non-critical activities. Both
non-critical activities have a slack or floating
period of 6 weeks (16 weeks – 10 weeks)
Slack time indicates that the activities can be
delayed by up to 6 weeks without extending the
total duration of the project.
RESOURCE LEVELLING
Example: Resource Levelling
In the first 4 weeks, only 2 labourers are required.
There is a peak requirement of labourers between
5 week and 10 week, which needs to be reduced
without extending the overall project duration. So,
the slack time of Activity E will be utilised.
From 11 week, the resource demand reduces to
only 1 labourer and then increases to 3 labourers
in the final weeks.
RESOURCE LEVELLING
Example: Resource Levelling
Using the slack/ float of Activity E (i.e. 6 weeks), 2
labourers can be reduced from weeks 5 to 10.
Before levelling, the maximum resource
requirements were four (4) labourers.
After levelling (i.e. delaying Activity E by 6 weeks),
the maximum resource requirements at any time
are no more than three (3) labourers.
RESOURCE LEVELLING
Example: Resource Levelling
After using the slack time of Activity E, the
resources are used efficiently.
Delayed the start of Activity E until 11 weeks; it
has now become critical.
Activity D is the sole non-critical task left in the
project, and it retains a slack or float of 6 weeks.
AGILE SCHEDULING
Agile scheduling involves planning and managing project activities iteratively and flexibly. It contrasts with
traditional, linear project management methods.
Agile scheduling is particularly effective for projects where requirements are expected to change.
Flexibility to adapt quickly to changes is crucial in agile scheduling.
The approach entails breaking down large projects into smaller, manageable parts. It emphasises staying
flexible to changes and delivering value consistently throughout the project.
It resembles building a puzzle one piece at a time, with the ability to rearrange pieces as needed.
Agile scheduling allows for adjustments and flexibility as the project progresses, instead of planning every
detail and timing from the outset.
AGILE SCHEDULING
Key Features of Agile Scheduling
• Agile breaks the project into smaller chunks called iterations or sprints, typically lasting a few weeks.
• Agile encourages collaboration among project team members and stakeholders. They decide on
prioritising tasks before each sprint.
• Agile embraces adaptive planning, continuously adjusting plans based on feedback, changing
requirements, and team progress.
• Agile aims to deliver incremental value after each sprint, providing tangible results throughout the
project.
AGILE SCHEDULING
Key Features of Agile Scheduling
• Agile teams conduct daily stand-up meetings to discuss progress, challenges, and plans, fostering
communication and issue resolution.
• Agile teams use burndown charts to visualise progress, showing remaining work over time and
aiding in tracking and decision-making.
• Agile teams engage in retrospective meetings at the end of each sprint to reflect on successes and
areas for improvement, fostering continuous improvement.
AGILE SCHEDULING
Backlog:
In agile project management, the project team utilises a dynamic
and evolving document known as a project backlog (or simply,
‘backlog’). The project backlog lists the tasks that need to be done.
AGILE SCHEDULING
Example: Agile Scheduling
Consider a simplified example of agile scheduling using a hypothetical software development project
with two-week sprints.
The initial backlog in the software development project includes tasks such as ‘User Registration’,
‘Portal Creation’, and ‘Admin Panel Set up’.
AGILE SCHEDULING
Example: Agile Scheduling
Sprint 1 Planning: The team collectively chooses the high-priority tasks from the backlog for the initial
sprint. In Sprint 1, they opt to focus on 'User Registration' and 'Portal Creation’.
Sprint 1 Execution: Scheduled for two weeks, Sprint 1 involves the team developing and testing the user
registration interface and user portal. During this period, daily stand-up meetings are conducted to review
progress, address challenges, and outline plans for the day. Any issues that arise are promptly dealt with to
ensure smooth progress.
End of Sprint 1: By the end of Sprint 1, the team completes the 'User Registration' feature, while 'Portal
Creation' remains unfinished. A sprint review is held to showcase the completed functionality to the client
and gather any constructive feedback for future improvements.
AGILE SCHEDULING
Example: Agile Scheduling
Sprint 2 Planning: Following a sprint retrospective to review the successes and areas for improvement
in Sprint 1, the team prepares for Sprint 2. They decide to continue focusing on 'Portal Creation' and
introduce a new task, 'Admin Panel Set up', to the sprint backlog.
Sprint 2 Execution: Sprint 2 also spans two weeks. During this time, the team concentrates on finishing
'Portal Creation' and initiates work on 'Admin Panel Set up’.
End of Sprint 2: Upon concluding Sprint 2, both 'Portal Creation' and 'Admin Panel Set up' are
successfully accomplished. Another sprint review is conducted to showcase the progress made during
Sprint 2 to the client.
AGILE SCHEDULING
Example: Agile Scheduling
Discussion and conclusion of the project
Agile scheduling operates iteratively, progressing through successive sprints. Each sprint focuses on high-
priority tasks identified from the backlog.
The backlog undergoes continuous refinement based on evolving priorities and feedback. New items are added
to the backlog as priorities change or new requirements emerge.
Agile scheduling emphasises flexibility and adaptability to accommodate changing project needs.
The team adapts its plans based on feedback received during sprint reviews and retrospectives. High-value
tasks are prioritised to deliver incremental value to the client. At the end of each sprint, incremental deliverables
are provided to the client, ensuring ongoing progress.
[Link]
End of Module 4
PROJECT SCHEDULING