Subject code/Name: OMR 353-Sensors

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

UNIT I - SENSOR CLASSIFICATION, CHARACTERISTICS AND SIGNAL TYPES
PART-A
1. What is measurement system? REMEMBER CO1
BT-L1
 Measurement is the comparison of an unknown quantity with a known fixed quantity or
standard quantity is called measurement.
 A measurement system is a combination of elements used to measure a physical quantity and
present the measured value in a meaningful form.
 A measurement system is a system that converts a physical
 quantity into a readable or usable output.
2. List out the basic elements of measurement system? REMEMBER CO1
BT-L1
The basic elements of measurement consist of
 Primary Sensing Element.
 Variable Conversion Element.
 Variable Manipulation Element.
 Data Transmission Element.
 Data Presentation Element.
3. What are the different methods of calibration UNDERSTAN CO1
D
BT-L2
 The main methods of calibration are direct, indirect, static, and dynamic calibration.
 Direct calibration compares the instrument directly with a known standard, whereas indirect
calibration uses related measured parameters.
 Static calibration is performed with constant input, while dynamic calibration is performed
with varying input conditions.
 These methods help to ensure the accuracy and reliability of measuring instruments.
4. Interpret the word Sensor. UNDERSTAN CO1
D
BT-L2
 The word Sensor is derived from the word “Sense”, which means to detect or perceive.
 A sensor is a device that senses or detects a physical quantity.
 The output signal may be electrical, optical, or mechanical.
5. Give the definition of a transducer. REMEMBER CO1
BT-L1
 A transducer is a device that converts one form of energy into another form of energy.
 It acts as an interface between the measurand and the measurement system.
 Example: A thermocouple converts temperature into an electrical voltage.
6. List the types of error signal. REMEMBER CO1
BT-L1
The error signals are classified as
 Hysteresis error
 Nonlinear error
 These errors affect the accuracy and performance of a measurement system.
7. Write a short note on PWM signal. UNDERSTAN CO1
D
BT-L2

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 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) is a technique in which the width of the pulses is varied while
keeping the amplitude and frequency constant.
 The duty cycle of the pulse changes according to the value of the input signal.
 It is a type of digital signal used to represent analog information.

8. Define PPM signal. REMEMBER CO1

BT-L1
 Pulse Position Modulation (PPM) is a modulation technique in which the position of a pulse is
varied according to the instantaneous value of the input signal.
 The amplitude and width of the pulse remain constant.
 The information is represented by the time position of the pulse.
9. Compare transducer with sensor. UNDERSTAN CO1
D
BT-L2
Transducer Sensor
Converts one form of energy into another. Detects or measures a physical quantity.
Produces an electrical output from a Senses a physical parameter such as temperature,
physical input. pressure, or light.
Every transducer contains a sensor. A sensor may not always act as a complete transducer.

10. State the definition of settling time. REMEMBER CO1

BT-L1
 Settling time is the time required for the output of a system to reach and remain within a
specified tolerance band, usually ±2% or ±5%, of its final steady-state value after an input is
applied.
 For a second-order system:
4
For 2% tolerance: T s ≈
ζ ωn

3
For 5% tolerance: Ts≈
ζ ωn

where T sis the settling time, ζ is the damping ratio and ω nis the natural frequency.

PART-B & C
1. Explain the various classifications of error and error (13) UNDERSTAND CO1
analysis. BT-L2
2. Explain the static and dynamic characteristics of a sensor. (13) UNDERSTAND CO1
BT-L2
3. Demonstrate how calibration is performed on a measuring (13) APPLY CO1
instrument with a suitable example. BT-L3
4. Analyze how various characteristics of sensors, such as (13) APPLY CO1
sensitivity, accuracy, resolution, and response time, impact BT-L3
their performance in different applications.
5. Explain in detail about the various blocks of a (13) UNDERSTAND CO1
measurement system. BT-L2
6. (i) Compare the analog and digital outputs of a sensor used (07) APPLY CO1
in a measurement system and justify their suitability for (06) BT-L3
different applications..
(ii) Illustrate the application of PWM and PPM signals in a
practical measurement or control system and explain their
importance.
7. A voltmeter reads 30 V in its 50V scale when connected (13) APPLY CO1

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across an unknown resistor. The resistance of the BT-L3
voltmeter coil is 1500Ω/Volts. If the milli ammeter reads
3mA. Calculate,
(a)Apparent value of the unknown resistor.
(b)Actual value of the unknown resistor.
(c)Gross error.

UNIT II - DISPLACEMENT, PROXIMITY AND RANGING SENSORS

PART-A
1. List the types of displacement and Position sensor. REMEMBER CO2
BT-L1
 Linear Displacement Sensors.
 Rotary Displacement Sensors.
 Contacting Displacement Sensors.
 Non-contacting Displacement Sensors.
 Optical Displacement Sensors
2. Write a short note on proximity sensor. UNDERSTAND CO2
BT-L2
 A proximity sensor is a non-contact sensor used to detect the presence or absence of an object
without physical contact.
 It detects objects using technologies such as inductive, capacitive, ultrasonic, or photoelectric
sensing.
 The sensor produces an electrical output when an object comes within its sensing range.
 It is commonly used in automation, robotics, object detection, and position sensing.
3. What are the different forms of capacitive sensors? REMEMBER CO2
BT-L1
 Variable Area Capacitive Sensor.
 Variable Distance Capacitive Sensor.
 Variable Dielectric Capacitive Sensor.
 These sensors work by changing the capacitance due to a change in plate area, distance
between plates, or dielectric material.
4. Identify the applications of an accelerometer sensor. UNDERSTAND CO2
BT-L2
 An accelerometer sensor is used to measure acceleration, vibration, and tilt.
 Its applications include vehicle airbag systems, motion detection, navigation systems, and
robotics.
 It is also used in smartphones, wearable devices, and industrial condition monitoring.
5. Define a piezoelectric sensor. REMEMBER CO2
BT-L1
 A piezoelectric sensor is a sensor that uses the piezoelectric effect to convert mechanical
stress, force, or pressure into an electrical charge or voltage.
 It is made of piezoelectric materials such as quartz.
 The generated electrical output is proportional to the applied mechanical force.
 It is commonly used for measuring dynamic force, vibration, and acceleration.
6. State the definition of LiDAR. REMEMBER CO2
BT-L1
 LiDAR stands for Light Detection and Ranging.
 It is a sensing technology that uses laser pulses to measure the distance to an object.
 The distance is calculated by measuring the time taken for the reflected laser pulse to return.
 It is used in mapping, surveying, autonomous vehicles, and range measurement.
7. Compare LVDT and RVDT. UNDERSTAND CO2
BT-L2

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LVDT RVDT
Measures linear displacement. Measures angular (rotary) displacement.
Core moves in a straight line. Rotor rotates through an angle.
Output is proportional to linear movement. Output is proportional to angular rotation.
Used for measuring displacement in Used for measuring angular position in degrees.
millimeters or centimeters.

8. What are inductive transducers? REMEMBER CO2

BT-L1
 Inductive transducers are devices that convert a physical quantity, such as displacement,
position, or proximity, into a corresponding change in inductance or mutual inductance.
 They operate based on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
 The change in inductance is measured and converted into an electrical output signal.
 Examples: LVDT, RVDT, and inductive proximity sensors.
9. What is the Global Positioning System (GPS)? REMEMBER CO2
BT-L1
 GPS is a satellite-based navigation system used to determine the position, velocity, and time of
an object anywhere on or near the earth. It uses signals received from a network of satellites
orbiting the earth.
 A GPS receiver calculates its location using signals from multiple satellites. It is widely used in
navigation, mapping, surveying, and tracking applications.
10. What is ultrasonic sensors? REMEMBER CO2
BT-L1
 An ultrasonic sensor is a non-contact sensor that measures the distance to an object by
transmitting high-frequency sound waves (ultrasonic waves) and measuring the time taken
for the echo to return.
 Distance = (Speed of Sound × Time)/2
 It is commonly used in obstacle detection, level measurement, and robotics.

PART-B & C
1. Design a Linear Variable Differential Transformer (13) UNDERSTAND CO2
(LVDT) and analyze how variations in the core BT-L2
position affect their output.
Definition

A Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) is an electromechanical inductive

transducer used to convert linear displacement into an electrical signal. It operates on the
principle of mutual induction.

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Construction

An LVDT consists of

 One primary winding (P)

 Two identical secondary windings (S1 and S2)
 Cylindrical hollow former
 Soft iron movable core
 AC excitation source
 Output terminals
Main Features of Construction :
 The transformer consists of a primary winding P and two secondary windings S1 and S2
wound on a cylindrical former (which is hollow in nature and contains the core).
 Both the secondary windings have an equal number of turns, and we place them on
either side of primary winding
 The primary winding is connected to an AC source which produces a flux in the air gap
and voltages are induced in secondary windings.
 A movable soft iron core is placed inside the former and displacement to be measured is
connected to the iron core.
 The iron core is generally of high permeability which helps in reducing harmonics and
high sensitivity of LVDT.
 The LVDT is placed inside stainless steel housing because it will provide electrostatic and
electromagnetic shielding.
 The both the secondary windings are connected in such a way that resulted output is the
difference between the voltages of two windings.
Neat Sketch

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Working Principle

The primary winding is excited by an AC voltage. The alternating magnetic flux induces voltages
in both secondary windings. The two secondary windings are connected in series opposition.

Hence,
Eo=ES1−ES2

Operation
(i) Core at Null Position

The movable core is exactly at the centre.

ES1=ES2
Therefore,
Eo=0
No output voltage is obtained.

(ii) Core moves towards S1

Flux linkage with S1 increases.

ES1>ES2
Output voltage is

Eo=ES1−ES2
Output is in phase with excitation.

(iii) Core moves towards S2

Flux linkage with S2 increases.
ES2>ES1
Output becomes
Eo=ES2−ES1

Output voltage is 180° out of phase.

Characteristics
Input–Output Curve

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Advantages of LVDT :
 High Range – The LVDTs have a very high range for measurement of [Link]
can used for measurement of displacements ranging from 1.25 mm to 250 mm
 No Frictional Losses – As the core moves inside a hollow former so there is no loss of
displacement input as frictional loss so it makes LVDT as very accurate device.
 High Input and High Sensitivity – The output of LVDT is so high that it doesn’t need any
amplification. The transducer possesses a high sensitivity which is typically about
40V/mm.
 Low Hysteresis – LVDTs show a low hysteresis and hence repeatability is excellent under
all conditions
 Low Power Consumption – The power is about 1W which is very as compared to other
transducers.
 Direct Conversion to Electrical Signals – They convert the linear displacement to
electrical voltage which are easy to process

Disadvantages of LVDT

 LVDT is sensitive to stray magnetic fields so it always requires a setup to protect

them from stray magnetic fields.
 LVDT gets affected by vibrations and temperature.
 It is concluded that they are advantageous as compared than any other inductive
transducer.
Applications of LVDT
1. We use LVDT in the applications where displacements to be measured are ranging
from a fraction of mm to few cms. The LVDT acting as a primary transducer converts the
displacement to electrical signal directly.
2. The LVDT can also act as a secondary transducer. E.g. the Bourbon tube which acts as a
primary transducer and it converts pressure into linear displacement and then LVDT
coverts this displacement into an electrical signal which after calibration gives the
readings of the pressure of fluid.
2. Build a capacitive sensor using parallel plate (13) APPLY CO2
conductors and analyze how varying the distance BT-L3
between the plates and the dielectric material used
affects the sensor's performance.
Introduction :
A capacitive sensor using parallel plate conductors operates by measuring changes in electrical
capacitance caused by variations in distance, overlapping area, or the dielectric material
between two conductive plates.
The capacitance changes when:

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 The distance between the plates changes.
 The dielectric material between the plates changes.
 The overlapping area of the plates changes.

These sensors are widely used in industrial automation because of their high
sensitivity,simpleconstruction, fast response, and low power consumption.

Operating Principle:
The sensor works on the principle of electrostatic capacitance.

When a voltage is applied across the plates, opposite charges accumulate on them, creating an
electric field.
The capacitance (C) of a parallel plate sensor is calculated with the formula:

 ε₀ = permittivity of free space (8.854 × 10⁻¹² F/m)

 εr= relative permittivity (dielectric constant) of the material between the plates
 A = overlapping surface area of the conductive plates. (m²)
 d = separation distance between the plates. (m)

The capacitance depends on:

 Plate area
 Distance between plates
 Dielectric constant of insulating material

Analysis of sensor design:

Suppose

 Plate area = 5 cm × 5 cm = 25 cm²

 Initial spacing = 1 mm
 Dielectric = Air (εr = 1)

The sensor is connected to

 AC excitation source
 Oscillator/Bridge circuit
 Signal conditioning circuit
 Display or controller

As displacement occurs, capacitance changes, producing an electrical output proportional to

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displacement.

Analysis of Plate Distance :

Since

C=εA /d

Capacitance is inversely proportional to the plate spacing.

Case 1: Plate distance decreases
Suppose
Distance changes from
1 mm → 0.5 mm
Then
Cnew=2C
Hence capacitance doubles.

Result :

 High sensitivity
 Large output voltage
 Better resolution

Case 2: Plate distance increases:

Suppose
Distance changes from
1 mm → 2 mm
Then
Cnew=C/2
Hence capacitance decreases.

Result

 Reduced sensitivity
 Lower output signal
 Less measurement accuracy

Plate Distance Capacitance Sensor Output

Decreases Increases High
Increases Decreases Low
Thus,

Smaller spacing gives higher sensitivity, but extremely small spacing may lead to electrical
breakdown or mechanical contact.

Analysis of Dielectric Material:

The dielectric constant directly affects capacitance.

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C ∝ εr
Higher dielectric constant produces higher capacitance.

Dielectric Material Relative Permittivity (εr) Relative Capacitance

Air 1.0 Low
Paper 3.5 Moderate
Glass 5–10 High
Mica 6 High
Ceramic 100–1000 Very High
Water 80 Very High

Performance Analysis:
1. Sensitivity
S=ΔC /Δx

Sensitivity increases when

 Plate distance decreases

 Dielectric constant increases
 Plate area increases
2. Linearity:
Small changes in distance produce nearly linear capacitance variation.
For larger displacement, non-linearity increases.
3. Resolution:
Very high because even tiny displacement changes alter capacitance.
Typical resolution

 Micrometre (µm)
 Nanometre (nm)

4. Accuracy :
Accuracy depends on

 Stable dielectric material

 Proper plate alignment
 Temperature compensation

Typical accuracy
±0.1–1%
5. Response Time :
Very fast
Typically
1–10 ms
Suitable for dynamic measurements.
Advantages :

 Simple construction
 High sensitivity
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 Excellent resolution
 Low power consumption
 Non-contact measurement
 Small size
 Fast response
 Long operating life
 Good repeatability
 High reliability

Disadvantages:

 Sensitive to humidity and dust

 Stray capacitance affects accuracy
 Requires signal conditioning
 Temperature variations influence output
 Suitable only for small displacement measurements

Applications :

 Displacement measurement
 Pressure sensors
 Thickness measurement
 Liquid level measurement
 Humidity sensing
 Touch screens
 Proximity sensors
 MEMS sensors
 Robotics
 Biomedical instruments

Due to its high precision, fast response, and reliable operation, the parallel plate capacitive
sensor is widely employed in industrial automation, instrumentation, and precision
measurement systems.
3. Discuss in detail the construction, working and (13) UNDERSTAND CO2
applications of RVDT. BT-L2
Definition:
 The RVDT stands for Rotary Variable Differential Transformer. It is one kind of
electromechanical transducer used to give the linear o/p which is proportional to the i/p
angular displacement.
 The main function of RVDT is to detect the angular displacement and converts it into an
electrical signal.
 The both the RVDT and LVDT workings are similar, but LVDT employs the flexible iron
core for displacement measurement whereas in RVDT employs a cam type core.
 This core will turn among the two windings of the transformer using the shaft.

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RVDT Construction and Its Working :

 RVDT transducer has two windings similar to a normal transformer such as primary
winding and two secondary windings shown in the following RVDT diagram.
 The two windings of the transformer wounded, where the two secondary windings have
an equivalent number of windings.
 These are located on both sides of the primary winding of the transformer. A cam formed
a magnetic core which is made with a soft iron is coupled to a shaft.
 Thus, this core can be twisted among the windings. The construction of both the RVDT
and LVDT are similar but the main difference is the shape of the core in transformer
windings.
 This core will turn between the two windings of the transformer due to the shaft.

The typical RVDTs are linear over a +40 or -40 degrees, Sensitivity is about 2mV to 3mV per
degree of rotation and the input voltage range is 3V RMS at frequency ranges from 400Hz to
20kHz.
Based on the movement of the shaft in the transformer, the three conditions will be produced
such as
 When the Core is at Null Position
 When the Core Rotates in Clockwise Direction
 When the Core Rotates in Anticlockwise Direction
When the Core is at Null Position
 In the first condition, when the shaft is placed at the null position then the induced
e.m.f in the secondary windings are similar although reverse in phase.
 Thus, the differential o/p potential will be zero, and the condition will be E1 = E2,
where E0 = E1-E2 =0

When the Core Rotates in Clockwise Direction

 In the second condition, when the shaft rotates in the direction of clockwise; more
section of the core will enter across the primary winding.
 Therefore, the induced e.m.f across the primary winding is higher than secondary
winding.
 Hence, the differential o/p potential is positive, and the condition will be E1 > E2,
where E0 = E1-E2 = positive.

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When the Core Rotates in Anticlockwise Direction
 In the third condition, when the shaft rotates in the direction of anticlockwise, more
section of the core will be entered across the secondary winding.
 Thus, the induced e.m.f across the secondary coil is higher than the primary coil.
 Hence, the differential o/p potential is negative that means 1800 phase shift, and the
condition will be E1 < E2, where E0 = E1-E2 = negative.

RVDT Advantages and Disadvantages :

The advantages of RVDT include the following.

 The consistency of RVDT is high

 The exactness of RVDT is high
 The lifespan is long
 The performance is repeatable
 The construction is compact and strong
 Durability
 Low cost
 Easy to handle electronic components
 Resolution is infinite
 Linearity is Excellent
 A wide range of dimension ranges

The disadvantages of RVDT mainly include the following
 The contact among the measuring exterior as well as the nozzle is not possible for all
time.
 The output of the RVDT is linear (about +40 or -40 degrees), so it restricts the
usability.
RVDT Applications:
 Fuel Valves as well as Hydraulic
 Modern machine tools
 Controls Cockpit
 Controls Fuel
 Brake with cable systems
 Engines bleed air-systems
 Robotics
 Aircraft and Avionics
 Process Control industry
 Weapon and Torpedo Systems
 Engine fuel control
 Nose wheel steering systems
 Fly by wire systems
 Push reverser
 Actuators for controlling Flight as well as Engine
 Ecological control systems
4. Illustrate the performance of an accelerometer in a (13)
practical measurement system using a neat sketch.
The devices interact with the surroundings with the help of sensors. With the advent of
technology, today we have a wide range of sensors; both in analog form and digital form to
measure physical quantities like temperature, pressure, humidity, direction, light intensity
etc….One of such sensors, used to measure the speed and acceleration of the devices, is the
accelerometer sensor.
Definition:
 The rate of change of velocity of the body with respect to time is called acceleration.
 According to relative theory, depending upon the relative object taken to measure
acceleration, there are two types of acceleration.
 The proper acceleration, which is the physical acceleration of the body relative to inertia
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or the observer who is at rest relative to the object being measured.
 The coordinate acceleration depends upon the choice of coordinate system and choice of
observers. This is not equal to proper acceleration.
 Accelerometer sensor is the electromechanical device used to measure the proper
acceleration of the object.
Working Principle:
 The basic underlying working principle of an accelerometer is such as a dumped mass
on a spring.
 When acceleration is experienced by this device, the mass gets displaced till the spring
can easily move the mass, with the same rate equal to the acceleration it sensed.
 Then this displacement value is used to measure the give the acceleration.

 Accelerometers are available as digital devices and analog devices. Accelerometers

are designed using different methods. Piezoelectric, piezoresistive and capacitive
components are generally used to convert the mechanical motion caused in
accelerometer into an electrical signal.

 Piezoelectric accelerometers are made up of single crystals. These use the

piezoelectric effect to measure the acceleration. When applied to stress, these crystals
generate a voltage which is interpreted to determine the velocity and orientation.

 Capacitive accelerometers use a silicon micro-machined element. Here capacitance

is generated when acceleration is sensed and this capacitance is translated into a
voltage to measure the velocity values.

 Modern accelerometers are the smallest MEMS, consisting of a cantilever beam with
proof mass. Accelerometers are available as two-dimensional and three-dimensional
forms to measure velocity along with orientation. When the upper-frequency range,
high-temperature range, and low packaged weight are required, piezoelectric
accelerometers are the best choice.

Applications
The Applications of Accelerometer sensor are as follows:
 For inertial navigation systems, highly sensitive accelerometers are used.
 To detect and monitor vibrations in rotating machinery.
 To display images in an upright position on screens of digital cameras.
 For flight stabilization in drones.
 Accelerometers are used to sense orientation, coordinate acceleration, vibration, shock.
 Used to detect the position of the device in laptops and mobiles.

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 High-frequency recording of biaxial and triaxial acceleration in biological applications for
discrimination of behavioral patterns of animals.
 Machinery health monitoring.
 To detect faults in rotator machines.
 These are also used for building and structural monitoring to measure the motion and
vibration of the structure when exposed to dynamic loads.
 To measure the depth of CPR chest compressions.
 Navigation systems make use of accelerometer sensors for knowing the direction.
 Remote sensing devices also use accelerometers to monitor active volcanoes.

5. Demonstrate the use of an ultrasonic sensor in a (13) APPLY CO2

practical measurement application and explain its BT-L3
operation.
Introduction

An ultrasonic sensor is a non-contact sensor used to measure distance, displacement, liquid

level, object position, and obstacle detection by using high-frequency sound waves. It works on
the time-of-flight (TOF) principle, where the sensor transmits ultrasonic waves and measures
the time taken for the reflected echo to return from the target.

Ultrasonic sensors are widely used in industrial automation, robotics, automotive parking
systems, medical equipment, tank level measurement, and process industries because they
provide accurate measurements without physically touching the object.

Principle of Operation

The ultrasonic sensor emits sound waves having frequencies greater than 20 kHz (typically 40
kHz).

When these sound waves strike an object, they are reflected back as an echo.

The sensor measures the round-trip travel time of the ultrasonic wave.

Knowing the speed of sound in air (approximately 343 m/s at 20°C), the distance to the object is
calculated.
Distance Equation:

Distance= (Speed of Sound × Time)/2

 Speed of sound = 343 m/s

 Time = Time taken for echo to return
 Division by 2 accounts for the forward and return journey.

Construction of Ultrasonic Sensor

The ultrasonic sensor consists of the following components:

 Ultrasonic transmitter
 Ultrasonic receiver
 Oscillator circuit
 Timing circuit
 Signal conditioning circuit
 Microcontroller

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 Display/Output unit

Aim

To measure the water level in a storage tank without the sensor touching the water.

Principle of Operation

An ultrasonic sensor works by transmitting high-frequency sound waves (typically 40 kHz) and
measuring the time taken for the echo to return after reflecting from an object.

The sensor has:

 Transmitter (TX): Sends ultrasonic pulses.

 Receiver (RX): Detects the reflected echo.

The distance is calculated using:

Distance = Speed of Sound × Time / 2

The division by 2 accounts for the sound traveling to the object and back.

Where:

 Speed of sound ≈ 343 m/s (at 20°C)

 Time = Echo travel time

Demonstration

1. Mount the ultrasonic sensor at the top of the water tank.

2. The sensor emits an ultrasonic pulse.
3. The pulse travels to the water surface and reflects back.
4. The receiver detects the reflected echo.
5. A microcontroller (e.g., Arduino) calculates the distance.
6. Water level is determined by:

Water Level = Tank Height − Measured Distance

Example:

 Tank height = 2.0 m

 Measured distance = 0.45 m

Therefore,

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Water level = 2.0 − 0.45 = 1.55 m

Applications

 Water tank level monitoring

 Robot obstacle detection
 Car parking assistance
 Distance measurement
 Industrial automation
 Smart dustbin systems

Advantages

 Non-contact measurement
 High accuracy (typically ±3 mm for common modules like HC-SR04)
 Low cost
 Easy to interface with microcontrollers
 Works in dark environments

Limitations

 Performance is affected by temperature, humidity, and wind.

 Soft or irregular surfaces may reflect weak echoes.
 Unsuitable for vacuum environments because sound cannot travel in a vacuum.

Conclusion

An ultrasonic sensor measures distance by transmitting ultrasonic sound waves and calculating the
echo return time. In water-level monitoring, it provides an accurate, reliable, and non-contact method
for determining the liquid level, making it widely used in industrial, agricultural, and household
automation systems
6. A LVDT output is recorded by a self-balancing (13) APPLY CO2
potentiometric recorder having its natural frequency BT-L3
of 10Hz and damping ratio of 0.707. The LVDT is
excited by 10V at 50Hz power supply. Estimate the
maximum frequency of the displacement signal that
can be recorded with an error of + 2%.

Given Data
Natural frequency, fn = 10 Hz
Damping ratio, ζ = 0.707
Permissible amplitude error = ±2%
LVDT excitation = 10 V, 50 Hz (carrier frequency; does not affect displacement frequency)
Step 1: Magnification Factor
The amplitude ratio (magnification factor) of a second-order system is:
M = 1 / √[(1 − r²)² + (2ζr)²]
where r = f/fn.
Step 2: Substitute the Error Condition
For a +2% permissible error:

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 Subject code/Name: OMR 353-Sensors
M = 1.02
Since ζ = 0.707,
(2ζ)² = (2 × 0.707)² ≈ 2
So,
1.02 = 1 / √[(1 − r²)² + 2r²]
Step 3: Square Both Sides
1 / (1.02)² = 0.9612
Therefore,
(1 − r²)² + 2r² = 1 / 0.9612 = 1.0404
Step 4: Expand and Simplify
(1 − r²)² + 2r² = 1 − 2r² + r⁴ + 2r²
= 1 + r⁴
Thus,
1 + r⁴ = 1.0404
r⁴ = 0.0404
r = (0.0404)^(1/4) ≈ 0.448
Step 5: Calculate Maximum Frequency
f = r × fn
= 0.448 × 10
= 4.48 Hz
Final Answer
Maximum frequency of the displacement signal = 4.48 Hz ≈ 4.5 Hz

7. A Capacitive transducer uses two quartz diaphragms (13) APPLY CO2

of area 75mm2 separated by a distance of 3.5mm. A BT-L3
pressure 0f 900kN/m2 when applied to the top
diaphragm produces a deflection of 0.6mm. The
capacitance is 370pF when no pressure is applied to
the diaphragms. Evaluate the value of capacitance
after application of pressure 900kN/m2.

Given Data
Initial capacitance, C₁ = 370 pF
Initial plate separation, d₁ = 3.5 mm
Deflection due to pressure = 0.6 mm
Pressure applied = 900 kN/m²
Area = 75 mm² (not required since initial capacitance is given)
Step 1: Determine the New Plate Separation
Since the top diaphragm moves toward the fixed diaphragm by 0.6 mm,
d₂ = d₁ − Deflection

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 Subject code/Name: OMR 353-Sensors
d₂ = 3.5 − 0.6 = 2.9 mm
Step 2: Use the Capacitance Relationship
For a parallel-plate capacitor, capacitance is inversely proportional to the plate spacing:
C ∝ 1/d
Therefore,
C₂/C₁ = d₁/d₂

Step 3: Substitute the Values

C₂ = C₁ × (d₁/d₂)
= 370 × (3.5/2.9)
= 370 × 1.2069
= 446.55 pF
Step 4: Final Answer
Capacitance after applying 900 kN/m² pressure = 446.55 pF ≈ 447 pF
Conclusion
Applying pressure decreases the distance between the capacitor plates from 3.5 mm to 2.9
mm. As capacitance is inversely proportional to plate spacing, the capacitance increases
from 370 pF to approximately 447 pF.

UNIT III- FORCE, MAGNETIC AND HEADING SENSORS

PART-A
1. Define the term strain. REMEMBER CO3
BT-L1
 Strain is the ratio of the change in length of a material to its original length when subjected to
a force.
 Strain= ΔL / L
ΔL = change in length, L = original length
2. What are the classifications of electrical resistance strain REMEMBER CO3
gauge? BT-L1
 Wire Strain Gauges – Use fine resistance wire as the sensing element.
 Foil Strain Gauges – Use a metallic foil pattern bonded to a backing material.
 Semiconductor Strain Gauges – Use semiconductor materials (like silicon) for higher
sensitivity.
3. List the different types of elements used to attach the strain UNDERSTAND CO3
gauge in the displacement sensors. BT-L2

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 Subject code/Name: OMR 353-Sensors
 Adhesives (e.g., epoxy resins, cyanoacrylate)
 Soldering materials
 Mechanical clamps
 Welding materials (for special high-temperature applications)
4. State the Hall effect. REMEMBER CO3
BT-L1
 The Hall effect is the generation of a voltage difference (Hall voltage) across a current-carrying
conductor or semiconductor when it is placed in a magnetic field perpendicular to the current
flow. It is used for measuring magnetic field, current, position, and speed.
 The Hall voltage is proportional to the strength of the applied magnetic field.
 VH∝B
5. Mention the various part of a gyroscope. UNDERSTAND CO3
BT-L2
 Rotor (spinning wheel)
 Spin axis (shaft)
 Gimbals
 Gimbal frame
 Bearings
 Housing
 Drive motor (for powered gyroscopes)
 Pick-off sensors/coils (in electronic gyroscopes)
6. Mention the applications of Inclinometer. UNDERSTAND CO3
BT-L2
 Vehicle leveling
 Construction equipment monitoring
 Robotics
 Aircraft and marine navigation
 Structural health monitoring
 Mining and tunneling
 Industrial machine alignment
7. Enumerate the advantages of Hall effect sensors? UNDERSTAND CO3
BT-L2
 Non-contact operation (no mechanical wear)
 Can detect static and dynamic magnetic fields
 High reliability and long life
 Operates in harsh environments (dust, dirt, moisture)
 Capable of high-speed operation

8. Give the applications of Hall effect sensors. REMEMBER CO3

BT-L1
 Position and proximity sensing
 Speed measurement (e.g., in tachometers, wheel speed sensors)
 Current sensing in conductors
 Brushless DC motor commutation
 Fluid level detection
9. What do you mean by gauge factor? REMEMBER CO3
BT-L1
 Gauge factor is the ratio of the relative change in electrical resistance to the corresponding
mechanical strain produced in a strain gauge.
 GF = (ΔR/R) / ε
where R is the original resistance, ΔR is the change in resistance, and ε is the strain.
10. State the operating principle of a magneto resistive sensor. REMEMBER CO3
BT-L1
 A magneto resistive sensor operates on the principle that the electrical resistance of a material
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 Subject code/Name: OMR 353-Sensors
changes when it is exposed to an external magnetic field.
 The change in resistance depends on the strength and direction of the magnetic field.
 This change is measured and converted into a corresponding electrical output signal. Thus, it
is used to detect and measure magnetic fields, position, speed, and direction.
PART-B & C
1. Build and explain the principle of operation of various (13) APPLY CO3
sensors that produce an output due to an external magnetic BT-L3
field.
2. Illustrate the construction and working principle of an (13) APPLY CO3
electrical resistance strain gauge. Derive the expression for BT-L3
the gauge factor. An electrical resistance strain gauge has a
gauge factor of 2.1 and an initial resistance of 50 Ω. If it is
subjected to a strain of 0.001, determine the change in
resistance. Discuss the significance of the gauge factor in
strain measurement.
3. Explain the construction and working principle of a Hall (13) UNDERSTAND CO3
effect sensor with a neat sketch. Discuss its features, BT-L2
advantages, limitations, and applications in measurement
systems.
4. Analyze the performance of the following heading sensors. (07) UNDERSTAND CO3
i. Gyroscope ii. Inclinometers (06) BT-L2
5. Illustrate the different types of strain gauge and evaluate its (13) APPLY CO3
applications as force sensor. BT-L3
6. Evaluate the suitability of a load cell for force measurement (13) APPLY CO3
by explaining its operating principle, construction, BT-L3
performance characteristics and advantages.
7. Analyse the principle and operation of torque measurement (13) APPLY CO3
systems and discuss their performance characteristics in BT-L3
engineering applications.

UNIT IV- OPTICAL, PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE AND OTHER SENSORS

PART-A
1. Define Thermopile. REMEMBER CO4
BT-L1
 A thermopile is a device made of several thermocouples connected in series or parallel.
 It is used to measure small amounts of radiant energy or temperature differences by
converting thermal energy into electrical voltage.
 The output voltage is proportional to the temperature difference between the hot and cold
junctions. V∝(Th−Tc)
 Thermopiles are commonly used in infrared radiation detection and temperature
measurement.
2. Specify the different types of pressure measurement system. UNDERSTAND CO4
BT-L2

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 Subject code/Name: OMR 353-Sensors
 Manometers
 Bourdon tube pressure gauges
 Diaphragm pressure gauges
 Bellows pressure gauges
 Electrical pressure transducers (e.g., strain gauge type, capacitive type, piezoelectric type)
3. Show the various modulation schemes involved in fiber optic UNDERSTAND CO4
sensor. BT-L2
 Modulation schemes in fiber optic sensors:
 Intensity Modulation – Senses changes in light intensity.
 Phase Modulation – Detects phase shifts in the light wave.
 Frequency Modulation – Measures changes in optical frequency.
 Polarization Modulation – Detects variations in the polarization state of light.
4. Mention the devices used in pressure sensors. REMEMBER CO4
BT-L1
 Bourdon tube
 Diaphragm
 Bellows
 Strain gauge
 Piezoelectric crystal
 Capacitive sensing element
5. State the term RTD. REMEMBER CO4
BT-L1
 RTD stands for Resistance Temperature Detector.
 It is a temperature sensor whose electrical resistance changes with temperature.
 The change in resistance is measured to determine the temperature.
 Platinum RTD (Pt100) is the most used type.
6. What is the working phenomenon of thermocouple? REMEMBER CO4
BT-L1
 A thermocouple works on the Seebeck effect.
 When two dissimilar metals are joined to form two junctions maintained at different
temperatures, a thermoelectric voltage is produced.
 This voltage is proportional to the temperature difference between the hot and cold junctions.
 Thus, the thermocouple converts temperature difference into an electrical voltage.
7. Give the deformation structures of diaphragm. REMEMBER CO4
BT-L1
 The main deformation structures of a diaphragm are:
1. Flat diaphragm
2. Corrugated diaphragm
3. Capsule diaphragm
 These diaphragm structures deform when pressure is applied and are commonly used in
pressure measurement and pressure transducers.
8. Define photo conductive cell. REMEMBER CO4
BT-L 1
 A photoconductive cell is a light-sensitive device whose electrical resistance changes with the
intensity of incident light.
 When light intensity increases, the number of charge carriers increases and the resistance
decreases.
 It converts changes in light intensity into a corresponding change in electrical resistance.
 Example: LDR (Light Dependent Resistor).
9. What do you mean by a photovoltaic cell? REMEMBER CO4
BT-L 1
 A photovoltaic (PV) cell, also called a solar cell.
 It is a semiconductor device that converts light energy directly into electrical energy through
the photovoltaic effect.
 When light falls on the cell, electron–hole pairs are generated.
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 Subject code/Name: OMR 353-Sensors
 This produces a voltage and current across the cell.
10. State the role of a photodiode in an electronic circuit. REMEMBER CO4
BT-L 1
 A photodiode is a semiconductor device that detects light and converts it into an electrical
current.
 Its photocurrent varies with the intensity of the incident light.
 It is used for light detection and measurement.
 It is commonly used in optical communication, remote controls, and automatic lighting
systems.

PART-B & C

1. Apply the principle of an LDR to demonstrate its use in a (13) APPLY CO4
practical light detection system with a neat diagram. BT-L3
2. (i) Explain the construction and working principle of (07) CO4
different types of pressure sensors with neat diagrams. UNDERSTAND
(ii) Explain the different types of diaphragm deformation (06) BT-L2
used in pressure measurement, with neat sketches.
3. Demonstrate the different types of optical fiber sensors (13) APPLY CO4
with neat diagram. BT-L3
4. Explain the following UNDERSTAND CO4
i. Humidity sensors (07) BT-L2
ii. Gas sensors. (06)
5. Analyse the working principle and performance (13) APPLY CO4
characteristics of a gyroscope used in orientation and BT-L3
navigation systems with a neat sketch.
6. Evaluate the performance and working principle of an (13) APPLY CO4
inclinometer used for tilt measurement. BT-L3
7. Explain the working of different types of pressure (13) UNDERSTAND CO4
diaphragms and bellows with diagrams. BT-L2

UNIT V- SIGNAL CONDITIONING

PART-A

1. Define signal conditioning. REMEMBER CO5

BT-L 1

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 Subject code/Name: OMR 353-Sensors
 Signal conditioning is the process of modifying a sensor output signal to make it suitable for
further processing, transmission, or display.
 It involves operations such as amplification, filtering, isolation, and conversion to ensure the
signal is compatible with data acquisition systems or controllers.
 It improves the quality, accuracy, and compatibility of the sensor signal with the measurement
system.

2. Construct simple capacitance bridge circuit. UNDERSTAND CO5

BT-L2

 AC Source: An audio oscillator or signal generator

providing a low-voltage AC signal (e.g., 1 kHz).
 Null Detector: An AC microammeter, oscilloscope, or
high-impedance audio headphones.
 Standard Capacitor (Cs): A precision, known
reference capacitor.
 Unknown Capacitor (Cx): The capacitor you want to
measure.
 Variable Resistors (R₁, R₂): Two calibrated
resistance boxes or potentiometers.

3. What is the need for signal conditioning unit? REMEMBER CO5

BT-L 1
 A signal conditioning unit is required to modify the sensor output signal so that it becomes
suitable for further processing.
 It performs functions such as amplification, filtering, isolation, linearization, and signal
conversion.
 It improves the accuracy and quality of the measurement signal.
 Thus, it makes the sensor signal compatible with data acquisition and control systems.
4. Write a short note on the Data Acquisition System. UNDERSTAND CO5
BT-L2
 A Data Acquisition System (DAS) is a system that collects, measures, and processes physical
parameters (such as temperature, pressure, or voltage) from sensors or transducers.
 It converts them into digital form for storage, analysis, or display.

5. Write about the importance of data acquisition system. UNDERSTAND CO5

BT-L2
 A Data Acquisition System (DAS) is important for collecting and converting physical
measurements into digital data.
 It enables accurate measurement, real-time monitoring, data storage, and analysis.
 It reduces manual errors and improves the speed and reliability of measurement systems.
 DAS is widely used in industrial automation, scientific research, medical systems, and process
control.

6. Draw the block diagram of a power amplifier and explain UNDERSTAND CO5
the function of each block. BT-L2

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 Subject code/Name: OMR 353-Sensors

Functions of Each Block

 Voltage Amplifier: Increases the voltage level of the weak input signal.
 Driver Stage: Provides sufficient current to drive the power output stage.
 Power Output Stage: Delivers high power to the load with minimum distortion.
 Load: Receives the amplified output power, e.g., a speaker or motor.

7. Draw the circuit diagram of an inverting amplifier UNDERSTAND CO5

BT-L2

8. Mention the balance condition of a Wheatstone bridge. REMEMBER CO5

BT-L 1

 A Wheatstone bridge is balanced when no current flows through the galvanometer, which
means the potential difference across the galvanometer is zero.
R1 R3
=
R2 R4
 Therefore,
R1 R 4 =R 2 R3

9. What is the balance condition of Hays bridge? REMEMBER CO5

BT-L 1

 For a Hay’s bridge, the balance condition is:

2
L
R1 R 2=R3 R4 + 2
C
and
C R3 R4
L=
R3 + R4
 Where Lis the unknown inductance, C is the standard capacitor, and R1 , R 2 , R3 , R 4 are the
bridge resistances.
 Hay’s bridge is used for measuring high-Q coils.

10. List the different isolation circuits involved in a signal REMEMBER CO5
conditioning unit. BT-L 1

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 Subject code/Name: OMR 353-Sensors
 Isolation Transformer
 Opto-isolator (Optocoupler)
 Isolation Amplifier
 Capacitive Isolation Circuit
 Magnetic (Inductive) Isolation Circuit

PART-B & C

1. Construct and explain the working principle of a bridge (13) UNDERSTAND CO5
whose output voltage is proportional to change in BT-L2
resistance.
2. Choose the principle of operation of suitable bridge whose (13) APPLY CO5
output is proportional to change in inductance. BT-L3
3. Construct and explain the working principle of a (13) APPLY CO5
capacitance bridge with necessary relation. BT-L3
4. Construct the following amplifier and explain with neat (13) UNDERSTAND CO5
sketch, BT-L2
i) Instrumentation amplifier
ii) Voltage amplifier
5. Explain the basic principle of operation of a Data (13) UNDERSTAND CO5
acquisition system. BT-L2
6. Discuss in detail about the various filter circuits and (13) UNDERSTAND CO5
isolation circuits used in a signal conditioning unit. BT-L2
7. A platinum resistance temperature sensor has a (13) APPLY CO5
resistance of 120Ω at 0°C and forms one arm of a BT-L3
Wheatstone bridge. At this temperature the bridge is
balanced with each of the other arms being 120 Ω. The
temperature coefficient of resistance of the platinum is
0.0039/K. Show the output voltage from the bridge for a
change of 20°C. Assume the supply voltage given to the
bridge is 6V.

****************************

SENSORS 5.37 KCE/ECE/QB/IV YR/SENSORS