1 Explain object-oriented principles with examples.

Introduction

Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) is a programming approach that organizes a program using classes
and objects. It helps in creating reusable, secure, and easy-to-maintain programs.

The four main principles of OOP are:

1. Encapsulation

2. Abstraction

3. Inheritance

4. Polymorphism

1. Encapsulation

Definition

Encapsulation is the process of combining data and methods into a single unit called a class and restricting
direct access to data.

Example

class Student:
def __init__(self):
[Link] = "Ammu"

s = Student()
print([Link])

Advantage

• Protects data from unauthorized access.

2. Abstraction

Definition

Abstraction means hiding unnecessary details and showing only the essential features of an object.

Example

When using an ATM, we withdraw money without knowing the internal working of the machine.

Advantage

• Reduces complexity.

• Makes programs easier to use.

3. Inheritance

Definition
Inheritance allows one class to acquire the properties and methods of another class.

Example

class Parent:
def display(self):
print("Parent Class")

class Child(Parent):
pass

c = Child()
[Link]()

Output

Parent Class

Advantage

• Promotes code reusability.

4. Polymorphism

Definition

Polymorphism means "many forms". The same method can perform different actions depending on the
object.

Example

class Cat:
def sound(self):
print("Meow")

class Dog:
def sound(self):
print("Bark")

Advantage

• Increases flexibility and extensibility.

Summary of OOP Principles

Principle Purpose

Encapsulation Protects data

Abstraction Hides implementation details

Inheritance Reuses existing code

Principle Purpose

Polymorphism One interface, many forms

Conclusion

Object-Oriented Programming is based on Encapsulation, Abstraction, Inheritance, and Polymorphism.

These principles help in developing reusable, secure, and maintainable software.

2 Define class and object? How to create the class and object? How to access the
members of class using the object reference?
Introduction

Class and Object are the basic concepts of Object-Oriented Programming (OOP). A class acts as a blueprint,
while an object is an instance of that class.

Class

Definition

A class is a user-defined data type that contains data members (variables) and member functions (methods).
It serves as a blueprint for creating objects.

Syntax

class ClassName:
statements

Example

class Student:
name = "Ammu"

Object

Definition

An object is an instance of a class. It is used to access the variables and methods defined inside the class.

Syntax

object_name = ClassName()

Example

s = Student()

Creating a Class and Object

Program

class Student:
name = "Ammu"
s = Student()

Here,

• Student is the class.

• s is the object.

Accessing Members Using Object Reference

The members of a class can be accessed using the dot (.) operator with the object reference.

Syntax

object_name.member_name

Program

class Student:
name = "Ammu"

s = Student()

print([Link])

Output

Ammu

Explanation

• s is the object reference.

• [Link] accesses the variable name of the class.

Accessing Methods Using Object Reference

Program

class Student:
def display(self):
print("Welcome to Python")

s = Student()
[Link]()

Output

Welcome to Python

Advantages of Classes and Objects

1. Supports code reusability.

 2. Makes programs easy to manage.

3. Provides data security through OOP concepts.

Conclusion

A class is a blueprint that defines properties and behaviors, while an object is an instance of a class. Objects
are created from classes and are used to access class members using the dot (.) operator.

3 Write a short notes on following terms.

i. Constructor
ii. Method
iii. Destructor
Introduction

In Python, Constructors, Methods, and Destructors are important parts of Object-Oriented Programming
(OOP). They help in creating, managing, and destroying objects.

i) Constructor

Definition

A constructor is a special method that is automatically called when an object is created. It is used to initialize
the object's data members.

Syntax

def __init__(self):
statements

Example

class Student:
def __init__(self):
print("Constructor Called")

s = Student()

Output

Constructor Called

Key Point

• Constructor name in Python is __init__().

• It is called automatically when an object is created.

ii) Method

Definition

A method is a function defined inside a class. It is used to perform a specific task and can access the data of
the class.
Syntax

def method_name(self):
statements

Example

class Student:
def display(self):
print("Welcome to Python")

s = Student()
[Link]()

Output

Welcome to Python

Key Point

• Methods define the behavior of an object.

• They are called using the object name.

iii) Destructor

Definition

A destructor is a special method that is automatically called when an object is destroyed. It is used to release
resources and perform cleanup operations.

Syntax

def __del__(self):
statements

Example

class Student:
def __del__(self):
print("Object Destroyed")

s = Student()
del s

Output

Object Destroyed

Key Point

• Destructor name in Python is __del__().

• It is called automatically when an object is deleted.

Difference Between Constructor, Method, and Destructor

Term Purpose

Constructor Initializes an object

Method Performs operations on an object

Destructor Destroys an object and frees resources

Conclusion

A Constructor initializes an object, a Method performs tasks, and a Destructor destroys the object and
releases resources. These are essential components of Object-Oriented Programming in Python.

4 Explain different types of methods used in classes? How to call those methods?
Introduction

A method is a function defined inside a class. Methods are used to perform operations on the data of an
object. In Python, methods are mainly of three types:

1. Instance Method

2. Class Method

3. Static Method

1. Instance Method

Definition

An instance method works with object data. It uses the self parameter and can access instance variables.

Example

class Student:
def display(self):
print("Instance Method")

s = Student()
[Link]()

How to Call?

[Link]()

2. Class Method

Definition

A class method works with class variables and uses the cls parameter. It is declared using the @classmethod
decorator.

Example
class Student:
college = "ABC College"

@classmethod
def show(cls):
print([Link])

[Link]()

How to Call?

[Link]()

3. Static Method

Definition

A static method does not use self or cls. It performs a general task related to the class and is declared using
the @staticmethod decorator.

Example

class Student:

@staticmethod
def greet():
print("Welcome")

[Link]()

How to Call?

[Link]()

Difference Between Methods

Method Type Parameter Used Called Using

Instance Method self Object

Class Method cls Class Name

Static Method None Class Name

Conclusion

Python classes mainly use Instance Methods, Class Methods, and Static Methods. Instance methods work
with object data, class methods work with class data, and static methods perform general utility tasks.

5 Define variable? Explain different types of variables in classes? How to access those
variables?
Introduction

A variable is a name used to store data values in a program. In Python classes, variables are used to store the
properties of objects and classes.

There are mainly two types of variables in classes:

1. Instance Variables

2. Class Variables (Static Variables)

1. Instance Variable

Definition

An instance variable is a variable whose value is different for each object. It is declared using self inside a
constructor or method.

Example

class Student:
def __init__(self):
[Link] = "Ammu"

s = Student()
print([Link])

Output

Ammu

How to Access?

Instance variables are accessed using the object name.

[Link]

2. Class Variable (Static Variable)

Definition

A class variable is shared by all objects of a class. It is declared inside the class but outside the methods.

Example

class Student:
college = "ABC College"

s = Student()
print([Link])

Output

ABC College

How to Access?
Class variables are accessed using the class name.

[Link]

Difference Between Instance Variable and Class Variable

Instance Variable Class Variable

Unique for each object Shared by all objects

Declared using self Declared inside class

Accessed using object Accessed using class name

Summary

Variable Type Access Method

Instance Variable [Link]

Class Variable [Link]

Conclusion

A variable stores data in a program. In Python classes, variables are mainly of two types: Instance Variables
and Class Variables. Instance variables belong to objects, while class variables belong to the class and are
shared by all objects.

6 Define Inheritance? Explain different types of inheritances supported by python.

Introduction

Inheritance is an important feature of Object-Oriented Programming (OOP). It allows one class to acquire the
properties and methods of another class. The existing class is called the Parent (Base) Class, and the new
class is called the Child (Derived) Class.

Syntax

class Parent:
pass

class Child(Parent):
pass

Advantages

• Code Reusability

• Reduces Program Length

• Easy Maintenance
Types of Inheritance in Python

1. Single Inheritance

Definition

A child class inherits from a single parent class.

Example

class Parent:
def show(self):
print("Parent Class")

class Child(Parent):
pass

c = Child()
[Link]()

2. Multiple Inheritance

Definition

A child class inherits from more than one parent class.

Example

class A:
pass

class B:
pass

class C(A, B):

pass

3. Multilevel Inheritance

Definition

A class inherits from another derived class, forming a chain.

Example

class GrandParent:
pass

class Parent(GrandParent):
pass

class Child(Parent):
pass
4. Hierarchical Inheritance

Definition

Multiple child classes inherit from the same parent class.

Example

class Parent:
pass

class Child1(Parent):
pass

class Child2(Parent):
pass

5. Hybrid Inheritance

Definition

Hybrid inheritance is a combination of two or more types of inheritance.

Example

class A:
pass

class B(A):
pass

class C(A):
pass

class D(B, C):

pass

Summary of Types

Type Description

Single One Parent → One Child

Multiple Many Parents → One Child

Multilevel Grandparent → Parent → Child

Hierarchical One Parent → Many Children

Hybrid Combination of Inheritance Types

Conclusion

Inheritance allows a class to reuse the properties and methods of another class. Python supports Single,
Multiple, Multilevel, Hierarchical, and Hybrid Inheritance, making programs reusable, organized, and easy
to maintain.

7 Explain following terms.

i. Operator overloading
ii. Method overloading and overriding
iii. Constructor overloading and overriding.
Introduction

Operator Overloading, Method Overloading/Overriding, and Constructor Overloading/Overriding are

important concepts in Object-Oriented Programming (OOP). They provide flexibility and improve code
reusability.

i) Operator Overloading

Definition

Operator Overloading means giving a special meaning to an existing operator for user-defined objects.

Example

The + operator adds numbers and can also join strings.

print(10 + 20) # Addition

print("Hello" + "Python") # Concatenation

Advantage

• Makes code simple and readable.

ii) Method Overloading and Method Overriding

Method Overloading

Definition

Method Overloading means having methods with the same name but different parameters.

Example

class Demo:
def add(self, a, b=0):
print(a + b)

d = Demo()
[Link](10)
[Link](10, 20)

Advantage

• Same method can perform different tasks.

Method Overriding

Definition

Method Overriding occurs when a child class provides its own implementation of a method already defined in
the parent class.

Example

class Parent:
def show(self):
print("Parent Class")

class Child(Parent):
def show(self):
print("Child Class")

c = Child()
[Link]()

Output

Child Class

Advantage

• Allows customization of inherited methods.

iii) Constructor Overloading and Constructor Overriding

Constructor Overloading

Definition

Constructor Overloading means creating constructors that can accept different numbers of arguments.
Python achieves this using default arguments.

Example

class Demo:
def __init__(self, a=0):
print(a)

d1 = Demo()
d2 = Demo(10)

Advantage

• Creates objects in different ways.

Constructor Overriding

Definition
Constructor Overriding occurs when a child class defines its own constructor instead of using the parent
class constructor.

Example

class Parent:
def __init__(self):
print("Parent Constructor")

class Child(Parent):
def __init__(self):
print("Child Constructor")

c = Child()

Output

Child Constructor

Summary

Concept Meaning

Operator Overloading Giving new meaning to operators

Method Overloading Same method, different parameters

Method Overriding Child class redefines parent method

Constructor Overloading Constructor with different arguments

Constructor Overriding Child class redefines parent constructor

Conclusion

Operator overloading, method overloading/overriding, and constructor overloading/overriding are important

OOP concepts that improve flexibility, code reusability, and program efficiency.

8 Explain super() function with example.

Introduction

The super() function is used in inheritance to access the members (variables and methods) of the parent
class from the child class. It helps in reusing the code of the parent class without explicitly mentioning the
parent class name.

Definition

The super() function returns a temporary object of the parent class, allowing the child class to access parent
class methods and constructors.

Syntax
super().method_name()

or

super().__init__()

Example Program

class Parent:
def display(self):
print("This is Parent Class")

class Child(Parent):
def show(self):
super().display()
print("This is Child Class")

c = Child()
[Link]()

Output

This is Parent Class

This is Child Class

Using super() with Constructor

class Parent:
def __init__(self):
print("Parent Constructor")

class Child(Parent):
def __init__(self):
super().__init__()
print("Child Constructor")

c = Child()

Output

Parent Constructor
Child Constructor

Advantages of super()

1. Accesses parent class methods and constructors.

2. Promotes code reusability.

3. Avoids writing the parent class name repeatedly.

 4. Makes inheritance easier to manage.

Conclusion

The super() function is used in inheritance to call the methods and constructors of the parent class from the
child class. It improves code reusability and simplifies program development.

9 Explain the file handling functions with examples.

Introduction

File Handling in Python is used to store and retrieve data from files. Python provides built-in functions to
create, read, write, and manage files.

File Handling Functions

1. open() Function

Definition

The open() function is used to open a file.

Syntax

file = open("[Link]", "mode")

Example

f = open("[Link]", "r")

2. read() Function

Definition

The read() function reads the entire contents of a file.

Example

f = open("[Link]", "r")
print([Link]())

3. write() Function

Definition

The write() function writes data into a file.

Example

f = open("[Link]", "w")
[Link]("Hello Python")

4. append() Mode (a)

Definition

Append mode adds new data to the end of an existing file without deleting old data.

Example

f = open("[Link]", "a")
[Link](" Welcome")

5. close() Function

Definition

The close() function closes the file after use.

Example

f = open("[Link]", "r")
[Link]()

File Modes

Mode Purpose

r Read file

w Write file

a Append data

r+ Read and Write

Complete Example

f = open("[Link]", "w")
[Link]("Python Programming")
[Link]()

f = open("[Link]", "r")
print([Link]())
[Link]()

Output

Python Programming

Advantages of File Handling

1. Stores data permanently.

2. Easy retrieval of information.

 3. Useful for managing large amounts of data.

Conclusion

File handling in Python allows users to create, read, write, and append data in files. Important functions
include open(), read(), write(), and close(), which help manage files efficiently.

10 Explain file opening modes with examples

Introduction

When a file is opened in Python, a mode specifies the purpose of opening the file, such as reading, writing, or
appending data. Python provides several file opening modes.

File Opening Modes in Python

1. Read Mode (r)

Definition

The read mode is used to read data from an existing file. It is the default mode.

Example

f = open("[Link]", "r")
print([Link]())
[Link]()

2. Write Mode (w)

Definition

The write mode is used to write data into a file. If the file already exists, its contents are overwritten.

Example

f = open("[Link]", "w")
[Link]("Hello Python")
[Link]()

3. Append Mode (a)

Definition

The append mode adds data to the end of an existing file without deleting previous contents.

Example

f = open("[Link]", "a")
[Link](" Welcome")
[Link]()
4. Read and Write Mode (r+)

Definition

The r+ mode allows both reading and writing in the same file.

Example

f = open("[Link]", "r+")
print([Link]())
[Link](" Python")
[Link]()

5. Write and Read Mode (w+)

Definition

The w+ mode allows reading and writing. It creates a new file or overwrites an existing file.

Example

f = open("[Link]", "w+")
[Link]("Python")
[Link]()

6. Append and Read Mode (a+)

Definition

The a+ mode allows appending and reading data from a file.

Example

f = open("[Link]", "a+")
[Link](" Programming")
[Link]()

Summary of File Modes

Mode Purpose

r Read only

w Write only

a Append only

r+ Read and Write

w+ Write and Read

a+ Append and Read

Conclusion

File opening modes determine how a file is accessed in Python. Common modes include r, w, a, r+, w+, and
a+. Choosing the correct mode helps in efficient file handling and data management.

Quick Revision

• r → Read

• w → Write

• a → Append

• r+ → Read + Write

• w+ → Write + Read

• a+ → Append + Read

11 Explain log files and config files with examples

Introduction

Log files and Config files are commonly used in software applications. Log files store information about
program activities, while config files store settings used by a program.

1. Log Files

Definition

A log file is a file that records events, activities, errors, and messages generated by a program while it is
running.

Example

A website stores information such as:

• User login details

• Error messages

• System activities

Example Program

f = open("[Link]", "w")
[Link]("User logged in")
[Link]()

Sample Log File Content

User logged in

Advantages

• Helps in debugging errors.

• Maintains a record of activities.

• Useful for monitoring applications.

2. Config Files

Definition

A config (configuration) file is a file that stores settings and preferences used by a program.

Example

A configuration file may contain:

Username = Admin
Language = English
Theme = Dark

Example Program

f = open("[Link]", "w")
[Link]("Theme = Dark")
[Link]()

Advantages

• Easy to change program settings.

• No need to modify source code.

• Makes applications flexible.

Difference Between Log Files and Config Files

Log File Config File

Stores program activities Stores program settings

Used for tracking and debugging Used for configuration

Changes frequently Changes occasionally

Conclusion

A log file records the activities and errors of a program, whereas a config file stores settings and preferences
used by the program. Both are important for efficient software development and maintenance.