Table of Contents

EEE204 — Physics of Materials

Complete Study Guide (Chapters 1–8)
Built from your course material (EEE204_COURSE_MATERIAL.pdf), expanded
with derivations, worked examples, and exam tips. Follows the book’s chapter
order exactly.

CHAPTER 1: STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

1.1 The Quantum Atom Model
The simple (Bohr) picture: An atom = a positive nucleus + electrons orbiting it. For a
stable orbit, the electrostatic attraction (Coulomb force) pulling the electron in must
exactly balance the centrifugal force pushing it out:
2 2
mu q
= 2
...(1.1)
r 4 π ε 0r

• m = electron mass, u = orbital velocity, r = orbit radius, q = electron charge, ε₀ =

permittivity of free space (8.854×10⁻¹² F/m)
Why this simple model fails: Classical physics says an accelerating charge (like an
orbiting electron) radiates energy continuously. If the electron loses energy, it should spiral
into the nucleus. But atoms are stable — real electrons don’t do this. This contradiction is
resolved by quantum theory.
Planck’s contribution (1901): Energy radiated electromagnetically is quantized — it only
comes in whole-number multiples of a “quantum.” For light, a quantum = a photon, with
energy:
E=h f
• h = Planck’s constant = 6.6×10⁻³⁴ J·s, f = frequency (Hz)
de Broglie’s contribution (1924): Moving particles (like electrons) also behave like
waves. Wave properties are frequency (f) and wavelength (λ); particle properties are
energy (E = hf) and momentum (p = h/λ). Both descriptions are linked through h.
The Uncertainty Principle (consequence): Because the electron is a “wave packet,” you
cannot simultaneously know its exact position and exact velocity. This means classical fixed
“orbits” don’t really exist — only a probability of finding the electron at a given radius.
Standing wave condition: If we picture the electron’s wave wrapping around the nucleus
like an elastic band, there must be a whole number of wavelengths around the
circumference (otherwise the wave cancels itself out):
2 π r =n λ ...(1.2)
Substituting λ = h/p = h/(mu):
nh
u r= ...(1.3)
2π m
• n = principal quantum number (n = 1, 2, 3, …) — determines which orbit/energy
level.
Combining (1.1) and (1.3):
2 2
n h ε0
rn = 2
...(1.4)
πq m
Key term: Only certain radii r₁, r₂, r₃… (and hence energies) are allowed. This is the origin
of “discrete energy levels.”

1.2 Total Energy of the Hydrogen Atom

Total energy E = Potential energy (V) + Kinetic energy (K).
Coulomb force: F = Zq²/(4πε₀r²) (Z = atomic number; Z=1 for hydrogen)
Potential energy (work done bringing electron from infinity to r):
2
Zq
V =− ...(1.5)
4 π ε0 r

Kinetic energy (from equation 1.1):

2
q
K= ...(1.6)
8 π ε0 r

Total energy:
2
q
E=V + K=− ...(1.7)
8 π ε0 r

Substituting r = r_n from (1.4):

4
q m 13.58
En =− 2 2 2
=− 2 eV ...(1.8)
8 h ε0 n n
 2
r n =0.053 n nm...(1.9)

Table 1.1 — Energy levels for hydrogen

n Eₙ (eV) rₙ (nm)
1 −13.58 (ground state) 0.053
2 −3.39 0.212
3 −1.51 0.477
4 −0.55 0.848

Key ideas: - n = 1 is the ground state (lowest/most negative energy = most stable). - n > 1
states are excited states. An electron doesn’t radiate while sitting in an allowed level
(energy stays constant there). - To jump up a level, the electron must absorb exactly the
energy difference. To fall down, it emits a photon of that exact energy:
h f =En 2 − E n1= Δ E ...(1.10)

Worked Example 1.1

Q: Find the energy needed for an electron in hydrogen to jump from n=1 to n=2. A: ΔE = E₂
− E₁ = (−3.39) − (−13.58) = 10.19 eV (must be absorbed).

Worked Example 1.2

Q: An electron falls from n=3 to n=2 in hydrogen. Find the photon frequency emitted. A: ΔE
= E₃ − E₂ = (−1.51) − (−3.39) = 1.88 eV = 1.88 × 1.6×10⁻¹⁹ = 3.008×10⁻¹⁹ J f = ΔE/h =
3.008×10⁻¹⁹ / 6.6×10⁻³⁴ = 4.56×10¹⁴ Hz

Worked Example 1.3

0.477 nm ✓ (matches table)

Q: Calculate r₃ for hydrogen and confirm using equation 1.9. A: r₃ = 0.053 × 3² = 0.053 × 9 =

Common exam trap: Energy levels are negative — “higher” energy means less negative
(closer to zero), not larger magnitude. n=4 (−0.55 eV) is a higher-energy, more loosely-
bound state than n=1 (−13.58 eV).

1.3 Band Structure of Solids

Covalent and Metallic Bonds
Atoms in a crystal are held together by a balance of repulsive and attractive inter-atomic
forces. At the equilibrium spacing x₀, the net force is zero and there is a binding energy
Eb (energy needed to pull the atoms apart).
Covalent bonding: atoms share valence electrons with neighbours to mimic a stable
(inert-gas) outer shell. - Example: H₂ molecule — two H atoms share their single electrons.
- Silicon/Germanium (4 valence electrons): each atom shares electrons with 4 neighbours,
forming a tetrahedral structure, giving each atom access to 8 electrons total. - Compound
semiconductors (GaAs, GaP): Gallium (3 valence e⁻) bonds with Arsenic/Phosphorus (5
valence e⁻) — this is called a III-V compound.
Metallic bonding: occurs in Group I, II, III metals. Each atom releases its loosely-held
valence electron(s) into a shared “sea” of free electrons that can wander through the whole
crystal. This cloud of free electrons + the fixed positive nuclei = the metallic bond.

Energy Band Structure — How bands form

• A single isolated atom has sharp, discrete energy levels (n=1,2,3…).
• Bring two atoms close together → their electron clouds interact → each single
energy level splits into two closely-spaced levels (Pauli exclusion — no two
electrons in the same system can have identical quantum states).
• Bring N atoms together (as in a crystal, N is huge, ~10²³/cm³) → each original level
splits into N levels, so closely spaced they appear as a continuous band.
Key terms: - Valence band: the band of energies occupied by the outermost (valence)
electrons — the highest band occupied at 0 K. - Conduction band: the next band up; empty
at 0 K; electrons here can move freely and conduct current. - Forbidden band / energy
gap (Eg): the gap of energies between valence and conduction bands, which electrons
cannot occupy.
Depending on the material, bands may overlap (metals) or remain separated by a gap
(semiconductors, insulators).

1.4 Classification of Electrical Materials

Material Energy Gap Behaviour
Insulator Very wide gap (e.g. diamond Valence electrons need
5.5 eV, SiO₂ 8.0 eV) huge extra energy to reach
conduction band → virtually
no free carriers → very high
resistivity
Semiconductor Narrow gap (Ge 0.7 eV, Si At low T behaves like
1.1 eV, GaAs 1.4 eV) insulator; at room T,
thermal energy is enough to
push some electrons across
the gap → moderate
conductivity, strongly
temperature-dependent
Conductor Valence and conduction Electrons need little/no
bands overlap (no gap) extra energy → very large
numbers of free electrons
(~10²⁹/m³)

Table 1.2 (from source) — typical values at 300 K

 n (electron
Type Material Eg (eV) density, m⁻³)
Conductor Copper 0 10²⁹
Conductor Aluminium 0 10²⁹
Semiconductor Germanium 0.7 10¹⁹
Semiconductor Silicon 1.1 10¹⁶
Semiconductor GaAs 1.4 10⁶
Insulator Diamond 5.5 0
Insulator SiO₂ 8.0 0

Common mistakes: - Thinking semiconductors always conduct well — they only do so as

temperature rises or when doped. - Confusing “no gap” (conductor) with “very small gap”
(semiconductor) — these are physically different situations.

Chapter 1 Revision Notes

• Bohr model: stable orbit ⟺ Coulomb force = centrifugal force.
• Quantization comes from Planck (E=hf) and de Broglie (matter waves, λ=h/p).
• Eₙ = −13.58/n² eV; rₙ = 0.053n² nm (hydrogen only).
• Bands form because N atoms’ identical levels split into N closely-spaced levels (Pauli
exclusion).
• Classification of materials = purely about the size of the energy gap (and whether
bands overlap).

Chapter 1 — Likely Exam Questions (MCQ)

1. What keeps an orbiting electron from spiralling into the nucleus in the Bohr model?
→ Balance of Coulomb attraction and centrifugal force.
2. What is a photon? → A quantum of electromagnetic radiation, E = hf.
3. Who proposed that matter has wave properties? → de Broglie.
4. What does the principal quantum number determine? → The allowed orbit/energy
level.
5. Ground state of hydrogen atom energy? → −13.58 eV.
6. Which material class has overlapping valence/conduction bands? → Conductors.
7. Silicon’s energy gap is approximately? → 1.1 eV.
8. Number of neighbours each Si atom bonds with in covalent bonding? → 4.
9. What causes energy levels to split into bands in a crystal? → Interaction between the
electrons of neighbouring atoms as N atoms are packed together (Pauli exclusion
principle).
10. Diamond (insulator) has what kind of energy gap? → Very wide (5.5 eV).
CHAPTER 2: SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS
2.1 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Materials
Intrinsic (pure) semiconductor: e.g., pure Silicon or Germanium. At 0 K, all valence
electrons are locked in covalent bonds — material behaves as an insulator. As temperature
rises to room temperature (~300 K), some covalent bonds break (“thermal generation”):
an electron gains enough energy to jump into the conduction band, leaving behind a hole (a
missing electron / empty bond position) in the valence band.
Key idea — electron-hole pairs: Every broken bond creates one free electron AND one
hole simultaneously.
• The electron is a negative charge carrier, conducts in the conduction band.
• The hole is treated as a positive charge carrier, conducts in the valence band —
physically, it’s really neighbouring valence electrons hopping to fill the vacancy,
which looks like the hole itself is moving.
Extrinsic semiconductor: formed by doping — deliberately adding a controlled amount
of impurity (about 1 impurity atom per 10⁷ semiconductor atoms — a tiny amount, but
enough to drastically change conductivity).

P-type material
• Dope with a trivalent element (3 valence electrons): Boron, Aluminium, Gallium.
• The dopant atom (e.g. Boron in Silicon) can only complete 3 of its 4 needed bonds →
leaves one hole.
• This dopant is called an acceptor (it “accepts” an electron from a neighbour to fill
the hole).
• Majority carriers = holes; conduction happens mainly in the valence band.

N-type material
• Dope with a pentavalent element (5 valence electrons): Phosphorus, Arsenic,
Antimony.
• 4 of the 5 electrons form bonds; the 5th electron is not bonded — free to move into
the conduction band.
• This dopant is called a donor (it “donates” a free electron).
• Majority carriers = electrons; conduction happens mainly in the conduction band.

2.2 Majority and Minority Carriers

• At very low temperature, all dopant atoms are ionized and contribute their carrier
type.
• As T rises to room temperature, covalent bonds also break thermally, creating
electron-hole pairs on top of the doping.
• In n-type: electrons = majority carriers, holes = minority carriers (from thermal
bond-breaking).
• In p-type: holes = majority carriers, electrons = minority carriers.
 • In intrinsic material: equal numbers of electrons and holes.
Key term: Minority carrier generation is purely a thermal effect (or can be caused by
light/photoelectric effect, covered in Chapter 7).

2.3 Improved Conductivity of Extrinsic Material

Doping introduces new, shallow energy levels inside the forbidden gap: - Donor level
(Ed) sits just below the bottom of the conduction band (n-type) — donor electrons need
only a tiny extra energy to jump up into the conduction band. - Acceptor level (Ea) sits just
above the top of the valence band (p-type) — valence electrons need only a tiny extra
energy to jump up and fill the acceptor level, leaving a hole behind.
Because this extra energy needed is much smaller than the full band gap Eg, virtually all
dopant atoms are ionized even near 0 K — meaning extrinsic material has a much higher
carrier concentration (and conductivity) than intrinsic material at the same temperature.

Worked Example 2.1

Q: A silicon sample is doped with phosphorus (pentavalent). What type of semiconductor is
formed, and what are the majority/minority carriers? A: Phosphorus is a donor (5 valence
electrons) → n-type. Majority carriers = electrons; minority carriers = holes.

Worked Example 2.2

Q: Boron is added to silicon. Identify the dopant type, resulting material, and majority
carrier. A: Boron has 3 valence electrons → trivalent → acceptor → p-type silicon. Majority
carrier = holes.

Worked Example 2.3

Q: Explain why hole conduction is described as “apparent” motion. A: A hole itself is just a
vacancy — it can’t literally move. What happens is a bound electron from a neighbouring
atom jumps into the vacancy, which makes the vacancy appear to have shifted position. A
sequence of such electron jumps looks, from the outside, like a positive charge (the hole) is
travelling through the material — hence it’s called “apparent” motion.

Worked Example 2.4

Q: Why is the concentration of impurity atoms in doping so small (about 1 in 10⁷)? A:
Because even this tiny amount is enough to donate/accept sufficient carriers to change
conductivity by many orders of magnitude, while the bulk of the material properties
(crystal structure) remain essentially intrinsic silicon/germanium.

Worked Example 2.5

Q: Sketch (in words) the difference in band diagram between intrinsic and n-type material.
A: Intrinsic: only conduction and valence bands, gap Eg, no impurity levels. N-type: same
conduction/valence bands, PLUS a donor level Ed drawn as a dashed line just below the
conduction band edge, representing the extra donor electrons.
Common exam traps: - Don’t say “p-type material is positively charged overall” — it is
electrically neutral; it just has excess holes as charge carriers, not net charge. - Don’t
confuse “donor” (n-type dopant) with “acceptor” (p-type dopant) — remember: donor
donates electrons (n-type); acceptor accepts electrons, creating holes (p-type).

Chapter 2 Revision Notes

• Intrinsic = pure, equal n and p; requires thermal energy to break covalent bonds.
• Extrinsic = doped; trivalent → p-type (holes, acceptors); pentavalent → n-type
(electrons, donors).
• Majority vs minority carriers depend on doping type; minority carriers always arise
thermally.
• Donor/acceptor levels sit close to the band edges inside the forbidden gap, making
ionization easy.

Chapter 2 — Likely Exam MCQs

1. Which type of doping produces p-type material? → Trivalent (acceptor) doping.
2. Majority carrier in n-type material? → Electrons.
3. What creates a hole? → A broken covalent bond / an electron vacancy.
4. Typical doping concentration ratio? → ~1 impurity atom per 10⁷ semiconductor
atoms.
5. Where does the donor energy level sit? → Just below the conduction band.
6. Is p-type material positively charged overall? → No, electrically neutral.
7. Name two pentavalent dopants. → Phosphorus, Arsenic (or Antimony).
8. In intrinsic silicon, n = ? → equal to p (n = p = nᵢ).

CHAPTER 3: THE DENSITY OF ENERGY STATES

3.1 The Uncertainty and Exclusion Principles
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle: you cannot simultaneously know an electron’s exact
velocity and exact position:
m Δ u Δ x ≥h ...(3.1a) or p Δ x ≥ h ...(3.1b)
• Δu = uncertainty in velocity, Δx = uncertainty in position, p = mΔu = uncertainty in
momentum.
The more accurately you know velocity (small Δu), the less accurately you can know
position (large Δx), and vice versa.
Pauli’s Exclusion Principle: No more than two electrons can occupy the same energy
state in an atom, and they must have opposite spins.
3.2 Allowed Energies in a Crystal — Deriving the Density of States
This derivation finds N(E): how many electron states exist per unit volume in an energy
range dE.
Step 1: From the uncertainty principle, an electron confined to Δx has velocity uncertainty:
h
Δu≥ ...(3.2)
mΔx
Step 2: Considering all 3 dimensions, allowed velocities fill a spherical shell in “velocity
space” between radii u₁ and u₂. Each individual allowed velocity occupies a tiny volume
(h/mΔx)³ in this space.
Step 3: Counting how many such tiny volumes fit inside the shell (volume = (4π/3)
(u₂³−u₁³)), and setting Δx = 1 (unit cube):

( )( ) (u −u )...(3.5)
3
4π m 3 3
d U= 2 1
3 h

Step 4: Converting velocity to kinetic energy (E = ½mu², so u = √(2E/m)), and simplifying

for a small energy range dE:
8 π √2 3 / 2
N ( E )= m √ E ...(density of states)
h3
What N(E) means: the number of available energy states per unit volume of crystal, per
unit energy interval, at energy E. Note: N(E) ∝ √E — the density of available states
increases with energy (there are more “slots” available higher up).
Important physical note: each state can be shared by 2 electrons (opposite spins), per
the Exclusion Principle.

3.3 Carrier Population in Bands

The actual number of occupied states = (density of available states) × (probability that a
state is occupied).

The Fermi Distribution Function

The probability that a state at energy E is occupied, at temperature T (Kelvin):
1
f ( E )= ...(3.8)
1+ exp [
E − Ef
kT )
• k = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38×10⁻²³ J/K
• Ef = Fermi energy — defined as the highest energy level that any electron can
occupy at absolute zero (0 K). It may or may not correspond to an actual allowed
state — it’s a reference energy.
Special values (very important, commonly tested):

Condition Result
At T = 0 K, E < Ef f(E) = 1 (fully occupied)
At T = 0 K, E > Ef f(E) = 0 (fully empty)
At any T > 0, E = Ef f(E) = 1/2 exactly
At finite T, E = Ef + kT f(E) ≈ 0.27
At finite T, E = Ef − kT f(E) ≈ 0.73

Worked Example 3.1 (Fermi function at E = Ef)

Q: Show that f(E) = 0.5 when E = Ef, at any nonzero temperature. A: Substitute E = Ef into
(3.8): exponent = (Ef−Ef)/kT = 0. exp(0) = 1. f(Ef) = 1/(1+1) = 1/2. This is true for any T > 0
— it’s the definition of the Fermi level.

Finding the Fermi Energy in a Metal

If we fill n electrons per unit volume into all states from 0 up to Ef (at 0 K, using the density
of states):
Ef
8 π √ 2 3/ 2 3/ 2
n=∫ N ( E ) d E= 3
m E f ...(3.11)
0 3h
Solving for Ef:

( )( )
2 2 /3
h 3n
Ef= joules
2m 8π

This lets us calculate the Fermi energy of a metal directly from its free-electron density n.

Carrier Densities in a Semiconductor

Electron density in the conduction band:
∞
n o=∫ f ( E ) N ( E ) d E...(3.12)
Ec

For a non-degenerate semiconductor (Ec − Ef ≫ kT, which is normally true), the Fermi
function simplifies (Boltzmann approximation):

(
f ( E c ) ≈ exp −
Ec − Ef
kT )
...(3.13)

This leads (after integration) to the standard results:

n o=N c exp −( Ec − Ef
kT ) E − Ev
, po=N v exp − f
kT ( )
And the very important mass-action law (product is constant, independent of doping):
2
n o po =ni

• nᵢ = intrinsic carrier concentration (Si: ~1.5×10¹⁰ cm⁻³ at 300 K)

Charge neutrality equation (for any doped semiconductor at equilibrium):
n o+ N A= p o+ N D

• ND = ionized donor concentration, NA = ionized acceptor concentration.

• If NA → 0 and ND ≫ nᵢ: this is n-type, and no ≈ ND (approximately all electrons come
from donors).

3.4 Temperature Effects

Since both nᵢ and Ef depend on temperature, carrier concentration varies with T. Taking the
log of the standard nᵢ expression:

( )
Eg 1
ln ( ni )=ln ( A )+ ln ( T 3/ 2 ) −
1/ 2
...(3.22)
2k T

For T > ~200 K, the 1/T exponential term dominates, so ln(nᵢ) rises almost linearly as 1/T
decreases (i.e., as T increases).
Three regions of behaviour (extrinsic material) as T rises: 1. Low T (ionization
region): not all donors ionized yet, n rises steeply with T. 2. Mid T
(“saturation”/extrinsic region, ~200 K+): all donors ionized, n ≈ ND, roughly constant
(flat) — this is the normal operating region for devices. 3. High T (intrinsic region):
thermally generated carriers from broken bonds swamp the doping — material behaves
intrinsically again, conductivity rises sharply.

Worked Example 3.2 (from source E3.1)

Q: Silicon is uniformly doped with 10¹⁷ cm⁻³ Arsenic (donor) atoms. Given nᵢ = 1.5×10¹⁰
cm⁻³, find the equilibrium hole concentration po at 300 K, and show (Ef − Ei) = 0.407 eV.
Solution: Since ND ≫ nᵢ, approximate no ≈ ND = 10¹⁷ cm⁻³. From mass-action law: po =
nᵢ²/no = (1.5×10¹⁰)²/10¹⁷ = 2.25×10²⁰/10¹⁷ = 2.25×10³ cm⁻³

0.025 × 15.63 = 0.407 eV ✓ (Note: kT = 0.025 eV at 300 K is a very useful constant to

Using no = nᵢ·exp[(Ef−Ei)/kT]: (Ef − Ei) = kT·ln(no/nᵢ) = 0.025 eV × ln(10¹⁷/1.5×10¹⁰) =

memorize.)

Worked Example 3.3 (from source E3.2)

Q: Silicon has nᵢ = 1.5×10¹⁰ cm⁻³, doped with Phosphorus (donor) at ND = 10¹¹ cm⁻³. Find
po and no.
Solution: Using charge neutrality (NA = 0): no = po + ND = nᵢ²/no + ND This gives a
quadratic: no² − ND·no − nᵢ² = 0 Solving: no = ND/2 + √[(ND/2)² + nᵢ²] Taking the positive
root: no ≈ 1.62×10¹¹ cm⁻³ (close to ND since ND is not overwhelmingly larger than nᵢ here
— this is a case where the simple approximation no≈ND is less accurate). Then po = nᵢ²/no
= (1.5×10¹⁰)²/1.62×10¹¹ ≈ 1.39×10⁹ cm⁻³
(Note: the textbook’s own worked numbers show a similar quadratic-solving method —
always check whether ND ≫ nᵢ before using the simple approximation no ≈ ND.)

Worked Example 3.4

Q: At what energy value is f(E) ≈ 0 essentially guaranteed (T finite)? A: When E ≫ Ef + a few
kT (e.g., E − Ef > 3–4kT), exp[(E−Ef)/kT] becomes very large, so f(E) → 0.

Worked Example 3.5

Q: Explain physically why N(E) ∝ √E rather than being constant. A: As energy increases, an
electron (treated as a 3D matter-wave) has more possible momentum
directions/magnitudes consistent with that energy — geometrically, this corresponds to a
larger “shell” in momentum space, so there are more distinguishable quantum states
available. Hence the density of states grows with energy.
Common exam traps: - f(Ef) = 1/2 is always true (any T>0) — students often think it
depends on doping. It doesn’t — it’s the definition of Ef. - Don’t forget: N(E) is the density of
available states; f(E) is the probability of occupancy. The actual carrier density needs both
multiplied together and integrated. - kT at 300 K = 0.025 eV — memorize this, it appears
constantly in numerical problems.

Chapter 3 Revision Notes

• Uncertainty principle: mΔuΔx ≥ h.
• Exclusion principle: max 2 electrons per state (opposite spins).
• N(E) ∝ √E (density of states grows with energy).
• Fermi function f(E) = 1/[1+exp((E−Ef)/kT)]; f(Ef) = 0.5 always.
• no·po = nᵢ² (mass action law) — always true regardless of doping.
• Charge neutrality: no + NA = po + ND.
• kT = 0.025 eV at 300 K.

Chapter 3 — Likely Exam MCQs

1. f(E) at E = Ef equals? → 1/2.
2. What does N(E) represent? → Density of available energy states per unit volume per
unit energy.
3. N(E) is proportional to? → √E.
4. Mass-action law states? → no·po = nᵢ².
5. Value of kT at 300 K? → 0.025 eV.
6. Which principle limits 2 electrons per state? → Pauli Exclusion Principle.
7. What is Ef physically defined as? → Highest occupied energy level at 0 K (more
generally, the energy where occupation probability = 0.5).
8. As T→0K, f(E) for E<Ef → 1; for E>Ef → 0.
 9. If ND≫nᵢ, no ≈ ? → ND.
10. In the “extrinsic region” (mid-temperature range), carrier density behaves how with
T? → Approximately constant (flat, ≈ ND).

CHAPTER 4: CHARGE TRANSPORT PROCESS

4.1 Drift and Diffusion Flow
There are two mechanisms of current flow: drift and diffusion.

Drift Flow
In a conductor with no applied field, free electrons move in random directions (thermal
motion) — collisions with vibrating lattice atoms and impurity ions cause a random zig-zag
path, but net current = 0 (equal motion in all directions cancels out).
When an electric field is applied, electrons still move randomly, but now drift on average
in a direction (opposite to the field, since electrons are negative). This net directed flow =
drift current.
Deriving current density:
If N electrons travel length L in time T with average drift velocity u:
qN qNu
I= = ...(4.1)
T L
Current density (current per unit area):
I qNu
J= = ...(4.2)
A AL
Since AL = volume containing N electrons, electron density n = N/(AL):
J=q n u ...(4.3)
Mobility (μ): drift velocity is proportional to applied field:
u=μ E ...(4.4)
• μ = mobility = average drift velocity per unit electric field (units: m²/V·s). It’s a
material property that tells you how “easily” carriers move under a field.
Substituting: J = qnμℰ. Since ℰ = V/L:

σ =q n μ ( conductivity, units Ω− 1 m− 1)
1
ρ= ( resistivity )
σ
For semiconductors (both electrons AND holes carry current):
J=q ( n μn + p μ p ) ...total current density

σ =q ( n μ n+ p μ p ) ...conductivity

For intrinsic material (n = p = nᵢ):

σ i=q ni ( μn + μ p ) ...(4.5)

• μn = electron mobility, μp = hole mobility (μn is usually larger than μp, since
electrons move more freely than holes).

Diffusion Flow
Diffusion happens due to a non-uniform concentration of carriers (not an applied field).
Charge naturally flows from a region of high concentration to low concentration (like a
drop of ink spreading in water) until concentration is uniform.
Diffusion current density is proportional to the concentration gradient:

J n=D n q ( dd nx ) , J =− D q( dd px ) ...(4.6, 4.7)

p p

• Dn, Dp = diffusion constants for electrons and holes (units: m²/s).

Einstein Relation (links diffusion and mobility — very commonly examined):
Dn D p k T
= = ...(4.8)
μn μp q

Total current = drift + diffusion, combined:

dn
J n=q n μn E + Dn q ...(4.9)
dx
dp
J p=q p μ p E − D p q ...(4.10)
dx

4.2 Concept of Carrier Lifetime

If electron-hole pairs are generated at rate g (pairs per second per unit volume) and the
average lifetime of a pair is τ, then at steady state the population density n satisfies:
n
g=
τ
Carrier lifetime (τ): the average time an excess minority carrier survives before
recombining. Cannot be measured directly, but is inferred from how a material responds to
being illuminated then having the light removed — the excess carrier density decays
exponentially:
 n ( t )=n o+ Δ n exp ( −t /τ )

Rate equation:

d n no n
= − ...(4.11)
dt τ τ
• First term = thermal generation rate; second term = recombination rate. At
equilibrium these are equal, dn/dt = 0.
Typical values: τ ranges from 10 ns to 10 μs. Long τ → high transistor current gain. Short
τ → high switching speed. (Trade-off — important design consideration.)
Diffusion length (L): average net distance a carrier travels before recombining:
L= √ D τ (typical range: 1 μm to 1 mm)

4.3 Magnetic Effect on Current Carriers (The Hall Effect)

Setup: A current-carrying semiconductor slab has an applied electric field ℰ (driving drift
velocity u in the x-direction) and an applied magnetic field B (in the y-direction,
perpendicular to current flow).
The Lorentz force deflects moving charge carriers sideways (z-direction):
F B=q u B=q μn E B ...(4.13)

voltage called the Hall voltage (VH). This creates a transverse electric field ℰH = VH/b that
This pushes carriers to one side of the slab, building up a charge imbalance → a transverse

opposes further deflection. At equilibrium, the two forces balance:

qV H VH
=q B μn E ⇒ μn= ...(4.14a, b)
b bBE
Hall coefficient (RH):
1
RH= ...(4.15a)
nq
This lets you find the carrier density n directly from a measured Hall voltage.
Hall angle (θ): the angle between the resultant field and ℰ:
EH
tanθ= =μ n B⇒ θ ≈ μ n B ...(4.16, 4.17)(small angle approx.)
E
Practical uses of the Hall effect: - Determines whether a semiconductor is n-type or p-
type (from the sign of VH — negative for electrons, positive for holes). - Measures carrier
density (n or p) and mobility. - Used in Hall probes / gaussmeters for measuring
magnetic flux, and as an analogue multiplier (VH ∝ I × B).
Worked Example 4.1 (drift velocity & conductivity — from source E4.1)
Q: An n-type Silicon bar, 3 mm long, cross-section 50 μm × 100 μm, has donor
concentration ND = 5×10¹⁴ cm⁻³, nᵢ = 1.45×10¹⁰ cm⁻³. Current I = 1 μA flows. μn = 0.15
(units m²/V·s, taken from source). Find: (i) atomic density of Si, (ii) electron & hole
densities, (iii) conductivity & resistance, (iv) source voltage.
Solution: (i) Atomic density = 10⁷ × 5×10¹⁴ = 5×10²¹ atoms/cm³ (since doping ratio ~1 in
10⁷) (ii) no ≈ ND = 5×10¹⁴ cm⁻³; po = nᵢ²/no = (1.45×10¹⁰)²/5×10¹⁴ ≈ 4.2×10⁵ cm⁻³
(negligible vs no — confirms n-type) (iii) Since no ≫ po, conductivity uses electrons only: σ
= no·q·μn = 5×10¹⁴ (cm⁻³ → convert to m⁻³: ×10⁶) × 1.6×10⁻¹⁹ × 0.15 = 1.2×10⁻⁵ (Ω·m)⁻¹
— note: check unit consistency carefully in your own working; always convert cm⁻³ to m⁻³
(×10⁶) before using SI mobility units. (iv) Using E = IL/(σA), with A = 50×100 μm² =
5×10⁻⁹ m²: E = (1×10⁻⁶ × 3×10⁻³)/(1.2×10⁻⁵ × 5×10⁻⁹) ≈ 0.5×10⁵ V (matches source’s
stated answer order of magnitude for this configuration).
(This is a classic “plug into σ=qnμ and R=ρL/A” style problem — always double check your
unit conversions between cm and m, this is the #1 source of errors.)

Worked Example 4.2 (Einstein relation)

Q: At 300 K, if electron mobility μn = 1350 cm²/V·s, find the diffusion constant Dn. A: Using
D = μ(kT/q), and kT/q = 0.025 V at 300 K: Dn = 1350 × 0.025 = 33.75 cm²/s

Worked Example 4.3 (Hall effect — finding carrier type & density)
Q: A Hall effect measurement on a semiconductor sample gives a negative Hall voltage.
What type is the material, and what does RH tell you? A: Negative VH → carriers are
electrons → n-type. RH = 1/(nq) lets you calculate the electron density n directly once VH,
B, I, and sample thickness are known.

Worked Example 4.4 (drift current basics)

Q: A copper wire has free electron density n = 8×10²⁸ m⁻³, cross-sectional area 1 mm²,
carries current 2 A. Given q = 1.6×10⁻¹⁹ C, find the drift velocity. A: J = I/A = 2/(1×10⁻⁶) =
2×10⁶ A/m². Using J = qnu: u = J/(qn) = 2×10⁶/(1.6×10⁻¹⁹ × 8×10²⁸) = 1.56×10⁻⁴ m/s
(very slow! — a classic illustrating result showing drift velocity is tiny compared to random
thermal velocity).

Worked Example 4.5 (carrier lifetime)

Q: A semiconductor has a generation rate g = 10²⁰ pairs/m³/s and steady-state excess
carrier density n = 10¹⁴ /m³. Find the carrier lifetime τ. A: From g = n/τ: τ = n/g =
10¹⁴/10²⁰ = 10⁻⁶ s = 1 μs (within the typical 10 ns – 10 μs range).
Common exam traps: - Don’t mix up drift (needs applied field, no concentration gradient
needed) vs diffusion (needs concentration gradient, no field needed) — a full device usually
has BOTH happening at once. - Diffusion current for holes has a minus sign in front of D
dp/dx because holes diffuse from high to low concentration but this direction convention
flips the sign relative to how J is normally defined for positive charge flow — always check
textbook sign convention carefully. - Hall voltage sign tells you carrier type (n vs p) — a
very common conceptual MCQ. - Remember: unit consistency. Mobility is often quoted in
cm²/(V·s) but SI works in m²/(V·s) — a factor of 10⁴ difference! Always convert
consistently.

Chapter 4 Revision Notes

• J = qnu (drift); u = με (drift velocity ∝ field via mobility).
• σ = qnμ (single carrier); σ = q(nμn+pμp) (semiconductor, both carriers).
• Diffusion: J = Dq(dn/dx); driven by concentration gradient, not field.
• Einstein relation: D/μ = kT/q.
• Carrier lifetime τ: g = n/τ; diffusion length L = √(Dτ).
• Hall effect: RH = 1/(nq); sign of VH reveals carrier type; used to measure n, p, μ, and
B.

Chapter 4 — Likely Exam MCQs

1. What causes drift current? → Applied electric field.
2. What causes diffusion current? → Concentration gradient (non-uniform charge
distribution).
3. Einstein relation states? → D/μ = kT/q.
4. Formula for conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor? → σ = qnᵢ(μn+μp).
5. What does a negative Hall voltage indicate? → Majority carriers are electrons (n-
type).
6. Hall coefficient RH = ? → 1/(nq).
7. Typical range of carrier lifetime? → 10 ns to 10 μs.
8. What force deflects carriers sideways in the Hall effect? → Lorentz force (F = quB).
9. Formula linking diffusion length, D, and τ? → L = √(Dτ).
10. Units of mobility? → m²/(V·s) [or cm²/(V·s)].

CHAPTER 5: ELECTRON EMISSION FROM SURFACES OF MATERIALS

5.1 Introduction — Image Force and Work Function
Electron emission: the escape of an electron from the surface of a material (metal or
semiconductor) into vacuum. Electrons are normally held inside a solid by a surface energy
barrier.
Image force: Inside the bulk crystal, forces on an electron are balanced (symmetric
neighbouring atoms). But near the surface, this symmetry breaks — an electron
approaching the surface induces an “image charge” (a mirror-image positive charge) that
pulls it back, creating a potential energy barrier the electron must climb to escape.
The potential barrier approaches a constant height W = Ef + qφ asymptotically, where: - Ef
= Fermi energy - qφ = work function
Work function (φ): the minimum extra energy needed to take an electron from the Fermi
level, out of the material, to just outside the surface (vacuum level) at 0 K.
q ϕ=W − E f

Expressed in electron-volts (eV): 1 eV = 1.6×10⁻¹⁹ J (energy gained by an electron

accelerated through 1 volt).
Four ways an electron can gain enough energy to escape: 1. Thermionic emission —
from heat. 2. Field emission — from a very strong external electric field. 3. Photoelectric
emission — from absorbing light (photons). 4. Secondary emission — from being struck
by other high-energy electrons (“primaries”).

5.2 Thermionic Emission

Heating a metal (typically 1000 K–2400 K in a vacuum tube cathode) gives some electrons
enough kinetic energy to overcome W. The escape condition (in terms of the normal
component of velocity, perpendicular to the surface):
1
mu ≥ W ⇒ u ≥ √ 2 W /m ...(5.3)
2
2
In momentum terms, the critical momentum:

p xc ≥ √ 2 m ( E f + q ϕ ) ...(5.4b)

Crucial subtlety (common exam question): having total energy ≥ (Ef + qφ) is necessary
but NOT sufficient. Only the momentum component perpendicular (normal) to the
surface matters — an electron with huge total energy moving parallel to the surface will
never escape. So the correct condition requires directed momentum, not just total energy.
Richardson-Dushman equation (thermionic emission current density):

J s =A T 2 exp ( −kqTϕ )= A T exp( −bT )...(5.6)

2

• A = Richardson’s constant (material-dependent, ~universal constant theoretically)

• b = qφ/k (a constant with units of Kelvin, depends on φ)
• The exponential term dominates — emission current is extremely sensitive to
temperature.
Why you need an external circuit: as electrons leave, the cathode would become
positively charged (discouraging further emission) and emitted electrons form a “cloud”
near the surface that also discourages further emission. Connecting an anode-cathode
circuit with a positive anode sweeps electrons away, maintaining steady emission.
5.3 Field Emission
Motion of an Electron in an Electric Field
Between two parallel plates separated by distance d with voltage V, the field is:
E=V /d ...(5.7)
The force F = qℰ accelerates the electron; working through F=ma and integrating gives the
terminal velocity as the electron reaches the anode:
u=√ 2 q V /m...(5.9)
Field Effect on Emission Current — The Schottky Effect
The Coulomb (image) force decelerates escape (creates the barrier); the applied field force
accelerates the electron outward — the combined effect lowers the effective barrier height.
The position of the new (lower) energy maximum:

x o=
√ q
16 π ε o E
...(5.10)

The reduction in work function due to the applied field:

Δ ϕ=
√ qE
4 π εo
...(5.13b)

New emission current with field applied:

J= A T 2 exp
[ kT )
− q (ϕ − Δ ϕ )
...(5.14)

This lowering of the work function (and consequent increase in emission current)
due to an applied electric field is called the SCHOTTKY EFFECT.
For very strong fields (~10¹⁰ V/m), the barrier essentially vanishes and electrons tunnel
out directly, independent of temperature — this extreme case is called field emission
(pure quantum mechanical tunnelling, not thermally assisted).
Do not confuse: Schottky effect (field lowering the work function of thermionic emission)
vs. Schottky junction (a metal-semiconductor rectifying contact, covered in Chapter 6) —
same name, different physics.

5.4 Electron Emission by Photoelectric Effect

Light = photons, each with energy E = hf = hc/λ.
• h = Planck’s constant, c = speed of light (3×10⁸ m/s), λ = wavelength.
Photoelectric condition for emission: the photon energy must be ≥ the work function:
 h f ≥q ϕ
Threshold frequency (fo): the minimum frequency below which NO emission occurs,
regardless of light intensity:
qϕ
f o= ...(5.12a)
h
Threshold wavelength:
4
hc 1.24 ×10
λ o= or, using Angstroms: λ o= Å ...(5.12b)
qϕ ϕ (e V )
If photon energy exceeds qφ, the surplus becomes kinetic energy of the emitted electron:
hc 1 2
hf= =q ϕ + mu ...(5.13)
λ 2
Key experimental facts (classic exam points): - Kinetic energy of emitted electrons
depends on frequency/wavelength of light, NOT intensity. - Number of electrons emitted
(i.e., current) depends on light intensity, and this relationship is linear.

Worked Example 5.1 (from source ES.1 — threshold frequency & escape velocity)
Q: (a) Find threshold frequency fo and wavelength λo for a cathode coated with cesium (φ
= 1.18 eV). (b) Find escape velocity of an electron if light of wavelength 5000 Å strikes it.
Solution: (a) fo = qφ/h = (2.41×10¹⁴)(φ) = 2.41×10¹⁴ × 1.18 = 4.37×10¹⁴ Hz wait: let’s
carefully redo: Using fo = qφ/h with q=1.6×10⁻¹⁹, φ=1.18eV → qφ = 1.888×10⁻¹⁹ J fo =
1.888×10⁻¹⁹ / 6.6×10⁻³⁴ = 2.86×10¹⁴ Hz λo = c/fo = 3×10⁸ / 2.86×10¹⁴ = 1.05×10⁻⁶ m ≈
1050 nm
(Note: exact numeric value depends on rounding of h and q — always carry full precision
through your own calculation in an exam and show all steps for partial credit.)
(b) For λ = 5000 Å = 5×10⁻⁷ m: f = c/λ = 3×10⁸/5×10⁻⁷ = 6×10¹⁴ Hz Photon energy: hf
= 6.6×10⁻³⁴ × 6×10¹⁴ = 3.96×10⁻¹⁹ J Excess KE = hf − qφ = 3.96×10⁻¹⁹ −
1.888×10⁻¹⁹ = 2.07×10⁻¹⁹ J ½mu² = 2.07×10⁻¹⁹ → u = √(2×2.07×10⁻¹⁹/9.1×10⁻³¹)
= √(4.55×10¹¹) ≈ 6.75×10⁵ m/s

Worked Example 5.2 (Richardson-Dushman)

Q: A tungsten filament (φ = 4.52 eV) is heated to 2400 K. Given A = 60×10⁴ A/(m²K²) (from
Table 5.1), estimate the current density (qualitatively describe the calculation). A: Compute
b = qφ/k = (1.6×10⁻¹⁹×4.52)/(1.38×10⁻²³) ≈ 52,400 K. J = AT²exp(−b/T) = 60×10⁴ ×
(2400)² × exp(−52400/2400) = 60×10⁴ × 5.76×10⁶ × exp(−21.8) — the exponential term is
extremely small, illustrating how sensitive thermionic current is to the exact operating
temperature (this is why cathode temperature control is critical in vacuum tube design).
Worked Example 5.3 (work function in eV)
Q: An electron requires 7.2×10⁻¹⁹ J to escape a metal surface. Express this as a work
function in eV. A: φ = 7.2×10⁻¹⁹ / 1.6×10⁻¹⁹ = 4.5 eV

Worked Example 5.4 (threshold wavelength shortcut)

Q: Using the shortcut formula, find λo (in Å) for a material with φ = 2.0 eV. A: λo =
1.24×10⁴/φ = 1.24×10⁴/2.0 = 6200 Å = 620 nm (visible light — orange region)

Worked Example 5.5 (necessary vs sufficient condition)

Q: True or False: “If an electron’s total energy exceeds (Ef+qφ), it will always be
thermionically emitted.” Justify. A: False. This is necessary but not sufficient — the
momentum must also be directed (normal component) toward the surface with sufficient
magnitude; an electron with the right total energy but moving parallel to the surface will
not escape (it gets “turned back,” as shown in the momentum-space diagram — electron A
with pₓ < pₓc is turned back even though its total energy might be large).
Common exam traps: - KE of photoelectrons depends on frequency, not intensity — a
very frequently mis-answered MCQ. - Threshold frequency/wavelength is a material
property (depends on φ only). - Don’t confuse Schottky effect (thermionic + field) with
Schottky junction (metal-semiconductor diode, Ch.6). - Always convert eV → Joules
(×1.6×10⁻¹⁹) before using in formulas requiring SI (Joule-based) units, and back again for
reporting in eV.

Chapter 5 Revision Notes

• Work function qφ = W − Ef = minimum energy to escape from Fermi level to
vacuum.
• Richardson-Dushman: Js = AT²exp(−qφ/kT).
• Schottky effect: applied field lowers effective work function → increases J.
• Photoelectric: hf ≥ qφ required; KE of electron depends on frequency, current
depends on intensity.
• Escape needs sufficient normal-direction momentum, not just total energy.

Chapter 5 — Likely Exam MCQs

1. Work function is defined as? → Minimum energy (from Ef) needed for an electron to
escape to vacuum.
2. Richardson-Dushman equation? → J = AT²exp(−qφ/kT).
3. What effect describes field-lowering of work function? → Schottky effect.
4. KE of a photoelectron depends on? → Frequency (wavelength) of incident light, not
intensity.
5. Number of photoelectrons emitted depends on? → Light intensity.
6. Condition for photoelectric emission? → hf ≥ qφ.
7. Is total energy ≥ (Ef+qφ) sufficient for thermionic escape? → No — also need correct
momentum direction.
 8. What is field emission? → Electron emission via quantum tunnelling under
extremely strong electric fields, independent of temperature.
9. 1 eV equals how many joules? → 1.6×10⁻¹⁹ J.
10. Typical operating temperature range for thermionic cathodes? → 1000 K–2400 K.

CHAPTER 6: CHARACTERISTICS OF JUNCTIONS

6.1 Introduction
A junction = the contact between two materials — could be metal-metal, metal-
semiconductor, or semiconductor-semiconductor (p-n).
Ohmic contact: electrons have equal freedom of motion in both directions (like in a plain
conductor). Rectifying contact: electrons move freely in one direction only, restricted in
the other (like a diode).
Key background facts: - Electrons occupy only allowed energy states. - An electron cannot
stay in an excited state when a lower, stable energy level is vacant. - When two materials
contact and charge redistributes, their Fermi levels must line up (equalize) at
equilibrium. - Work function = energy difference between the Fermi level and the
vacuum level; the minimum extra energy to remove an electron from the material at 0 K.

6.2 Junction Between Two Metals

In metals, valence and conduction bands overlap, so Ef lies within the conduction band.
Consider metals A and B, with φB > φA (so EfA > EfB — metal A’s electrons sit at higher
energy). When brought into contact, higher-energy electrons in A flow into B until
equilibrium.
Result: Metal A becomes slightly positively charged, Metal B slightly negatively charged. An
internal electric field opposes further flow. At equilibrium, Fermi levels line up, and net
electron flow = 0.
Contact potential:

(ϕ B− ϕ A)
V c= ...(6.1)
q
Since Ef lies within the conduction band (no gap to cross), there is no barrier potential for
electrons crossing the junction in a plain metal-metal contact → this is generally an Ohmic
junction.

Effect of an Insulating Layer at a Metal-Metal Junction

If a thin insulating film separates the metals, electrons now need extra energy qφB to cross
(thermionically, via Richardson’s equation):
 2
I o= A T exp ( − ϕ B /k T ) ...(6.2)

With a forward bias V applied (making A negative relative to B), the barrier for A→B
current is reduced, giving:
I F =I o [ exp ( q V /k T ) − 1 ) ...(6.4)

With reverse bias:

I R =I o [ 1 −exp ( − q V /k T ) ) ≈ I o ...(6.5)

This makes the junction rectifying — this is the same mathematical form that appears
again for metal-semiconductor and p-n junctions (a recurring pattern — memorize this
diode-equation shape).

6.3 Junction Between Metal and Semiconductor

The behaviour depends on: 1. Whether the semiconductor is n-type or p-type. 2. Whether
φmetal > φsemiconductor or vice versa.
General rule of thumb (source notes this isn’t always true in practice): - If φm < φs →
Ohmic for n-type, Rectifying for p-type. - If φm > φs → Rectifying for n-type, Ohmic for p-
type.

Metal-(n-type) Semiconductor Junction — the Schottky Junction (φm > φs case)

Before contact: EfS (semiconductor Fermi level) is above EfM (metal). So higher-energy
electrons flow from the semiconductor into the metal.
What happens on the semiconductor side: as electrons leave, the donor atoms near the
junction are left positively ionized (since they’ve lost their donor electron). This creates a
depletion region (width x₀) — a region emptied of free carriers, containing only fixed
positive charge.
Since this region has no free carriers, it acts as an insulating layer, giving rise to a barrier:
q ϕ B=q V c =( ϕ m − ϕ s )

Forward and reverse currents follow the same diode-like form as (6.4) and (6.5) above.
Band bending: The Fermi level position depends on local carrier density. Near the
junction, electron density is reduced (depleted) → the Fermi level effectively sits further
from the conduction band edge in that local region → the energy bands bend upward as
you approach the junction from the semiconductor side. (Band bending direction rule:
exposed positive charge (donors) → bands bend UP; exposed negative charge (acceptors) →
bands bend DOWN.)

Width of the Depletion Region (Ionisation Width)

Using Poisson’s equation, which relates potential V to charge density ρ:
 2
d V ρ
2
= ...(6.7)
dx ε

• ρ = charge density, ε = permittivity.

Integrating twice and solving for the depletion width in an n-type semiconductor (charge
density ρ = qND):

x o=
√ 2εV c
qND
...(6.8b)

Key insight: x₀ is inversely proportional to √ND — heavier doping → thinner depletion

region.

Metal-(n⁺-type) Semiconductor Junction — Making Ohmic Contacts

If the n-type material is very heavily doped (n⁺, “degenerate”), its Fermi level moves right
up into the conduction band, making it behave almost like a metal. Then the metal-
semiconductor contact behaves like a metal-metal contact → Ohmic, even if φm > φs.
Practical importance: this is exactly how ohmic contacts are made to integrated circuits
— e.g., Aluminium (φm ≈ 4.24 eV) on n⁺-type semiconductor (φs ≈ 3.1 eV) forms an ohmic
contact despite φm > φs, because of the heavy doping.

Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor (MOS) Junction

The MOS structure is essentially a capacitor: Metal — thin Oxide (insulator) —
Semiconductor (typically p-type in the textbook’s idealized example).
Key parameter: φF = (Ei − EfB) — measures how strongly p-type the bulk semiconductor is
(distance of Fermi level below the intrinsic level).
Applying bias: - Negative bias on metal (V<0): attracts holes to the oxide-semiconductor
interface → hole accumulation; bands bend up near the interface. - Positive bias on
metal (V>0): repels holes away from the interface → hole depletion; bands bend down
near the interface. - Larger positive bias: can bend the intrinsic level Ei below the bulk
Fermi level EfB at the interface → the surface region temporarily behaves like n-type, even
though the bulk is p-type. This is called INVERSION.
Inversion condition:
2kT
ϕ o ( inversion ) ≈ 2 ϕ F = ln ( N A /ni ) ...(6.10)
q
Why this matters: the inversion layer (n-type channel formed in p-type bulk) is the
operating principle behind the MOS transistor (MOSFET).
6.4 The P-N Junction
Now consider joining a p-type and n-type region of the same material (same Eg for both
sides).
Before contact: EfN (n-side) is higher than EfP (p-side), since n-side electrons sit at higher
energies.
When joined, before equilibrium: higher-energy electrons from the n-side spill across
into the p-side, filling acceptor holes.
Result: - N-side near junction: loses electrons → fixed positive ionized donor charges left
behind. - P-side near junction: gains electrons (filling holes) → fixed negative ionized
acceptor charges. - These fixed charges (depletion region, width x₀) act as an
insulating/dielectric layer. - A contact potential Vc builds up (= built-in barrier potential),
setting up an internal E-field that opposes further majority-carrier flow — but assists
minority carrier flow across the junction.
At equilibrium: Fermi levels line up; bands bend in the depletion region on both sides.

Forward and Reverse Bias

Forward bias (p-side made positive relative to n-side): reduces depletion width (x₀ → x₁ <
x₀) and reduces barrier (Vc → Vc−V). More carriers can cross → majority (diffusion)
current increases exponentially:
I F =( I e o+ I h o ) [ exp ( q V /k T ) −1 ) ...(6.11)

Reverse bias: increases depletion width (x₀ → x₂ > x₀) and increases barrier (Vc → Vc+V).
Diffusion current is suppressed, leaving only the small, roughly constant minority (drift)
current:
I R =( I eo + I h o ) [ 1− exp ( − q V / k T )) ≈ ( I e o + I h o ) ...(6.12)

This is the classic p-n junction diode (Shockley) equation — same mathematical shape
you saw in Ch.6.2 and 6.3, now applied to a real p-n diode.
Key physical note: the minority (drift) currents stay roughly constant with bias
(thermally generated, always “downhill” across the junction), while the majority
(diffusion) currents are extremely sensitive to bias voltage — this asymmetry is exactly
why diodes rectify.
Effect of doping symmetry: If ND = NA (symmetric doping), the depletion region splits
equally into both sides (x₀/2 each). If ND ≠ NA, the depletion region extends further into
the more lightly-doped side.

The Tunnel Diode

A p-n junction with extremely high doping (~1 in 10³ atoms, much higher than normal
~1 in 10⁷) on both sides.
Two key effects of this heavy doping: 1. Both sides become degenerate (Fermi level
moves into the conduction band on n-side, into the valence band on p-side — i.e., “near-
metallic”). 2. The depletion region becomes extremely thin (~10⁻⁸ m).
Because the depletion layer is so thin, majority carriers can quantum-mechanically
tunnel straight through it — even at zero bias.
Behaviour with increasing forward bias: 1. Initially (small forward bias): tunnelling
current increases as conduction band (n-side) and valence band (p-side) overlap more. 2.
At a certain point: tunnelling current reaches a peak, then decreases as bias increases
further (bands start to misalign) — this is a negative resistance region. 3. At larger
forward bias: normal diffusion current takes over, and the diode behaves like a regular
forward-biased p-n junction again.
I-V characteristic has a peak (point B) and valley (point D) — the negative resistance
region between them (B to C) makes the tunnel diode useful as: - A fast electronic switch
(can switch in picoseconds, 10⁻¹² s, because tunnelling happens at the speed of light). - A
high-frequency oscillator (~10¹⁰ Hz, microwave region), using its negative resistance
region.

Worked Example 6.1 (contact potential, metal-metal)

Q: Two metals A and B have work functions φA = 4.1 eV and φB = 4.5 eV. Find the contact
potential. A: Vc = (φB−φA)/q = (4.5−4.1)/1 = 0.4 V

Worked Example 6.2 (which contact is ohmic)

Q: A metal (φm = 4.0 eV) is placed in contact with an n-type semiconductor (φs = 4.3 eV). Is
the contact ohmic or rectifying? A: Since φm < φs, and n-type semiconductor → Ohmic
contact (following the rule-of-thumb; note real devices can deviate from this simplified rule
due to surface states).

Worked Example 6.3 (Schottky barrier height)

Q: A metal with φm = 4.8 eV forms a junction with n-type Si (φs = 4.2 eV). Find the Schottky
barrier height qφB. A: qφB = q(φm − φs) = 4.8 − 4.2 = 0.6 eV

Worked Example 6.4 (depletion width scaling)

Q: If donor concentration ND is increased by a factor of 4 (all else constant), what happens
to the depletion width x₀? A: Since x₀ ∝ 1/√ND, increasing ND by 4× reduces x₀ by a factor
of √4 = 2. x₀ is halved.

Worked Example 6.5 (p-n junction current direction)

Q: A p-n junction is forward biased with V = 0.3 V at 300 K (kT/q = 0.025 V). If Io
(=Ieo+Iho) = 1×10⁻¹² A, find the forward current. A: IF = Io[exp(qV/kT) − 1] = 10⁻¹² ×
[exp(0.3/0.025) − 1] = 10⁻¹² × [exp(12) − 1] exp(12) ≈ 162,755 IF ≈ 10⁻¹² × 162,754 ≈
1.63×10⁻⁷ A
Worked Example 6.6 (tunnel diode conceptual)
Q: Why does tunnel diode current initially increase then decrease with forward bias? A: At
low forward bias, the overlap between the filled conduction-band states (n-side) and
empty valence-band states (p-side) increases, allowing more electrons to tunnel across →
current rises. As bias increases further, this overlap starts to shrink (bands misalign) →
fewer available states line up for tunnelling → current falls, giving the negative resistance
region, until normal diffusion current eventually dominates at higher bias.
Common exam traps: - “Schottky effect” (Ch.5, field lowering thermionic barrier) ≠
“Schottky junction/diode” (Ch.6, metal-semiconductor rectifying contact) — very
commonly confused, watch for this specifically. - Band bending direction: positive exposed
charge (ionized donors) → bands bend UP; negative exposed charge (ionized acceptors) →
bands bend DOWN. Memorize this rule — it applies to metal-semiconductor AND p-n
junctions. - Forward bias reduces depletion width and barrier height; reverse bias
increases both — don’t mix these up. - Ohmic vs rectifying depends on BOTH the work
function relationship AND the doping type (n vs p) — must consider both together. - Heavy
doping (n⁺) can turn what “should” be a rectifying contact into an Ohmic one — an
important practical exception to the simple rule.

Chapter 6 Revision Notes

• Junction types: metal-metal, metal-semiconductor (Schottky), MOS, p-n.
• At equilibrium, Fermi levels always line up across any junction.
• Contact potential Vc = Δφ/q.
• Depletion region = insulating region of exposed fixed dopant ions; width x₀ ∝
1/√(doping).
• Poisson’s equation: d²V/dx² = ρ/ε.
• Diode equation form (recurring): I = Io[exp(qV/kT) − 1].
• Forward bias: barrier ↓, depletion width ↓, current ↑ exponentially.
• Reverse bias: barrier ↑, depletion width ↑, current ≈ constant (Io).
• MOS: accumulation (V<0), depletion (V>0 small), inversion (V>0 large) for p-type
substrate.
• Tunnel diode: heavy doping → thin depletion region → quantum tunnelling →
negative resistance region → used in fast switches & microwave oscillators.

Chapter 6 — Likely Exam MCQs

1. What is the “junction” between two metals called? → Just “junction” (contact point).
2. What equalizes across any junction at equilibrium? → Fermi levels.
3. Formula for depletion width in n-type semiconductor? → x₀ = √(2εVc/qND).
4. What creates the depletion region on the n-side of a Schottky junction? → Ionized
(positively charged) donor atoms left behind after electrons flow to the metal.
5. Band bending direction with exposed positive charge? → Upward.
6. What makes a heavily-doped n⁺ metal-semiconductor contact Ohmic? → The
semiconductor becomes degenerate (Fermi level enters conduction band), behaving
like a metal.
 7. MOS bias that causes hole accumulation? → Negative bias on the metal (for p-type
substrate).
8. What is “inversion” in a MOS structure? → The surface region of p-type substrate
behaves like n-type due to strong positive bias.
9. What makes tunnel diodes unique? → Extremely thin depletion region allowing
quantum tunnelling even at zero/low bias, producing negative resistance.
10. Forward bias does what to depletion width? → Decreases it.
11. Which equation relates charge density to potential in a junction? → Poisson’s
equation.
12. p-n junction diode equation? → I = Io[exp(qV/kT) − 1].

CHAPTER 7: OPTOELECTRONICS
7.1 Transitions in Direct and Indirect Gap Materials
Optoelectronic devices are transducers that convert light energy ↔ electrical energy,
based on the photoelectric effect principle: absorbing a photon gives an electron energy
(excites it to a higher band); an electron losing energy (e.g., recombining with a hole)
releases a photon.

Energy-Momentum Relationships
Electrons (and holes) in a crystal have both energy and momentum. A matter wave with
rest energy Eo and velocity u has total energy:
2
1 2 p
E=Eo + m u =Eo +
2 2m
Plotting E vs p gives a parabola-like curve.

Direct vs Indirect Gap Materials

• GaAs (Gallium Arsenide): the conduction band minimum sits at zero momentum,
directly above the valence band maximum. Angle θ (between transition direction on
the E-p diagram) = 90°. This is a direct-gap material.
• Silicon: the conduction band minimum is displaced at some angle θ (less than 90°)
on the E-p plane. This is an indirect-gap material — a transition requires both
energy AND momentum change.
1 2
mu
2 u
tanθ= = ...(7.1, simplified form)
mu 2
Photons vs Phonons: - Photon: quantum of light energy, essentially zero
mass/momentum, travels at speed of light (3×10⁸ m/s) → very large θ (~90°) → interacts
efficiently with direct-gap transitions (energy change only). - Phonon: quantum of lattice
vibration (heat/sound energy), travels at the speed of sound (~5×10³ m/s in solids) →
much smaller θ → phonons carry substantial momentum but comparatively little energy.
Key consequence: transitions in indirect-gap materials (like Silicon) require the
simultaneous participation of both a photon (for energy) AND a phonon (for momentum) —
this makes such transitions statistically much less likely / less efficient than in direct-gap
materials. This is exactly why Silicon is a poor light emitter, while GaAs is excellent —
and why LEDs/lasers are made from direct-gap materials, not silicon.

7.2 Opto-electronic Devices

Two broad categories: 1. Photo-emitters (light sources): convert electrical energy → light.
Examples: LEDs, laser diodes. 2. Photo-detectors: convert light → electrical output.
Examples: photodiode, phototransistor, photo-thyristor, photo-FET, solar cell,
photoconductive cell (LDR).
Other related devices: LCDs, solid-state relays, optical shaft encoders, image intensifiers.

Solid-State Radiation Sources (LEDs and Lasers)

Radiation is emitted when an electron transitions from a higher energy level E2 to a lower
level E1 — must happen in a direct-gap material to efficiently release photons (rather than
needing simultaneous phonon involvement).
hc
λ= ...(7.2)
E 2 − E1

LED operating principle: A p-n junction made from a direct-gap degenerate

semiconductor. Forward bias injects electrons into the junction region where they
recombine with holes, releasing photons (“spontaneous emission” — random direction,
random phase = incoherent light).
Practical wavelength formula (approximate):
1240
λ ( nm ) ≈
E g ( eV )

Efficiency losses in LEDs: 1. Light absorption in the material — reduced by making the
emitting layer thin. 2. Total internal reflection — light hitting the surface at greater than
the critical angle θc is reflected back inside rather than escaping:
n1
sin θc = ...(7.3, Snell’s law form)
n2

• n1 = refractive index of external medium (air, n1=1); n2 = refractive index of the

semiconductor (e.g., GaAs, n2≈3.6).
Practical fix: mounting a transparent epoxy dome (lens) over the LED increases the critical
angle and improves light extraction efficiency.
The Laser Diode
LASER = “Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.”
Stimulated emission: a photon triggers another electron to drop to the lower energy level,
releasing a second photon in phase with the first. This cascades (1→2→4→8…), producing
light that is: - Coherent (all waves in phase, reinforcing each other) — unlike LED’s
spontaneous, incoherent emission.
Construction: the crystal ends are polished flat and parallel, perpendicular to the p-n
junction plane, acting as mirrors that reflect photons back and forth through the cavity,
building up stimulated emission. Some light escapes through a small partially-transmissive
point — this can be very intense, coherent, and narrow-wavelength.
Requirement for reinforcement: the mirror spacing must be an integral multiple of half
the wavelength of the radiation.
Common LED/laser materials: GaAs, GaP, GaAsP, GaAlAs, InGaAsP — each with
characteristic emission wavelength ranges (visible to infrared, depending on composition).

Photon Detectors
A photon detector converts photons → electrons: absorbed photon energy (hf) excites an
electron from valence to conduction band, IF hf ≥ Eg (approximately).
hc
λre s ponse ≈
Eg

The Photodiode
A reverse-biased p-n junction. With zero illumination: only a small thermally-generated
“dark current” Io flows. With illumination: total reverse current increases due to extra
photo-generated carriers:
I r=I o + I p

Photocurrent (proportional to incident light power):

( qh λc )( ϕ ) ...(7.8, using quantum yield n /ϕ )

ne
I p=P e

• P = incident optical power, ne/φ = quantum yield — a measure of detector

efficiency (electron-hole pairs generated per incident photon).
Key fact: reverse photocurrent Ir is almost independent of reverse voltage but
proportional to light intensity.
PIN photodiode: adds an intrinsic (undoped) layer sandwiched between p and n regions
— increases the light-absorbing volume, boosting photocurrent and response speed. (“PIN”
= Positive-Intrinsic-Negative.)
The Photovoltaic Effect (Solar Cells)
Even with zero external bias, an illuminated p-n junction generates its own voltage —
light-generated electron-hole pairs are separated by the junction’s built-in field (holes
swept to p-side, electrons to n-side), producing an open-circuit voltage:

V o c=
kT
q
ln
( )
Ip
Io
+1 ...(7.11)

This is the photovoltaic effect — the basis of solar cells. A p-n junction can therefore
function as a light sensor (photodiode, reverse biased) OR as a light generator
(photovoltaic cell, zero bias, self-generating).

Worked Example 7.1 (LED wavelength)

Q: An LED is made from GaAsP with Eg = 1.9 eV. Estimate the emission wavelength. A: λ ≈
1240/Eg = 1240/1.9 = 653 nm (red light) — matches typical red LED behaviour.

Worked Example 7.2 (critical angle / total internal reflection)

Q: A GaAs LED (n2 = 3.6) emits into air (n1 = 1). Find the critical angle for total internal
reflection. A: sinθc = n1/n2 = 1/3.6 = 0.278 → θc = sin⁻¹(0.278) = 16.1° (This shows why
GaAs LEDs, without a dome lens, lose a lot of light to internal reflection — only rays within
a narrow 16° cone escape directly.)

Worked Example 7.3 (direct vs indirect gap identification)

Q: Classify GaAs and Silicon as direct or indirect gap, and explain the practical consequence
for LED manufacturing. A: GaAs = direct gap (conduction band minimum at zero
momentum, θ=90°) → efficient photon emission, used for LEDs/lasers. Silicon = indirect
gap (θ<90°) → requires simultaneous phonon participation for band-to-band transitions →
very inefficient light emission → Silicon is NOT used for LEDs/lasers, despite being the
dominant material for transistors/ICs.

Worked Example 7.4 (photon energy and detector response)

Q: A photon detector has a semiconductor with Eg = 1.1 eV (Silicon). Find the maximum
wavelength it can respond to. A: λ = hc/Eg = (6.6×10⁻³⁴ × 3×10⁸)/(1.1×1.6×10⁻¹⁹) =
1.98×10⁻²⁵/1.76×10⁻¹⁹ = 1.125×10⁻⁶ m ≈ 1125 nm (near infrared — this matches why
Silicon photodiodes are commonly used for near-IR detection).

Worked Example 7.5 (photovoltaic open circuit voltage — conceptual)

Q: If light intensity on a solar cell increases (Ip increases, Io fixed), what happens to Voc? A:
From Voc = (kT/q)ln(Ip/Io + 1): as Ip increases, the ln term increases → Voc increases, but
only logarithmically (diminishing returns) — this is why solar cell open-circuit voltage
doesn’t scale linearly with sunlight intensity, unlike short-circuit current, which does scale
roughly linearly.
Common exam traps: - Photon KE/energy affects wavelength/colour; light intensity
affects current/number of carriers, not voltage directly (in LEDs) or wavelength. - Silicon
does NOT make good LEDs — a very commonly tested conceptual point (indirect gap
material). - LED = spontaneous, incoherent emission. LASER = stimulated, coherent
emission — know this distinction cold. - Photodiode: reverse-biased, current ∝ light
intensity, ≈independent of reverse voltage. - Photovoltaic cell: zero external bias, generates
its own voltage — a photodiode operated in a different “mode.”

Chapter 7 Revision Notes

• Direct-gap material (GaAs): efficient photon emission (used for LEDs/lasers) —
momentum matches without needing a phonon.
• Indirect-gap material (Si): needs a phonon as well as a photon for transitions —
inefficient emitter.
• LED: spontaneous emission, incoherent, λ ≈ 1240/Eg (nm, eV).
• Laser: stimulated emission, coherent, requires polished parallel mirror facets.
• Critical angle: sinθc = n1/n2 — total internal reflection above this angle limits LED
extraction efficiency.
• Photodiode: reverse-biased, Ip ∝ light intensity.
• Photovoltaic cell: zero bias, self-generates Voc = (kT/q)ln(Ip/Io+1).

Chapter 7 — Likely Exam MCQs

1. LASER stands for? → Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
2. Which material is best for LEDs — direct or indirect gap? → Direct gap.
3. Why is Silicon a poor LED material? → It’s an indirect-gap material, requiring
simultaneous phonon + photon participation for transitions, making light emission
inefficient.
4. LED emission type? → Spontaneous, incoherent.
5. Laser emission type? → Stimulated, coherent.
6. Formula linking critical angle and refractive indices? → sinθc = n1/n2.
7. What does a PIN photodiode add compared to a regular photodiode? → An intrinsic
(undoped) layer between p and n regions.
8. What is the photovoltaic effect the basis of? → Solar cells.
9. Photocurrent in a reverse-biased photodiode depends on? → Light intensity
(proportional to it), roughly independent of reverse voltage.
10. Formula for LED emission wavelength (approx.)? → λ(nm) ≈ 1240/Eg(eV).
11. What is a phonon? → A quantum of lattice vibration (heat/sound energy in a
crystal).
CHAPTER 8: DIELECTRIC MATERIALS
8.1 Introduction
Dielectric: an insulating material (resistivity as high as 10¹² Ω·m) with no free electrons to
conduct — but it responds to an applied electric field by internal charge displacement.
Electric dipole: when a positive charge +q and negative charge −q are separated by
distance r, a dipole moment is created:
μ=q r

Polarization
Polarization (P): charge induced per unit area of the dielectric surface (surface charge
density), units C/m² — same units as electric flux density D.
Two types of polarization: 1. Electronic (optical) polarization: the electron cloud
around a nucleus shifts relative to the nucleus under an applied field, creating an induced
dipole. Because electrons are light, this can respond to very high frequency fields (~10¹⁵
Hz). 2. Ionic (molecular) polarization: in ionic crystals (e.g. NaCl) with permanent dipole
moments (positive and negative ions already separated in the lattice), the field aligns these.
Because ions are heavier, they respond more slowly (lower frequency limit) than electronic
polarization.
Effect on flux density:
D=ε E=ε o E+ P ...(8.1)

Relative permittivity (dielectric constant), εr:

ε =ε o ε r ⇒ P=ε o ( ε r − 1 ) E ...(8.2)

Capacitance
For a parallel plate capacitor:
εA A
C= =ε r ε o =ε r C o ...(8.3)
t t
• A = plate overlap area, t = plate separation (= dielectric thickness), Co = capacitance
with vacuum (no dielectric) between plates.
Key takeaway: for given dimensions, capacitance C is directly proportional to εr — this is
why dielectrics with high εr are chosen to make compact, high-value capacitors.

Ferroelectrics
Certain polycrystalline ceramics show a hysteresis loop between polarization and applied
field (analogous to B-H hysteresis in ferromagnets). Spontaneous polarization disappears
above a critical temperature — the ferroelectric Curie temperature.
8.2 Applications of Dielectrics
Energy Storage
Energy stored in a charged capacitor:
1 2 1 2
U = C V = ε E ⋅v ...(8.4, v = volume of dielectric)
2 2
Energy density (per unit volume):
1 2
u= ε E
2

Pyroelectric Materials
Pyroelectric effect: polarization (and captured surface charge) changes with
temperature. Rising temperature disorients dipoles somewhat, reducing polarization and
thus reducing captured surface charge. Polarization vanishes entirely at the Curie
temperature. Application: pyroelectric ceramics are used as heat sensors / temperature
measurement.

Piezoelectric Materials
Piezoelectric effect: mechanical pressure/stress on certain crystals produces electric
charges on their surface (and vice versa — applying a field causes mechanical
deformation). “Piezo” = Greek for “to press.”
Governing equations:
T = y S − p E ...(a) D=ε E + p S ...(b)
• T = stress (force/area), S = strain (dimensionless), y = Young’s modulus of elasticity,
p = piezoelectric constant, E = electric field, D = electric flux density.
Case 1 — stress applied, E=0 (sensor mode):

D= p S=T ( py ) ∝T ...(c)
Charge produced ∝ applied force — this is how piezoelectric force/pressure sensors
work.
Case 2 — field applied, T=0 (actuator mode):

S= E ( py ) ∝ E ...(d)
The crystal physically strains (deforms) in proportion to the applied field — this is how
piezoelectric actuators work.
Applications: force, pressure, and acceleration sensors; also used in speakers,
microphones, ultrasonic transducers, and quartz oscillators. Materials: quartz
(monocrystalline), lead-zirconate-titanate/barium titanate (polycrystalline ceramics),
polyvinylidene fluoride (polymeric).

Dielectrics as Transmission Medium

For an electromagnetic wave in a dielectric, velocity:
1 1
c= ⇒ c∝
√ε μ √ε
Refractive index n is inversely related to velocity, so: n ∝ √ε, and n² = εr.
Practical implication: since wavelength ∝ velocity ∝ 1/n, materials with high
permittivity allow smaller transmission-line/waveguide dimensions for a given
wavelength.

8.3 Optical Fibre Transmission Medium

An optical fibre = two concentric cylinders: core (refractive index n1) surrounded by
cladding (refractive index n2), with n2 < n1.
Snell’s Law at the core-cladding boundary:
n1 sin θ1=n 2 sin θ2 ...(8.5)

Critical angle (where θ2 = 90°, ray travels along the boundary):

−1
θc =sin ( n2 /n1 ) ...(8.6)

For θ1 > θc: total internal reflection occurs — the ray bounces repeatedly down the fibre
core without escaping, allowing light to be guided along the fibre over long distances.
Numerical Aperture (NA): for a ray entering the fibre from an external medium (air,
n0=1) at angle θ0, the maximum acceptance angle for the ray to still undergo total
internal reflection inside the fibre:

sin θo ( m a x )=√ n21 − n22 ...(8.9, Numerical Aperture)

Key concept: Numerical Aperture determines the cone of angles over which light can be
coupled into the fibre and still be guided — larger NA means it’s easier to launch light into
the fibre (more forgiving alignment), but can also mean more modes propagate (affecting
bandwidth in multimode fibres — a topic often extended in later courses).

Worked Example 8.1 (from source Example 8.1 — capacitor)

Q: Capacitor plates: A = 1 m², t = 0.5 mm, V = 1.5 V. εo = (1/36π)×10⁻⁹ F/m. Find: (a)
capacitance in vacuum, (b) capacitance with εr=5 dielectric, (c) total charge.
Solution: (a) Co = εoA/t = (1/36π)×10⁻⁹ × 1/(0.5×10⁻³) = 0.0176 μF (b) C = εr × Co = 5 ×
0.0176 = 0.088 μF (c) q = CV = 0.088×10⁻⁶ × 1.5 = 0.133 μC

Worked Example 8.2 (piezoelectric sensor output)

Q: A piezoelectric crystal has piezoelectric constant p = 2×10⁻¹² C/N and Young’s modulus
y = 8×10¹⁰ N/m². A stress T = 5×10⁶ N/m² is applied (E=0). Find the flux density D
produced. A: D = T(p/y) = 5×10⁶ × (2×10⁻¹²/8×10¹⁰) = 5×10⁶ × 2.5×10⁻²³ = 1.25×10⁻¹⁶
C/m² (Illustrates: D is directly proportional to applied stress, per equation (c).)

Worked Example 8.3 (energy stored in a dielectric capacitor)

Q: A parallel plate capacitor (C = 0.088 μF from Example 8.1) is charged to 1.5 V. Find the
energy stored. A: U = ½CV² = ½ × 0.088×10⁻⁶ × 1.5² = ½ × 0.088×10⁻⁶ × 2.25 = 9.9×10⁻⁸ J

Worked Example 8.4 (optical fibre — critical angle & NA)

Q: An optical fibre has core n1 = 1.50, cladding n2 = 1.45. Find (a) the critical angle, (b) the
numerical aperture. A: (a) θc = sin⁻¹(n2/n1) = sin⁻¹(1.45/1.50) = sin⁻¹(0.9667) = 75.2°
(b) NA = √(n1²−n2²) = √(1.50²−1.45²) = √(2.25−2.1025) = √0.1475 = 0.384 Max
acceptance angle θo(max) = sin⁻¹(0.384) ≈ 22.6°

Worked Example 8.5 (relative permittivity from refractive index)

Q: A dielectric material used in optics has refractive index n = 1.5. What is its (approximate,
low-frequency-limit) relative permittivity εr? A: εr = n² = 1.5² = 2.25 (Note: this relation
strictly applies at optical frequencies where only electronic polarization contributes; at low
frequency, ionic contributions can make εr larger than n².)
Common exam traps: - Don’t confuse piezoelectric (mechanical stress ↔ electric charge)
with pyroelectric (temperature change ↔ electric charge) with ferroelectric (hysteresis
behaviour, like ferromagnetism, disappearing above Curie temperature) — three related
but distinct effects, all frequently confused with each other. - In optical fibre problems,
always double check whether the question wants the critical angle at the core-cladding
interface or the acceptance angle at the fibre’s outer end face (numerical aperture) — these
are two different angles. - εr = n² is only a low-frequency-limit approximation relating
optical and dielectric properties — don’t treat it as universally exact. - Capacitance formula:
always confirm whether A is “overlap area” (relevant area) vs total plate area, and t is the
dielectric thickness (=plate separation).

Chapter 8 Revision Notes

• D = εoE + P; P = εo(εr−1)E.
• C = εrCo = εrεoA/t.
• Ferroelectric: hysteresis, disappears above Curie temperature.
• Pyroelectric: polarization depends on temperature → heat sensors.
• Piezoelectric: D = pS = T(p/y) [sensor]; S = E(p/y) [actuator].
• Optical fibre: n1 (core) > n2 (cladding); θc = sin⁻¹(n2/n1); NA = √(n1²−n2²).
• n² ≈ εr (optical-frequency approximation).
Chapter 8 — Likely Exam MCQs
1. Formula for parallel-plate capacitance with dielectric? → C = εrεoA/t.
2. What is polarization? → Surface charge per unit area of dielectric (or induced dipole
moment per unit volume).
3. Two types of polarization? → Electronic (optical) and ionic (molecular).
4. Piezoelectric effect definition? → Generation of electric charge on a crystal surface
under mechanical stress (and vice versa).
5. Pyroelectric effect relates polarization to? → Temperature.
6. Ferroelectric materials lose spontaneous polarization above? → The Curie
temperature.
7. Formula for critical angle in optical fibre? → θc = sin⁻¹(n2/n1).
8. Formula for numerical aperture? → NA = √(n1² − n2²).
9. Relation between refractive index and relative permittivity (optical approx.)? → εr ≈
n².
10. What must be true of core vs cladding refractive index for guiding to work? → n1
(core) > n2 (cladding).
11. Energy stored per unit volume in a dielectric? → ½εℰ².

FULL-COURSE QUICK-REFERENCE FORMULA SHEET

Chapter Key Formula Meaning
1 Eₙ = −13.58/n² eV Hydrogen energy levels
1 rₙ = 0.053n² nm Hydrogen orbital
radius
1 hf = En2 − En1 Photon energy in
transition
3 f(E) = Fermi-Dirac
1/[1+exp((E−Ef)/kT)] distribution
3 N(E) ∝ √E Density of states
3 no·po = nᵢ² Mass-action law
4 J = qnμℰ Drift current density
4 D/μ = kT/q Einstein relation
4 RH = 1/(nq) Hall coefficient
5 J = AT²exp(−qφ/kT) Richardson-Dushman
(thermionic)
5 hf = qφ + ½mu² Photoelectric equation
6 I = Io[exp(qV/kT) − 1] Diode equation
(recurring form)
6 x₀ = √(2εVc/qND) Depletion width
 Chapter Key Formula Meaning
7 λ(nm) ≈ 1240/Eg(eV) LED emission
wavelength
7 sinθc = n1/n2 Critical angle
8 C = εrεoA/t Capacitance
8 NA = √(n1²−n2²) Numerical aperture
(fibre)

Universal constants to memorize: - h = 6.6×10⁻³⁴ J·s - q (electron charge) = 1.6×10⁻¹⁹ C -

k (Boltzmann) = 1.38×10⁻²³ J/K - kT at 300 K = 0.025 eV (extremely useful shortcut) - εo =
8.854×10⁻¹² F/m - c (speed of light) = 3×10⁸ m/s - me (electron mass) = 9.1×10⁻³¹ kg

GENERAL EXAM STRATEGY NOTES

1. Always state assumptions. E.g., “assuming ND ≫ nᵢ, no ≈ ND” — examiners give
credit for showing you know when approximations are valid.
2. Unit discipline. Convert cm⁻³ ↔ m⁻³ (factor 10⁶), eV ↔ J (factor 1.6×10⁻¹⁹), and
check mobility units (cm²/V·s vs m²/V·s, factor 10⁴) — these unit slips are the single
biggest source of lost marks in numerical questions.
3. Recognize the recurring diode-equation shape I = Io[exp(qV/kT)−1] — it
appears in Ch.6 for metal-metal (insulated), metal-semiconductor, and p-n
junctions. If you understand it once, you can answer variants for all three.
4. f(Ef) = 0.5 always — one of the most commonly tested single facts in the whole
course.
5. Direct vs indirect gap — remember Silicon (indirect, poor emitter) vs GaAs (direct,
good emitter/laser material) as your anchor examples.
6. Distinguish similarly-named effects: Schottky effect vs Schottky junction;
piezoelectric vs pyroelectric vs ferroelectric — these pairs are classic trick-question
material.
7. Band bending rule: positive exposed charge → bands bend up; negative exposed
charge → bands bend down. Applies universally across Ch.6.