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1. Introduction of Switchgear chgear ...........................................................................

.......................... 294
2. Electrical Faults .................
......................................................................................
.......................... 296
3. Switches and Isolators ....... ...................................................................................
.......................... 301
4. Fuse .....................................
.................................................................................
.......................... 303
5. Circuit Breakers ................
......................................................................................
.......................... 307
6. Protective Relay, Construc nstruction and Operating Principle of Relays ........................ ........ 315
7. Electrical Protecting Schem Schemes ...................................................................... ...................... 322
8. Protection of Alternators tors & Motors ............................................................ .......................... 324
9. Protection of Transformer ormers ..........................................................................
.......................... 327
10. Protection of Busbar,, Feed Feeders and Transmission Lines ............................ .......................... 330
11. Protection against Over Vo Voltage ................................................................
.......................... 334
12. Reactors ..............................
......................................................................................
.......................... 338
Trend Analysis of Questions
stions topicwise from SSC JE/ESE/State PSC & other
ot Exams
No. of Questions

Switchgear and protection

Introduction of
Protection of Switchgear Electrical Faults Switche
itches and
Reactors
tors
against over Isolators
Isolat
voltage Fuse
Circuit
Protection of Breakers
kers
Busbar, Feeders
and Protective
Protec
Transmission Relay,
lay, Construc
C
lines tion and
a
Operating
Opera
Electrical
Protection of Protection of Princip
rinciple of
Protecting
Transformers Alternators and relay
rela
Schemes
Motors

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Content Details:
Introduction Switchgear Essential features of switchgear Switchgear equipments Busbar
arrangement Type of Busbar Single busbar system Single busbar system with sectionalisation
Duplicate busbar system Switchgear Accommodation

Introduction- Provision for instruments : May be in form of

• During normal operation, switchgear permits to ammeter or voltmeter on the unit itself or the necessary
switch on or off generators, transmission lines, current and voltage transformer for connecting to the
distributors and other electrical equipments. on the main switchboard or a separate instrument panel.
other hand, when a failure occurs on any part of Switchgear Equipments:
power system, a heavy current flows through the Switches Fuses
equipment threatening damage to the equipment and Circuit breakers Relays
interruption of service to the customers. However, Fuses : A fuse is an electric/electronic or
the switchgear detects the fault and disconnects the mechanical device which is used to protect circuits
unhealthy section from the systems. In this way from over current, overload and ensure the
switchgear protects the system from the damage and protection of the circuit.
ensures continuity of supply. ● Electric fuse was invented by Thomas Alva Edison
Switchgear: in 1890.
CSL ET-03.02.2025, BEL EAT PUNE-2025
GPSC AE 29.12.2024, SSC JE (Pre) 06.06.2024, Shift-II ● There are many types of fuses, but the function of all
SSC JE (Mains) 04.12.2023, Shift-II these fuses is the same.
The apparatus used for controlling, regulating and The fuse rating is usually defined in 'amps'.
switching on or off the electrical circuit in the Circuit breakers : A C.B. is an equipment which
electrical power system is known as switchgear. can open or close a circuit under all condition for
Ex. Switches, fuses circuit breakers, isolators, examples no load full load and fault condition. It is
relays, C.T. and P.T., indicating instruments, so designed that it can be operated manually (or by
lightning arresters and control panels. remote control) under normal conditions and
Essential features of switchgear automatically under fault condition. Under normal
BEL EAT PUNE-2025 conditions, the contacts remain closed and the circuit
● Complete reliability breaker carries the full-load current continuously.
● Absolutely certain discrimination ● The rating of circuit breaker is generally determined
● Quick operation on the basis of symmetrical fault current. It is
● Provision for manual controls expressed in KA (RMS).
● Provision for instruments.
Complete reliability : When fault occurs on any
part of the system, the switchgear must operate to
isolate the fault section from the reminder circuit.
Absolutely certain discrimination : It should be
able to discriminate between the fault section and
the healthy section. To isolate the fault section from
the system in case of fault. This will ensure
continuity of supply. Relays : A relay is a device which detects the fault
Quick operation : Must operates quickly so that no and supplies information to the breaker for circuit
damage is done in equipments in case of fault. interruption.
Provision for control manual : In case the It can be divided into three parts-
electrical or electronics control fails, the necessary ● The primary winding of a C.T. which is connected
operation can be carried out through manual control. in series with the circuit to be protected. The
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primary winding often consists of the main ● Any fault on the system is fed by all the generating
conductor itself. capacity, resulting in very large fault current.
● The second circuit is the secondary winding of C.T. Single bus-bar system with sectionalisation :
connected to the relay operating coil. In this type of bus-bar arrangement, the circuit
● The third circuit is the tripping circuit which consist breaker (C.B.) and isolating switches are used. The
of a source of supply trip coil of circuit breaker and isolator disconnects the faulty section of the bus-bar
the relay stationary contacts. hence protect the system from complete shutdown.
Under normal load condition, the emf of the This type of arrangement uses one additional circuit
secondary winding of C.T. is small and the current breaker which does not much increase the cost of the
flowing in the relay operating coil is insufficient to system.
close the relay contacts. This keep the trip coil of the Advantage
C.B. Unenergised. Consequently, the contacts of the ● The faulty section is removed without effecting the
C.B. remains closed and carries the normal load continuity of the supply
● The maintenance of the individual section can be
current. When a fault occurs, a large current flows done without disturbing the system supply.
through the primary of C.T. This increases the ● The system has a current limiting reactor which
secondary emf and hence the current through the decreases the occurrence of the fault.
relay operating coil. The relay contacts are closed
and the trip coil of the C.B. is energised to open the
contacts of the C.B.
Bus-Bar Arrangement :
Bus-Bar : An electrical bus bar is defined as a
conductor or a group of conductor used for
collecting electric power from the incoming feeders
and distributes them to the outgoing feeders. In other
words, it is a type of electrical junction in which all
the incoming and outgoing electrical current meets. Disadvantage : The system uses the additional C.B.
Thus, the electrical bus bar collects the electrical and isolator which increases the cost of the system.
power at one location. Duplicate bus-bar system :
GPSC AE-30.03.2025
● The bus system consists the isolator and the C.B. on ● Duplicate bus-bar system provides additional
the occurrence of a fault the C.B. is tripped off and flexibility continuity of supply and permits periodic
the faulty section of the bus-bar is easily maintenance without total shut-down.
disconnected from the circuit. ● In the event of fault on one bus, the other can be used.
● The electrical bus bar is available in rectangular, ● There are 2 buses called main bus and spare bus. The
cross-sectional round and many other shapes. coupler can be closed, so as to connect the two buses.
● The rectangular bus bar is mostly used in the power
system.
● The copper and aluminium are used for the
manufacturing of the electrical bus bar
Types of bus-bar:
Single Bus-bar system:
Single Bus-bar system with sectionalisation: Advantage :
Duplicate bus-bar system: ● If repair and maintenance is to be carried on the
Single Bus-Bar System : The arrangement of such main bus, the supply need not be interrupted as the
type of system is very simple and easy. The system entire load can be transferred to the spare bus.
has only one bus-bar along with the switch. All the ● The testing of feeder C.B. can be done by putting
substation equipment like the transformer, generator, them on spare bus-bar thus keeping the main bus-bar
the feeder is connected to this bus-bar only. undisturbed.
● If a fault occurs on the bus-bar, the continuity of
supply to the circuit can be maintained by
transferring it to the other bus-bar.
Switchgear Accommodation :
Switchgear may be broadly classified into-
(i) Outdoor type (ii) In door type
Outdoor type:
BHEL ET-23.08.2023
For voltage beyond 66 kV switchgear equipment is
installed outdoor. It is because for such voltage the
Advantages : clearances between conductors and the space
● It has initial low cost required for switches circuit breakers, transformers
● It requires less maintenance and other equipments because so great that it is not
● It is simple in operation. economical to install all such equipment indoor.
Disadvantages : Indoor type: For voltage below 66 KV switchgear
● The bus-bar cannot be cleaned, repaired or tested is generally installed indoor because of economic
without de-energising the whole system. considerations.
● If a fault occurs on the bus-bar itself, there is ● In this type of construction, all live parts are
complete interruption of supply. completely enclosed in an earth metal casing.

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Content Details:
Introduction Main causes of faults in electrical system Classification of faults in power system
Difference between symmetrical and unsymmetrical faults Types of symmetrical faults Types of
asymmetrical faults Frequency of fault occurrence in different elements Frequency of faults
Classification of 3- φ system Operator Sequence impedance Shunt type fault Line to ground
(LG) fault Line to line (L-L) fault Double line to ground (L-L-G) fault Triple line (L-L-L) fault
Series type fault Frequency of occurrence Severity of faults Fault current Limitation of fault
current Percentage reactance kVA method Percentage reactance and base kVA Short circuit kVA
Short circuit current Base impedance of the power system.

Introduction: Classification of Faults in Power System

When one or more phase wires in an electrical

power system break and become open-circuited or
two or more phase wires connect together and
become short-circuited, and the system reaches an
abnormal state, an electrical fault occurs.
Main causes of faults in electrical system
Faults in electrical systems generally occur due to
the following two reasons- Difference between symmetrical and
unsymmetrical faults:
(i) Insulation failure DFCCIL Executive 30.09.2021, 4:30 PM-6:30 PM
PSPCL JE 15.11.2021, Shift-I
(ii) Mechanical damage
Symmetrical faults Unsymmetrical faults
Insulation failure: The symmetrical fault A fault in a power system
● This may be caused by the application of gives rise to equal fault which gives
currents in all the lines. unsymmetrical currents
overvoltage to the system, which may be due to in the three lines with
switching surge or lightning strokes. unequal displacement is
called unsymmetrical
● In insulators, electrical insulation failure can be fault.
caused by stress or strain due to excessively hot or Post fault condition is Post fault condition is
balance in symmetrical unbalance in
cold weather. faults. unsymmetrical faults.
Mechanical damage: In symmetrical faults:- L- In unsymmetrical fault:-
In transmission lines, this can be caused by strong L- L fault, L-L-L-G fault. L-G fault, L-L fault,
L-L-G fault, open circuit
winds or trees falling on them. fault.

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Types of Faults
CSL ET-03.02.2025
NOS. TYPE Open circuit Short circuit Earthed Combined
OF OF faults faults faults or
PHASES FAULTS Mixed faults
↓ →
Fault in Single
Phase

Faults in two phase

Faults in three
phase

Types of symmetrical faults Frequency of faults:-

ECIL GET-01.01.2026
Kokan Railway STA 2017 L-G fault 80%-85%
3-phase open circuit faults L-L fault 8%
3-phase short circuit faults L-L-G fault 5%
3- phase earth faults L-L-L fault 2%
3-phase earth leakage faults
3-phase corona leakage faults L-L-L-G fault 2%
3-phase over load faults Classification
Types of Asymmetrical faults
Kokan Railway STA 2017
Single phase open circuit faults
Single phase earth fault
Two phase earth fault
Two phase open circuit fault
Two phase short circuit fault
Two phase open circuit fault and rest phase earth
fault
Two phase earth fault and rest phase open circuit
fault
Two phase short circuit fault and rest phase open
circuit fault Theory of symmetry among symmetrical component:
RSSB JE (Degree) 07.02.2025
Two phase short circuit fault and rest phase earth ESE-2022
fault Theory of symmetry among symmetrical component
Single phase open circuit fault and other one phase is given by C.L. Fortescue’s in 1918.
earth fault
Three phase unbalanced over load fault
Frequency of fault occurrence in different
elements of electrical power system
S.N. Machines and % of Total
Equipments
1. O.H. Lines 50
2. U.G. Cables 10
3. Switchgears 15
4. A.C. Generators 5
5. Power T/Fs 7
6. Instrument T/Fs 2
7. Control Equipment 3
8. Miscellaneous 8

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Operator Unbalance 3-φ, 3- wire system:- In this system,

The rotation of the phasor is taken in anticlockwise positive sequence component (Z1) and negative
direction. sequence component (Z2) are present.
Unbalance 3-φ, 4- wire system:- In this system,
α = 1∠120º = 1eJ2π/3 = –0.5 + J 0.866
positive sequence component (Z1), negative
α2 = 1∠240º = 1∠ − 120º = 1e − J 2 π / 3 sequence component (Z2) and zero sequence
= −0.5 − J 0.866 component (Z0) are present.
= −(0.5 + J 0.866) Shunt type fault
Shunt type faults are two types-
α3 = 1∠360º = 1 (a) Symmetrical faults
1 + α + α2 = 0 (b) Unsymmetrical faults
This type of fault is generated by a short circuit.
Vb1 = α 2 Va1 VC1 = αVa1 Unsymmetrical faults
Vb2 = αVa 2 VC2 = α 2 Va 2 Single line to ground (L-G) fault
RSSB JE (Degree) 06.02.2025, 07.02.2025
Vb0 = Vc0 = Va0 Va = Va1 + Va2 + Va0 MPPTCL AE 22.09.2025
, RSSB JE (Degree) 06.02.2025
RPSC Vice Principal /Superintendent ITI 30.07.2025
Vb = α 2 Va1 + αVa 2 + Va 0 ESIC 08.10.2023, PSPCL JE-15.11.2021, Shift-I

Vc = αVa1 + α 2 Va 2 + Va 0

 Va  1 1 1   Va 0 
 V  = 1 α2 α   V 
 b    a1 
 Vc  1 α α2   Va 
 2
 Va  1 1 1   Va 
 0 1 2 
 Va1  = 1 α α   Vb  Ia0 = Ia1 = Ia2
  3
 
1 α α   Vc 
2
 Va 2  3E
IF =
1 z1 + z 2 + z 0 + 3z f
Va0 = [Va + Vb + Vc ] where, IF= fault current
3 The symmetrical component of current (L-G fault)-
1
Va1 =  Va + αVb + α 2 Vc   Ia0  1 1 1   Ia 
3  I  = 1 1 α α 2   0 
1
Va 2 =  Va + α 2 Vb + αVc   a1  3   
3  Ia 2  1 α 2 α   0 
Ia
Ia0 = Ia1 = Ia 2 =
3
Where,
Ia0= zero sequence current
Ia1= Positive sequence current
Ia2= Negative sequence current
All sequence network are connected in series.
In a single line to ground fault, the zero-sequence
current is one-third of the fault current.
Sequence Impedance- If
I0 =
RPSC AE 28.09.2025 3
In transmission lines and transformers positive Where, I0= zero sequence current
sequence (Z1) and Negative sequence (Z2) are equal IF= Fault current
i.e. (Z1=Z2) Zero sequence current flows in L-G fault.
In synchronous generator or alternator, positive The zero sequence current can flow from a line to
transformer bank if the winding are in grounded
sequence (Z1) is greater than Negative sequence star/delta configuration
(Z2) i.e. (Z1>Z2) The excessive neutral current can be caused by
Zero sequence network gets affected by the method unbalance load or non-linear loads with high
of neutral grounding. harmonics
Balance 3-φ system:- In this system only positive L-G fault is the most common type of fault.
The load currents in short circuit calculation are
sequence component (Z1) is present. neglected because short circuit currents are much
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larger than load currents and short circuit current All the three sequences positive, negative and zero
are greatly out of phase with load current. are present in the double line to ground fault.
In L-G fault or single line to ground fault all the Types of Symmetrical fault
three sequence currents (Ia0,Ia1,Ia2) are equal. L–L–L fault:
Line to line (L - L) fault- UPPSC AE (Mains) 29.09.2025, Paper-II
RSSB JE (Degree) 06.02.2025, MPESB JE Paper-II 11.11.2022
L-L-L fault is also known as 3-φ fault.
A line to line fault or unsymmetrical fault occurs
when two conductors are short circuited. L-L-L faults are balanced i.e. the system remains
symmetrical even after the fault.
The 3-φ fault occurs rarely but it is the most severe
type of fault which involves the longest current.
This large current is used for determining the rating
of the circuit breaker.
Note:
For a fault at the terminals of the synchronous
generator, the fault current is maximum for a three
phase fault (L-L-L fault).
The least occurring fault in power system is L-L-L
zero sequence component of current. fault or 3-φ fault.
1 L–L–L–G Fault (3-phase short circuit fault)-
Ia 0 = ( Ia + I b + IC ) RSSB JE 08.02.2025
3
Ia0 = 0 L-L-L- G fault is called 3-φ short circuit fault.
Ib = –Ic , Ia1 = –Ia2
3E
IF =
( z1 + z 2 ) + 3zf
Where, IF= fault current
The zero sequence current in line to line fault is
zero.
The positive sequence and negative sequence
voltage will be equal.
In line to line fault, fault current will not limit by If
1
zero sequence impedance. I a0 =
3
[ I a + Ib + Ic ] =
3
Zero sequence current is not in line to line fault.
Double Line-to-ground (L-L-G) Fault All the three sequence component of current are
GPSC AE 05.10.2025 present.
LLLG fault is symmetrical fault.
Maximum short circuit current occurs in 3-φ to
ground faults
Series type fault
PGCIL Diploma Trainee 05.05.2023
● Melting of a fuse or conductor in one or more
phases.
Open conductor fault is called series fault.
The value of all sequence voltage is one- third of the
 Ia1  1 α α 2   0  supply voltage.
  1   All sequence components of current flowing in a
 Ia 2  = 1 α α   I b 
2

  3 1 1 1   I  healthy conductor are one- third of the current.

 Ia 0    c There are two types-
1 If 1. One conductor open
I a0 = ( I b + I c ) z f = 2. Two conductor open
3 3
Ib + Ic = 3Ia 0 = If Frequency of occurrence-
LG > LL > LLG > LLLG
Vb = Vc = ( I a + I c ) z f = 3I a0 Z f The least severe fault is L-G fault.
In double line to ground fault (L-L-G) all the Severity of faults-
sequence voltage at the fault point in a power system RSSB JE-08.02.2025 , BEL EAT PUNE-2025
are equal. The decreasing order of severity of the fault from
All the sequences are connected in parallel in double stability point of view is-
line to ground [L-L-G]fault. LLLG > LLG > LL > LG
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Most dangerous fault or most severe fault is L-L-L- Base kVA

G fault. % reactance at base kVA = × %reactance at rated kVA
Rated kVA
L-L-L-G fault is also known as 3-φ short circuit
fault. Short circuit kVA :
The least occurring fault in power system is L-L-L- UPMRCL JE 03.01.2023, 9: 00AM -11:00 AM
fault or 3-φ fault. The product of normal system voltage and short-
Fault current circuit current at the point of fault expressed in kVA
Fault current is the current that flows during a fault is known as short-circuit kVA.
condition, which is significantly higher than the 100
normal operating current. Short circuit kVA = Rated kVA ×
The magnitude of the fault current depends on the Impedance
type of fault and the impedance of the system. 1
The decreasing order of fault currents at terminals Short circuit kVA ∝
of a synchronous generator is- impedance
If ( L − G ) > If ( L − L − G ) > If (3−φ) > If ( L − L ) Let-
Fault current per unit formula V = normal voltage in volts
RPSC Vice Principal /Superintendent ITI 30.07.2025 Ifl = full-load current in amperes at base kVA
1 %X = percentage reactance of the system on base
If ( PU ) = kVA up to the fault point.
X th
100
Where, kVA sc = Base kVA ×
Xth = The total equivalent positive sequence reactance. %X
Limitation of fault current : Short circuit current
When a short circuit occurs at any point in a system, RPSC Vice Principal/Superintendent ITI 30.07.2025
the short circuit current is limited by the impedance RSSB JE (Degree)-06.02.2025
of the system up to the point of fault.
In many situations, the impedances limiting the fault Short circuit kVA
ISC =
currents are largely reactive, such as transformers, Rated kV
reactors and generators. Cables and lines are mostly
resistive, but where the total reactance in  100 
calculations. exceeds 3 times the resistance. The Short circuit current, Isc = Ifl  
error introduced by this assumption will not exceed  %X 
5% the latter is usually neglected.
● Short circuit current ∝ number of alternator
Percentage Reactance : The percentage reactance
of a circuit is defined as the percentage of the total ISC ∝ N
phase voltage in the circuit when full-load current is
flowing through it. ● A short circuit current is highest during fault
condition
I
% X = F × 100 ● Short circuit kVA for 3-phase circuit-
V 3VIsc 3VIfl 100
Where, IF = full load current = = ×
V = phase voltage 1000 1000 %X
X = reactance in ohms per phase. Note:
kVA Method- The short circuit kVA is maximum when the fault
Alternatively, percentage reactance (%X) can also occurs near the generator because near the generator,
be expressed in terms of kVA and kV. the fault impedance or total impedance is very small.

%X=
( kVA ) X Base impedance of the power system
10 ( kV ) ( Base kV ) × 1000
2 2

ZB =
where, X is the reactance in ohms. Base kVA
If X is the only reactance element in the circuit, then 2
short-circuit current is MVA new  kVold 
⇒ Znew = Zold × × 
V  100  MVA old  kVnew 
Isc = , Isc = I ×  
X  %X  or
2
Percentage Reactance and Base kVA : Snew  kVold 
Percentage reactance of an equipments depends Znew = Zold × × 
upon its kVA rating. Generally, the various Sold  kVnew 
equipments used in the power system have different
kVA ratings. Therefore, it is necessary to find the Actual Value
percentage reactance's of all the elements on a Per unit =
Base Value
common kVA is known as base kVA.
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Contents Details:
Introduction Switches Air break switch Oil switch Flot switch Limit switch Isolator or
disconnecting switch Types of isolator Difference between isolator and circuit breaker different type
of symbol

Introduction- fast operation

A switch is an electrical component that can "make" The switches may be classified into:
(i) Air switches (ii) Oil switches
or break an electrical circuit, interrupting the current
Air break switch:
or diverting it from one conductor to another. The
MPSC AE Mains- 29.10.2022, Paper-II
mechanism of a switch removes or restores the It is an air switch and is designed to open a circuit
conducting path in a circuit when it is operated. under load. The switch whose contacts open in the
(i) Switches : air and quenching of an arc achieves by compressed
BEL EAT PUNE-2025 air. Such type of switch is called an air-break switch.
DFCCIL Executive Electrical Trainee-30.09.2021 The air break switch is operated manually when
RRB JE 01.09.2019, Shift-I
their handle is placed on a ground level.
A switch is a device which is used to open or close
Air Break switch is also known as Load Breaking
an electrical circuit in a convenient way.
switch.
Switch is a device used to on and off any recoil
The air break switch is mostly installed in the
system. distribution network as a switching point.
Switching can be done manually or automatic. The maximum voltage for the switch is up to 35 kV.
Electronic switching is an automatic switching unit. The air-break switches are classified into two types.

Electronic switching used solid state devices such (i) Single Pole Air-Break Switch
(ii) Gang operated Air- Break switch.
as transistor , thyristor, MOSFET etc.
Oil Switches :
Electronic switching are becoming more and more
DFCCIL Executive Electrical Trainee-30.09.2021
popular because of- LMRC JE 2015

Smaller size and weight As the name implies, the contacts of such switches
are opened under oil, usually transformer oil. The
Noiseless operation
effect of oil is to cool and quench the arc that tends
lossless
to form when the circuit is opened.
sparkless Oil switches are used for circuits of high voltage and
long life large current carrying capacities.
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Float switch:- Float switch detects the level of a Case-II while closing condition-
liquid in a tank or container. Open earthing switch→ Close isolator→ Close
In this type of switch the contacts are open or closed circuit breaker
by the position of mercury placed in the tube. Types of isolator -
Limit Switch: i. Single Break type
GPSC AAE-30.03.2025 ii. Double break type
A limit switch can be used to detect the presence of iii. Pantograph type isolator
a moving part.
• Difference between isolator and circuit breaker
A limit switch is activated by contacts making or
HPCL AE-16.08.2025, HPSSC JE-08.08.2021
breaking an electrical circuit. GETCO-05.01.2025
Isolator Circuit Breaker
Isolator or disconnecting switch:
Isolator is an off load Circuit breaker is an on
MPPTCL AE-28.03.2023
UPMRCL JE-03.01.2023, 9:00am to 11:00 am device. load device.
GETCO JE-05.01.2025, GPSC AE-05.09.2021 Isolator operates under Circuit breaker operates
It is essentially a knife switch and is design to open no-load condition. under load condition.
a circuit under no load.
Isolator can be Circuit breaker is automatic
Its main purpose is to isolate one portion of the
operated automatically device.
circuit from the other and is not intended to be
or manually.
opened while current is flowing in the line.
Isolator should always Circuit breaker should
Isolators are generally used on both sides of circuit
operate after circuit always operate before
breakers in order that repairs and replacement of
breaker. isolator.
C.B. can be made without any danger.
No arc quenching Arc quenching technique is
The isolators are used in the transmission lines are
technique is provided provided in circuit breaker.
capable of breaking charging current.
in Isolator.
Isolator breaks the circuit under no load condition
Isolator acts as an Circuit breaker acts as a
Isolator is present at both side of C.B.
isolating device. protecting device.
Isolator are used on transmission line are capable of
An isolator is a mechanical switching device.
breaking charging current
Current rating is not necessary for isolator.
The isolator is used to disconnect the power system
The Gang operated isolators are used in pole mounted
under no-load conditions for maintenance and
substation to cut off H.T. supply to transformer.
repair purpose.
Ag (silver) is the best conductor of electricity.
The sequence of operations of isolator, circuit
Different type of symbol
breaker and earthing switch - NRL GET-22.09.2021
MPPSC AE Mains-29.10.2022, Paper-II Isolator Symbol
Case-I while opening condition- Double break isolator
Open the C.B. → Open the isolator → Close the
Single break isolator switch
earthing switch

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Contents Details:
Introduction Fuse Melting point of some materials Fuse law Fuse element or fuse wire
Minimum fusing current Fuse rating Fusing factor Fusing current Rated current Cut-off
current Prospective current Melting time or pre-arcing time Arcing time Kit-kat fuse HRC fuse,
Cartridge fuse Liquid type fuse Metal clad fuse Purpose of Arial fuse in overhead service
connections Rewireable AC fuse Delay fuse The symbol of different type of fuses.

flows through the circuit under abnormal

Introduction conditions such as short circuits, over load etc.
Fuse unit is a small sized technical protective The fuse unit acts as an automatic protective
device. device. It also works as a switching device because
A fuse is connected in series with the live wire at the circuit is completed again when the fuse is
the beginning of an electrical circuit. An replaced.
electric current exceeding a predetermined value

Fuse •
Fuse wire should never be connected in neutral
UKPSC AE-27.04.2022, Paper-II wire.
GPSC AE-29.12.2024 , DSSSB JE & SO-04.03.2024
• A fuse is normally a current limiting device.
RRB JE 19.09.2019, Shift-II
● Fuse is a device used in circuit for protecting • A fuse performs functions both detection and
electrical equipments against overloads and short interruption.
circuits. Requirement of fuse –
Note:
AC (1-φ) Supply→1 fuse, DC Supply → 2 Fuse < + ve
− ve
• A fuse is inserted in series in the circuit and protect
the equipment from high current. Working principle of fuse-
NCL MT-2023, KSEB [Link].-10.02.2023
• Fuse wire is always connected with phase wire or RRB JE 19.09.2019, Shift-II
live wire. RRB JE 30.08.2019, Shift-II

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• Generally operation of a fuse is a result of Heating Alloy - lead (37%) + Tin (63%)
effect of current. i. 10 A > Fuse → (lead + Tin)
Heat ↑ ∝ I2Rt ∝ T ↑∝ I ↑ material will melt → ii. 10 A < Fuse → Silver
circuit will become open. ● An alloy of tin and lead is most commonly used for
Note: low current fuses, but pure tin or lead can also be
• In fuse wire, the heat generated (Temp. rise) is used.
proportional to the square of current flowing through Advantages
the fuse. ● Cheap ● Automatic operation
• Quality - Simplest and cheapest form of protection ● No maintenance ● Short time operation
● Small size
• Used - Low voltage equipment against overload and
short circuit conditions. Disadvantages
● Replace ●Poor discrimination
Fuse wire design
● Current time characteristics some time fail
Material Highly conductive
Cross-section Current rating of fuse Fuse element or fuse wire
area It is the part of the fuse that melts when an excessive
current flows in the circuit and thus isolates the
Length of decide the voltage rating faulty device from the supply circuit.
fuse wire  V 
 E = > dielectric strength 
Minimum fusing current
 d  Minimum fusing current is the minimum value of
Melting point of some materials:– current due to which fuse melts.
RRB JE 30.08.2019, Shift-II Fuse rating
Metals Melting Point ( ºC ) NPCIL Kaiga JE-28.08.2022
Silver 980 NCL MT-2024, GPSC AE-29.12.2022
Tin 240 ● It is that value of current which flows through the
element when fuse does not melt.
Zinc 419 ● Minimum fusing current is greater than fuse rating.
Lead 328 Fuse rating < minimum fusing current
Copper 1090
• The rating of fuse wire is in ampere.
Aluminium 665 ● Fusing factor -
Protection- TNPSC CTS TA-2025, Paper-II
MPSC AE Mains - 29.10.2022, Paper-II DFCCIL Executive Electrical Trainee-30.09.2021
Fuse wire is used for backup protection. RRB JE 19.09.2019, Shift-II
The least expensive protection for low voltage Minimum fusing current
system is fuse. F.F. =
Characteristics- Fuse rating
GPSC AE-01.03.2020 F.F. > 1
Fuse has inverse time current characteristics.
• The value of fusing factor is greater than 1.
Fusing current:- The minimum current at which
fuse components are melted.
Fusing current depends on:–
a. Length of the fuse wire
b. Shape and size of the fuse wire
c. Diameter of the fuse wire
d. Types of enclosure
H 1 e. Location of terminal
I2Rt > H , t > 2 , ↓ t ∝ 2 f. No. of strands
I R I ↑ Rated current:- The working current on which the
Fuse law- fuse operates successfully.
GPSC AE-29.12.2024
Rated current depends on:-
According to fuse law the current carrying capacity (i) Fuse material
is directly proportional to (diameter)1.5 . (ii) Fuse holder
3 (iii) Temp rise of the contact
I = Kd or Kd
2 1.5
(iv) Surrounding of the fuse
Where, Cut-off current:-
d = Diameter of fuse wire, K = Constant RRB JE-04.06.2025, Shift-I (Re-exam)
I = Current in the fuse The maximum value of current actually reached
Characteristics of Fuse Element during abnormal condition is called cut off current in
BPSC AE-14.10.2022 the fuse.
i. Low melting point ii. High conductivity ● Cut-off current depends on:-
iii. Free from oxidation iv. Low resistance i. Current rating of fuse
v. low cost of material vi. Low resistivity ii. value of prospective current
vii. low losses iii. Asymmetry of the fault current

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Note:- Kit-Kat fuse:–

Fusing current is in RMS value RRB JE 01.09.2019, Shift-II
Rated current is in RMS value ● Kit kat fuse is also known as semi enclosed or
Prospective current is in RMS value Rewireable fuse.
Cut-off current is in Instantaneous value ● Rewireable fuse works on inverse time current
Prospective current:- characteristics
● It is the rms value of the first loop of the fault ● Kit- Kat fuse is made of Porcelain material.
current obtained if the fuse is replaced by an ● Kit- Kat fuse is used in domestic application
ordinary conductor of negligible resistance. ● In a kit-kat fuse, cut out is fuse carrier.
Note: ● The fuse wire may be lead tinned copper, Al or an
The value of prospective current is in RMS alloy of lead-tin.
The prospective current (IP) is greater than cut off HRC Fuse (High Rupturing
current (IC) ie IP > IC Capacity Fuse)
Type of fuse Fusing factor MPESB JE-11.10.2022, Shift-II
Semi enclosed type, NIT TA -24.02.2022, GPSC AE-29.12.2024
Rewirable fuse which 1.9 to 2 PSPCL JE-15.11.2025, Shift-I
employs copper as the ● It is a type of cartridge fuses.
fuse element. ● HRC fuse protect electrical systems from short
Enclosed type, Cartridge 1.45 circuit and overloads.
fuse which uses silver Construction
TNPSC CTS TA-2025, Paper-II
The HRC fuse consists of a ceramic body usually of
Fuse Current rating steatite, pure silver element, clean Silica quartz,
D– type 2A – 63A asbestos washers, porcelain plugs, brass end-caps
link type 2A – 1200A and copper tags.
Liquid type 6100A • HRC fuse with tripping device contains silver fuse
Note: element.
Link-type HRC cartridge fuses have high rupturing • A function of powdered quartz filled in HRC fuse
capacity and that are available in rating from 2 to cartridge is to help in quenching the arc.
1250 Amperes.
Melting time or pre-arcing time
● The time taken from the instant the current that
causes melting of the fuse wire starts flowing, to the
instant the arc is initiated.
● A typical value is 0.001 second.
Arcing time
● The time taken from the instant of arc initiation to Fuse operation
the instant of arc being extinguished. When an HRC fuse operates, the element absorbs
Total operating time - energy from the circuit and heats up until it melts.
Heat produced = ∫ I 2 Rdt
Where,
R = Instantaneous resistance
Characteristic-The HRC fuse characteristics that
help in the determination of the maximum amount of
energy that the fuse will pass to appliances under
protection are known as I2t characteristics.
Operation Time
Operating time is as low as 1/4th of a cycle.
Properties of HRC Fuse
● It has to be replaced after each operation.
● Fast operation ● Low cost
● Rupturing capacity is high ● Non-deterioration
● Low temperature operation
T.O.T = ( Pre - arcing time + Arcing time ) ● Accurate discrimination
Note:- Total operating time is 2 milisecond. ● Arc voltage within safe limits
Types of Fuse - ● No maintenance
Low voltage High voltage fuse ● No ageing effect
Applications
Kit- kat (Semi enclosed Cartridge fuse HURL GET-2024
rewireable) i. Protection of cables
HRC Liquid fuse ii. Protection of bus-bars
Metal clad fuse iii. Earth fault → both of low and high magnitude

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iv. Protection of industrial distribution system ● If the strands of the fusing wire are twisted, the
v. HRC fuses are mainly used for high voltage and fusing current will be reduced.
industrial applications. Rewireable AC fuse:-
Rating : 415 V, 2 to 1250A ● Rewireable AC fuse has fuse holder and fuse carrier.
Note: ● The fuse element is connected in fuse holder, fuse
The common material used to make an HRC fuse is element may be lead, tinned copper, Aluminium etc.
Glass ● Rewireable AC fuse is mostly used in small current
The fusing element of HRC fuse is generally made circuit for domestic wiring.
of silver. Live
Plaster of Paris can be used as an arc quenching wire
medium in HRC fuse.
Rupturing capacity of fuse in kA.
In HRC fuse, interlocking is not possible because T1
these once blow out can not be reused.
In HRC fuses, powdered quartz is used to fill the
space between the fuse element and the envelope Fuse
High Voltage fuse:– wire
a. Cartridge fuse G

b. Liquid type fuse

c. Metal clad fuse Fuse
grip
a. Cartridge fuse:– T1
● The ends of cartridge type fuse are made of Brass. H
● A cartridge fuse is a cylindrical shaped fuse with Fuse
either metal caps of blade contact point at both end. holder
● The cartridge fuses are used in control circuits.
b. Liquid type fuse:-
Note:-
● Carbon tetra chloride (CCl4) is used in it.
The rewireable fuse is the least expensive protection
● Liquid type fuses are used for high voltage systems.
against over current in low voltage system.
c. Metal clad fuse:– Delay Fuse-
● Metal clad fuse is substitute for oil circuit breaker. WBMSC AE-18.12.2022
● It is used for very high voltage. RRB JE 19.09.2019, Shift-II
● It is most satisfactorily under short circuit condition. ● The delay fuses are used for protection of motor.
Other imp. Points.:- ● Delay fuse for motor allow higher current to flow
Fuse Rating when the motor needs to start and speed up without
damaging the equipment.
Pole fuse above 50A
The symbol of different type of fuses-
Sub circuit fuse below 9A DSSSB AE-08.03.2022, Shift-I
Main circuit fuse 15A to 50A Fuse Symbol
Purpose of aerial fuse in overhead service Re-wireable Fuse
connections:–
i. Protect distribution lines from high fault current.
ii. Protect service line from high fault current. Cartridge fuse (H.R.C)
iii. Protect consumer installation from high fault
current.
● The time of blow a fuse depends on magnitude of
excess current.
● The fuse used in DC circuit is of larger size. Fuse with striker
● DC fuses are much harder to stop than AC.
● Semiconductor fuse is very fast in operation Thermal fuse
compared to other fuse. Semiconductor fuse is HRC
fuse.
Oil fuse
● For achieving grading the ratio between major and
minor fuses shall be 2:1 or more.
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Content Details:
Introduction Circuit breaker An ideal circuit breaker Arc extinction medium MCB RCCB
MCCB Recovery voltage Transient recovery voltage Restriking voltage Frequency of
restriking voltage Prospective voltage Arc voltage Arcing time Difference between AC circuit
breaker and DC circuit breaker Classification of C.B. Air blast C.B. Auto reclosing of C.B.
Resistance switching Air break C.B. Sulpher hexafluoride (SF6) C.B. Vaccum C.B. Oil C.B.
Arc Extinguished by oil Specialities of oil C.B. Types of oil C.B. Magnetic C.B. High speed
C.B. Arrangement according to the dielectric strength HVDC C.B . Different type of C.B. and their
rating Making capacity Breaking capacity Rated short circuit making current Testing of C.B.
Earth leakage C.B. Interrupting time in C.B.

Introduction:-A circuit breaker is an essential The time of closing the cycle of modern circuit
breaker is .003 second.
automatic electrical switch that protects circuits ● In a circuit breaker, the arc is produced due to
from damage by interrupting excessive current from thermal emission and field emission.
an overload or short circuit, preventing fire and ● The rating of circuit breaker is usually determined
equipment failure. on the basis of maximum fault current i.e.
symmetrical fault.
Circuit breakers- ● In circuit breaker, ionisation is facilitated by
RSSB JE (Degree)-07.02.2025 increase of mean path, increase of field strength and
SSC JE (Pre)-05.12.2025, Shift-I high temperature of surrounding medium but not by
CSL ET-03.02.2025, SSC JE(Mains)-04.12.2023 contacts of material.
APPDCL JM-24.09.2023
● In the circuit breaker, the arcing contacts are made
ESE-2023
of copper tungsten alloy.
SSC JE (Mains) 04.12.2023, Shift-I
UPMRCL JE-03.01.2023,9:00AM-11:00AM
● A circuit breaker must be equipped for remote
UKPSC AE-27.04.2022,Paper –II operation in shunt trip.
UPPSC AE-29.05.2022, UP ITI Principal-09.01.2022 ● The operating time of circuit breaker between
UPPSC AE-13.12.2020,Paper –II instant of receiving trip signal and final contact
RRB JE 19.09.2019, Shift-II separation is 0.03-0.06 sec.
● "A circuit breaker can make or break a circuit either ● Under normal conditions- closed circuit-these
manually or automatically under no load, full load or contacts are touching each other, allowing the flow
of electric current.
short circuit conditions." ● Regular on the circuit for normal current is
Note: performed by the circuit in normal conditions.
A circuit breaker is designed to protect an electrical The major causes of failure of the circuit
circuit from damage caused by over load, short breaker:-
circuit and over current. DVC JE GR-II-23.03.2025, BEL EAT PUNE-2025
The circuit breaker is able to open under fault UPPSC AE-29.05.2022,Paper-II
conditions. (i) Trip circuit open
A circuit breaker is a current interrupting device. (ii) Trip latch defective
The function of circuit breaker is to safe guard the (iii) Spring defective
circuit. An ideal circuit breaker:-
The basic function of circuit breaker is to make or UPPSC Poly. Electrical Exam-2022, Paper-II
UPPSC AE-13.12.2020,Paper-II
break the circuit and to extinguish the arc. RRB JE 30.08.2019, Shift-II
The number of poles per phase of circuit breaker is a ● A circuit breaker is a switching device that interrupts
function of operating voltage. the abnormal or fault current.
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● When the circuit breaker is closed it acts as short Artificial Used in HVDC system
switch thus before interruption ideal circuit breaker current zero
should offer zero impedance. interruption
● When the circuit breaker is open, it acts as open ● Two theories which explain the phenomenon of
switch, after interruption ideal circuit breaker should arc extinction
offer infinite impedance. Energy Heat ↑→ Temperature↑→ Rate of
● An ideal circuit breaker should offer zero and balance theory ionization of medium ↑.
infinite impedance before and after arc interruption /Cassie's i. Rate of heat is more than rate of
respectively. theory heat dissipation ionization of
● Formation of an arc medium → move no. of ē↑→
SSC JE (Pre)-05.12.2025, Shift-I
Arc is restrike.
JMRC JE 2021
ii. If rate of heat < Rate of heat
dissipation then No ionization
→ No arc strike.
Voltage rate Ionization rate ↓→ Arc extinguish
● Representation of arc theory or No. of ē ↓→ Conductivity ↓→
Recovery rate Dielectric strength↑.
theory or
Slepian's theory
● The arc resistance depends ● Important terms related with C.B.
BPSC AAE Class-III 25.07.2021 The full form of :-
a. Degree of ionization b. Length of arc MCB- (Miniature Circuit Breaker):-
KPSC AE-07.06.2023, DSSSB-AE-25.11.2022
c. Cross - section of arc GETCO AE-06.01.2022
● Initiation of arc RRB JE 19.09.2019, Shift-II
i. By high voltage gradient at the cathode, resulting in ● Miniature circuit breaker is an electro-mechanical
field emission. device which protects the electrical circuit in the
ii. By increase of temperature, resulting in thermionic over load and short circuit faults.
emission. ● In case of temperature rise or overheating it may
take 2 sec. to 2 minutes for the MCB to trip.
Arc extinction medium:- RCCB- Residual Current Circuit Breaker
ISRO URSC TA-03.11.2022
MCCB- Molded Case Circuit Breaker:-
● Arc extinction medium in circuit breaker is Air, oil, NCL MT-2024
Sf6 etc. ● The MCCB provides the protection against overload
● Interruption of arc (Methods of arc extinction)- through thermal mechanism.
UPPSC [Link]-22.12.2021,Paper-II ELCB- Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker
MPSC AE- (Mains)-29.10.2022,Paper-II Note:- MCB does not have any repairable
UPPSC AE-29.05.2022,Paper-II, TSPSC AE-05.03.2023,Paper-II
component.
High Lengthening the arc Recovery voltage:-
resistance Splitting the arc, Cooling the arc, BDL MT-13.04.2025, UP ITI Principal-09.01.2022
interruption Reducing X-section of the arc WBPSC JE-2022, UPSC AE-29.05.2022,Paper-II
(Only used in ● Recovery voltage is the system voltage appearing
DC) across the circuit breaker contacts after arc
Rarc ∝ ℓ ↑→ A ↓→ Conductivity ↓ extinction.
Rarc↑→I↓→Heat↓→Temperature↓ ● The power frequency R.M.S. voltage that appears
→Arc will across the circuit breaker contacts after the transient
extinguish oscillations die out and final extinction of arc that
results in all the poles is called recovery voltage.
Current zero ● It is the voltage having normal power frequency
interruption/ which appears after the transient voltage.
Low ● Recovery voltage is RMS in nature.
resistance ● The voltage across the circuit breaker contacts after
interruption Used in AC circuit breaker final current is zero is known as Recovery voltage.
I = 0 → H = 0, Temperature = 0 ● Effect of reactance drop and armature reaction on
Arc will extinguish. recovery voltage.
● Low resistance method is Transient recovery voltage (Active recovery
voltage):-
applicable only for AC circuit and It CGPEB AE-2024
is possible there because of ● This voltage appears between the contacts
presence of natural zero of current. immediately after final arc interruption.
● The arc gets extinguished at the ● It is instantaneous value
natural zero of the AC wave. v = vm sin ωt

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Note:-Active recovery voltage depends on armature VRE = ARV (1 − cos180 ) = ARV (1 + 1)

reaction, power factor and circuit condition.
VRE = 2ARV Doubling Effect
● Time at which maximum restriking voltage occurs is
t m = π LC
Rate of Rising of Restriking Voltage (RRRV):-
ECIL GET-01.01.2026
RRB JE-22.04.2025, Shift-II (Cancelled)
SSC JE (Pre)-04.12.2025, Shift-II
Active recovery voltage = Vm sin (2π + φ) MPSC AE (Mains)-29.10.2022,Paper-II
= Vm sinφ MPPSC AE-03.07.2022
MPSC AE (Mains)-29.10.2022,Paper-II
ARV = Vm sinφ = K1K2K3 Vm sinφ
d ARV
K1 = Reduction due to armature reaction ( VRE ) = sin ω0 t
→(1)−L.G. dt LC
K 2 = First pole clear factor—|
→(1.5)− ARV
(unground fault) ( RRRV )max = , RRR ∝ ω0
LC
→1−φ=1
K 3 —|
→3−φ= 3 2Vm
( RRR )Avg =
For maximum ARV, value of power factor π LC
(ARV) maximum - φ = 90º Note:
P.F. = cosφ = cos 90º = 0 The rate of rise of restriking voltage is directly
Effect of natural frequency on ARV proportional to natural frequency.
f ↑ → breaking capacity reduces ● RRRV depends on both inductance and capacitance
● If the frequency is increase then breaking capacity is of the system.
reduced. ● The unit of rate of rise of restriking voltage
Effect of power factor on ARV (R.R.R.V) is kV/µs
If the P.F. is low then interrupting of such current is ● Minimize the oscillation = Used resistance
difficult. because energy is not lost in LC system
Restriking Voltage:- R ↑ → inductor energy ↓
RPSC AE-28.09.2025
TSPSC AE-05.03.2023,Paper-II LC → oscillation → Transient voltage → oscillation
DSSB AE-25.11. 2022 damp out by R
UPPSC AE-29. 05.2022,Paper-II Note:-
HPCL-11.08.2021,2:00PM-4:30PM
● The transient voltage that appears across the circuit 1 L
● R= Critical damping
breaker contact at the instant of arc extinction is called 2 C
restriking voltage.
Note: 1 L
● R> Under damping
● Restriking voltage is measured in peak value. 2 C
When i = 0 → across contact 1 L
● Peak value of Restriking voltage = 2 Em, where Em= ● R< Over damping
peak value of phase votlage 2 C
● Minimum Restriking voltage = 0 Arc voltage:-
So that high transient voltage develops in circuit ISRO URSC TA-03.11.2022, GPSC AE-05.09.2021
breaker due to sudden distribution of energy TN TRB [Link].-11.12.2021
between electric field and magnetic field. • The voltage that appears across the contact of circuit
Nature → Transient voltage. breaker during arcing is called the arc voltage.
● Restriking voltage will never be negative or
Frequency of restriking voltage:- • The voltage drop across the arc is called arc voltage.
DMRC JE-20.02.2020
• For moderated values of current and voltage the arc
1 1
ω0 = ⇒ f0 = can be expressed by Ayrton's equation.
LC 2π LC B
Restriking voltage - VRE = ARV [1 − cos ωt ] eo = A +
i
Prospective voltage (Voltage in interrupt • The value of Arc voltage is less than the system
Condition):- voltage (or the normal line voltage).
RPSC AE-28.09.2025, TSPSC AE-05.03.2023,Paper-II
ESE-2022 • The arc voltage in a circuit breaker is in the phase
MPSC AE (Mains)-29.10.2022, MPPSC AE-2020 with the arc current.
1 1 L • AC voltage in circuit breaker in phase with arc
CV 2 = LI2 ⇒ V = i , if ω0 t = π current because the arc produced due to resistive
2 2 C nature in circuit breaker.
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Arcing Time:- zero. widely open

GPSC AE-05.09.2021, HPPSC AE-06.11.2022 C.B. can have higher The C.B. can have lesser
• Arcing time is the time between the instant of rating for same rating for same capacity due
separation of the circuit breaker contacts and instant
of arc extinction. capacity. to larger arc currents.
Difference between AC circuit breaker and DC Arc current naturally Arc current is forced to zero.
circuit breaker:- reduced to zero.
RPSC Vice Principal/Superintendent ITI-30.07.2025
UPPSC Poly. [Link]. – 22.12.2021 Smaller voltage Larger voltages appear.
AC circuit breaker DC circuit breaker appear across C.B.
Current is reduced to Current is never reduced to contacts during arc.
zero twice in every zero. interruption
cycle.
AC circuit breaker has DC circuit breaker has no
Arc current can be Arc is continues and arc
reduced to zero when current is difficult to reduce a natural current zero current zero crossing point.
voltage is reduced to unless the contacts are crossing point.

Air blast circuit breakers:- Auto reclosing of circuit breaker is used in air blast
BDL MT-17.04.2022, KPTCL-24.07.2022 circuit breaker. It defect a fault and opens for pre
MPESB JE-11.10.2022,Shift-II programmed time, before closing again
HPPSC PWD AE-24.08.2021
UPPSC Poly. Tech. Lect.-22.12.2021,Paper-II
automatically. Hence, it increases transient operating
RRB JE 19.09.2019, Shift-II time of the relay.
Advantages
No fire hazards High speed operation
• Arc duration is short Maintenance free operation
• Produces least arc energy
Disadvantages
• Required high pressure air
• Possibility of air leakages
• High current chopping may occur
• Maintenance of compressor
Voltage range - 132 kV to 400 kV Applications
Medium → Compressed air is used • Railway electrification.
Pressure- 20 kg /cm2 to 30 kg/cm2 • Frequently operation
• Air Blast circuit breaker has higher rating (60 kV- • Repeated duty/(i) Arc furnace duty (ii) Traction
800 kV) system
• Air Blast circuit breakers are commonly used in high- Note:
voltage system. UPPSC AE (Mains) Electrical Exam-2025, Paper-II
Types • Arc chutes are used in Air blast circuit breakers.
(i) Cross blast (ii) Axial blast • Arc chutes are used in circuit breakers to quench and
(iii) Radial blast extinguish the electrical arc that forms when the
Auto reclosing of circuit breaker:- circuit breaker interrupts the flow of current during a
BEL EAT PUNE-2025 fault condition.
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• Current chopping phenomenon is related to small Parts of air C.B-

inductive current. • Main contacts.
• Resistance switching is used in air blast circuit • Current carrying terminals.
breaker to damp out the fast transient. • Arcing contacts.
• Resistance switching is used in Air blast circuit • Arc getting split
breaker, it is used for remove current chopping • Arc rising in the direction of the arrow.
phenomena. • Arc splitter plates
• Current chopping phenomena occurs in Air Blast Applications
circuit breaker. Industrial switchgear
Cooling of Circuit Breaker – Auxiliary switchgear in generating stations
UPCL AE 29.08.2021
Note:
• An air blast cooling is used to cooled the
transformer its MVA rating is more than 3MVA but • Air circuit breakers arc used for low and medium
not exceed 15 MVA. voltage line upto 6.6kV to 12kV.
Resistance Switching: • Air break circuit breakers are used for low voltages
generally upto 15 kV.
UPPSC AE (Mains)-29.09.2025,Paper-II • Air is the medium is employed for extinction of Arc.
GPSC AE-29.12.2024, ESE-2023 • Air break circuit breakers are used in DC circuits
UPPSC Poly. Tech. Lect.-22.12.2021,Paper-II and AC circuits upto 12kV. where air is atmospheric
pressure is used.
• Magnetic blowout coils are generally used in air
break circuit breaker.
Sulpher hexafluoride (SF6) circuit breaker

• Resistance switching is used to reduce the restriking

voltage (RRRV Rate of rise of restriking voltage)
and transient oscillations.
• Resistance switching is employed in circuit breakers
having a high post zero resistance of contact space.
• The resistance switching is mainly used for reducing
the restriking voltage and the transient voltage surge. Properties of SF6 gas
• A fixed resistance connected in parallel with the SSC JE (Mains) 07.04.2026
contact space or arc is called the resistance TNPSC CTS TA 2025 Paper-II
switching. RRB JE-04.06.2025, Shift-I, (Re-exam)
• Resistance switching is normally employed in air HURL GET 2024, KSEB Sub Engineer 10.02.2023
AEGCL AE 18.12.2023, KPSC AE 07.06.2023
blast circuit. UKPSC AE 27.04.2022 Paper-II
In resistance switching, arc resistance is TNPSC (Junior electrical inspector) 25.07.2022
increased by three methods- UP ITI Principal 09.01.2022
UPPSC AE 29.05.2022 Paper –II, DMRC JE-20.02.2020 DSSSB AE 25.11.2022, Chandigarh JE 14.08.2021
(1) Lengthening of arc UPRVUNL AE 04.07.2021, HPSSC JE 08.08.2021
(2) Splitting of arc GPSC AE 05.09.2021
TSPSC AE 05.03.2023 Paper-II
(3) Cooling of arc DVC JE GR-II 23.03.2025 04PM – 06PM
• Critical value of resistance:- HPPSC PWD AE 24.08.2021
Physical Colourless, odourless, non-toxic
1 L and non-harmful to health
R= properties
2 C Non flammable
Having high density (six times that
L
R = 0.5 of air)
C Heat transferability is high (1.6
Where, L = Inductance , C = Capacitance times of air)
Air break circuit breaker – Liquefication starts at low
UPPSC AE 29.05.2022 Paper –II, WB PSC AE 2022 temperature (at 9ºC)
MPSC AE (Mains) 29.10.2022 Paper-II The gas is electronegative
KPSC KSEB AE 03.06.2022, OHPC Electrical Trainee 29.11.2022 Chemical Chemically inert and stable upto
• Employed in both AC & DC type of circuit breaker properties 500ºC
up to 12 kV. During arc extinction SF6 is
460 V - 3.3 kV → 400 - 3500 Amp decomposed to SF4, SF2
6.6 kV → 400 - 2400 Amp The metallic fluorides are good
Medium ⇒ Atmospheric pressure air dielectric materials.

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Dielectric Dielectric strength of SF6 gas at Advantages

properties atmospheric pressure is 2.9 times • Compact in size and have longer life
that of air and 30% less than that of • with stand lightning surges
dielectric oil • Low arc energy
Parts of SF6 Moveable cylinder • Low inertia
C.B Insulating nozzle Disadvantages
Moving contact Fixed contact TSPSC AE 05.03.2023 Paper-II
Fixed piston • Erosion of contact material
Advantages Size is smaller, noiseless operation • Current chopping because of low pressure
Less arcing time, no reduction in Application
the dielectric strength of the gas • High voltage circuit.
Not suffer oxidation • Used in substation and generators.
Heat transferability high Note:-
Minimum maintenance • In railway traction current and electric supply switching.
Non flammable, chemically stable • To limit current chopping in a vacuum circuit breakers,
Current chopping is minimum the contact material employed should have the properties
Dis- Sealing problem High cost of low conductivity and high vapour pressure.
advantages Inhaling SF6 can be harmful • Oil circuit breaker
Applications Voltage range - 115 kV to 500 kV GPSC AE 29.12.2024
Power - 10 MVA to 20 MVA
Interrupting time - 3 cycles and less
Pressure - 3 - 5 kg/cm2
voltage limit upto 765kV
Low arc time constant
High density(high molecular
weight)
Low gas viscosity.
In high voltage upto 760kV Sf6 is
used so electrical clearance reduce.
Note:
• SF6 gas has high heat transfer property due to higher
molecular weight and low gas viscosity
Vacuum circuit breakers –
APPSC AE 2025, HURL GT 2024
PGCIL Diploma trainee 05.05.2023
Arc Extingushed by Oil
SSC JE (Pre)-04.12.2025, Shift-II
HPSC AE 06.11.2022
OHPC Electrical trainee 29.11.2022
Required Properties of Oil
UPPSC Poly. Electrical Exam-2022, Paper-II • It should have insulating properties.
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 22.12.2021 Paper-II • Its dielectric constant should be high.
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 22.12.2021 • The gas produced by its analysis should have
JK PSC AE 10.04.2021 Paper-I cooling properties.
• It should not be flammable.
• It should not contain moisture or water
• It should have heat transferring properties
• Its viscosity should be low.
• It should prevent re-striking of the arc generated in
the circuit breaker.
Functions of oil in oil circuit breaker
DMRC JE 26.02.202020
• It works to extinguish the arc.
• It works as an insulator
• It works as a cooling agent.
• It works as a heat transferring agent
• Arc quenching medium - vacuum Specialties of oil circuit breakers –
• Degree of vacuum being in the range from 10–7 to HPCL-11.08.2021,2:00PM-4:30PM
10–5 torr. • In this the arc energy is exploited by oil
• Where the voltage is high and current to be interrupted is decomposition.
low the vacuum circuit breaker is used. • In this oil gets decomposed by the heat of the arc
and produces hydrogen gas which works to cool arc
• To limit current chopping in vacuum circuit breaker and extinguish.
contact material used has high vapour pressure and • Oil circuit breaker is such type of circuit breaker
low conductivity material is more desirable to limit used oil as a dielectric or insulating medium for arc
the current chopping. extinction. Due to heat of the arc gases such as
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acetylene, methane and hydrogen are librated into • HVDC C.B. is nothing but a vacuum C.B.
the atmosphere. Ammonia gas is not librated during
decomposition of oil
• In this, oil works as a heat transfer medium.
• In this, after zero current, the oil flows towards the
arc site.
• Due to the above mentioned properties of oil, oil
circuit breakers of high separation capacity can
Different Types of circuit breakers and
be manufactured in small size. their Ratings
Types of Oil Circuit Breaker- Air circuit used for medium voltage up to
i. Bulk oil circuit breakers Breakers 36 kV
ii. Minimum oil circuit breakers (ACBs) Rated breaking current 16kA to
50 kA
Plain break Single break oil circuit breaker
Rated making current 40kA to
oil circuit Double break oil circuit breaker
125 kA
breaker Suitable up-to 150 MVA
Vacuum circuit used from 26kV up to 220kV
Voltage range – up-to 11 kV
Breakers Rated breaking current 16kA to
Self Plain explosion jet (VCBs) 63kA
generated Cross jet explosion pot Rated making current 40kA to
pressure oil Self compensated explosion pot 160 kA
circuit Oil blast explosion pot Sulfur Used Above 72.5kV upto
breaker Hexafluoride 765kV.
Forced blast Advantage- Performance of the (SF6) Circuit Rated breaking current 16kA to
oil circuit breaker is constant even at low breakers 63 kA
breakers currents as pressure developed in Rated making current 40 kA to
independent of fault current to be 160 kA
interrupted Oil circuit Used upto 170kV
Note- The chances of arc interruption is subsequent breakers Rated breaking current 16kA to
current zero increase in case of oil circuit breaker. (OCBs) 50kA
Magnetic circuit breaker- Rated making current 40kA to
UP ITI Principal 09.01.2022 125kA
• Magnetic circuit breaker has instantaneous trip
• Selection of circuit breaker -
action.
i. The maximum fault current
• Magnetic circuit breaker do not depend on heating a ii. The maximum current to be carried momentarily
bimetallic strip there is a very little time delay in the
opening of the contacts when an overload occurs for V
rms current of C.B. = 1.5× d"
this reason they are often referred to as Xd
instantaneous circuit breaker.
High speed circuit breaker – Making capacity
UPPSC AE 29.05.2022 Paper-II
DVC JE GR –II 23.03.2025 12:30 PM – 02:30 PM TSPSC AE 05.03.2023 Paper-II
KPSC AE 07.06.2023, UP ITI Principal 09.01.2022
KPSC KSEB AE 03.06.2022, UPPSC AE 13.12.2020 Paper-II
The peak value of current during the first cycle of
current wave after the closure of circuit breaker is
• The total clearing time for a high speed circuit
known as making capacity.
breaker is 1 to 2 cycles.
• Making capacity of circuit breaker depends on operating
• The use of high speed circuit breakers improves the voltage, short circuit MVA, and fault current.
system stability (transient stability). Making capacity = 2.55× symmetrical braking
• If the large disturbance occurs in the system due to capacity
the sudden removal of the load, line switching Breaking capacity
operations, fault occurs in the system, sudden output It is r.m.s current that a circuit breaker is capable of
of line etc, then the ability of power system return to breaking at given recovery voltage and rate of rise of
its normal condition after a large disturbance called re-striking voltage
transient stability. • Breaking capacity is in MVA
Arrangement according to the dielectric Rating of circuit breaker- Some important
strength- characteristics -
MPESB JE 11.11.2022 Paper-II • Rated voltage • Rated insulation level
• The correct arrangement according to the dielectric • Rated normal current • Rated frequency
strength of different circuit breakers- • Rated duration of short circuit
SF6 circuit breaker > Vacuum circuit breaker > Air • Rated short circuit breaking current
circuit breaker
HVDC circuit breaker • Rated short circuit making current
• Parallel L.C circuit to introduce for artificial current • Rated peak withstand current
zero • Rated TRV for terminal fault

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• Rated operating sequence • Short circuit test - (Rating of the C.B.)

• Rated supply voltage (i) Making capacity test
• Rated pressure of compressed gas (ii) Breaking capacity test
Rated short circuit breaking current – (iii) Operating duty test
SSC JE (Mains) 07.04.2026 Earth leakage circuit breaker (ELCB)
RPSC AE 28.09.2025, RSSB JE (Degree) 07.02.2025 MPMKVVCL JE 30.03.2025 Shift-II
SSC JE (Pre) 05.12.2025, Shift-I PGCIL Diploma trainee 05.12.2023
CSL ET-03.02.2025 DSSSB AE 25.11.2022
ESE 2024, APGCL AM 15.10.2023 • ELCB helps detect current leaks and insulation
UPPSC AE 29.05.2022 Paper-II
failures in the electrical circuit that would cause
I AC electrical shocks to anyone coming into contact with
• Symmetrical breaking current = = Irms
2 the circuit.
• Earth leakage circuit breakers are not suitable for
Circuit Breaker Capacity ( MVA )
Breaking current = protecting against over loads, short circuits or for
3 × Rated Voltage ( kV ) installations with DC leakage.
2 • Earth leakage circuit breaker is installed near the
I  main board which provides protection to entire
• Asymmetrical breaking current =  AC  + I2DC
 2 installation.
The insulation resistance of high voltage circuit
• Breaking capacity = 3VI (MVA) breaker-
Rated short circuit making current - WBPSC JE 2022
RPSC Vice principal/Superintendent ITI 30.07.2025 •
The insulation resistance of high voltage circuit
UP ITI Principal 09.01.2022 breaker is 2000 MΩ.
UPPSC Poly. Electrical Exam-2022, Paper-II
MPSC AE (Mains) 29.10.2022 Paper-II Voltage level Voltage range Insulation
UPPSC Poly. Tech. Lect. 22.12.2021 Paper-II (kV) resistance
• It is peak value of current during the first half cycle (MΩ)
of current wave after closing of C.B. contacts. Low voltage Less than 1 1 to 2
I m(making ) = 1.8 × 2 × I(B) , I m = 2 × I rms Medium voltage 1 to 100 20 to 25
1.8 → Consider for doubling effect High voltage 100 to 345 100
• Making current (Im) = 2.55× Breaking current(IB) Extra High 345 to 765 100 to 500
• Making current > Breaking current voltage
Ultra High Above 765 Above 500
Making capacity = 3Vrms I m voltage
Note: Interrupting time in circuit breaker –
• Breaking current- RMS value GPSC AE 29.12.2024 , UKPSC 27.04.2022 Paper –II
TSNPDCL 14.08.2022
• Making current- Peak value or instantiations value
Rated operating sequence -
i. O - t - Co - T - Co
ii. Co - t' - Co
O = operation of opening
t = 3 minutes for circuit breaker not to be used for
rapid auto - re-closure
Co = Closing followed by opening
T = 3 minutes
t' = 15 sec for C.B. not to be used for rapid auto-re-
closure
Testing of circuit breakers –
BEL EAT PUNE-2025, GPSC AAE 30.03.2025,
ESE -2022, UKPSC AE 27.04.2022 Paper-II
• Type test • Circuit breaker “Interrupting time” is the period
(i) Short circuit test (ii) Dielectric test between the instant of energizing of tripping coil and
(iii) Thermal test extinguishing of arc.
• Routine test • Arcing time is the time between instant of the
• Development tests separation of the circuit breaker contacts and instant
• Reliability tests of arc extinction.
• Commissioning tests • The interrupting time of a circuit breaker is the
period between the instant of energizing of the trip
• Indirect testing circuit and the arc extinction on an opening
• Direct testing - (used for full power or stress) operation.

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Content Details:
Introduction Relay Essential qualities and requirements of protective relaying Basic terminologies
used in protective relay Protective relay Burden Thermal relay Operating speed Pickup value
Rest value Reach Reach, over reach, Under reach Blind spot Pickup current Calculation of
relay operating time Classification of protective relays Electromagnetic relay Operating principle of
electromagnetic attraction relays Induction relays Induction disc relay Buchholz relay Over relay
current IDMT Relay characteristics Directional power relay Directional induction type over current
relay Differential relay Distance relay.

● Speed and time

Introduction- ● Selectivity and discrimination
A relay is an electrically\ operated switch that uses a ● Simplicity and economy
small current or voltage to control a separate, often Selectivity- Selectivity is defined as the ability of
higher power, circuit, acting as an interface or protection system to eliminate a fault in a shortest
amplifier for signals, with common types being time possible with the least disconnection of the
electromechanical (using an electromagnet) and system components.
solid-state (using semiconductors) for applications
from home applications to industrial control. Sensitivity-
TSPSC AE-05.03.2023, Paper-II
They enable isolation between circuits and allow GETCO AE-06.01.2022
low-power devices (like microcontrollers) to DMRC JE 20.02.2020
manage high-power loads (like motors or heaters) The ability of relay to operate with low value of
without direct human interaction functioning much actuating quantity or sensitivity is expressed in
like a remote control switch. terms of minimum volt amperes required for the
Relay- relay operation.
GPSC AE-2020, WBMSC AE-18.12.2022 Speed- Speed of operation is such that it suited the
A relay is an electrically operated switch. It consists of a desired level of fault current. For this we use
set of input terminals for a single or multiple control primary protection and back up protection.
signals, and a set of operating contact terminals.
Reliability-
Note: RRB JE 22.04.2025, Shift-II (Cancelled)
A relay is an automatic protecting device that sense An ability of relay system to operate under
the abnormal condition in an electrical circuit and predetermined condition is called reliability.
closes its contacts and give the tripping signal to
circuit breaker fixed contact. I
ks = s
• Relay is an electromechanical switch. Io
• Relay is primary component that ensures the safety
of the line from damage. Where,
• Relay performs the function of fault detection. ks = Sensitivity factor
• Relay gets its operating energy from C.T. and P.T. Is = Minimum short circuit current in the zone
• Core material of a good relay have narrow hysteresis Io = Minimum operating current for the protection
loop. • Basic terminologies used in protective relay –
Essential qualities and requirements of protective Protective relay Burden Relay time
relaying – Time delay Breaker time Pickup
ESE -2022 Pickup value Trip circuit Earth fault
● Reliability ● Stability Phase fault Reach Inter lock
● Sensitivity ● Adequateness Dropout or reset Blind spot Reset time

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Operating force Flag or target Operating time Pick-up value-

Unit protection Protective scheme RRB JE-22.04.2025, Shift-I
TNTRB Poly. Tech. Lect.-11.12.2021
Restraining force Current setting DMRC JE 2018, Shift-I
Fault clearing time ● The value of the preset current above which the
Sealing relays or holding relays relay operates is known as pickup value.
Plug setting multiplier (P.S.M.) ● The minimum value of current at which a relay
Time - multiplier setting (T.M S.) operates is called the pick-up value.
Protective Relay- • If the current through relay coil is less than the pick-
BEL Bengaluru PTE-08.01.2025
RRB JE-22.04.2025, Shift-II (Cancelled) up value then relay won't operate.
ESE-2022 • If the current through the relay coil is more than
TNTRB Poly. Lect.-11.12.2021 pick-up value then relay will operate.
UPPSC AE-13.12.2020, Paper-II
Reset value- The threshold value of actuating
quantities which the relay is de-energised and return
to its normal position.
Reach- Mostly is used in connection with distance relay.
Over reach- Sometimes a relay may operate even
when a fault point is beyond its present reach.
A relay is said to “over reach” when it operates at a
current which is lower than its setting.
Under reach-
GPSC AE-05.09.2021
● The tendency of the distance relay to restrain (not to
operate) at the preset value of the impedance or
A protective Relay is a device that detects the fault and impedance less than the preset value is known as
initiates the operation of the circuit breaker to isolate the under reach.
defective elements from the rest of the system. ● Some times a relay may fail to operate even when
Note- the fault point is within its reach it is said to under
● Protective Relay works as a sensing device. reach.
● Protective Relay can be designed to respond to light ● It can happen due to incorrect setting, CT/PT errors,
intensity, impedance, temperature, resistance, or high fault resistance, causing the relay to see an
reactance, voltage and current.
apparent impedance larger than the actual fault
● Low contact pressure will not help in achieving impedance.
inherent reliability in protective relay.
● Under reaching can lead to delayed fault clearance,
● Robust construction, good workmanship and just
reducing system stability and protection reliability.
free enclosures will help in achieving inherent
reliability in protective relay Blind spot- Blind spot is a point in the zones of
Burden- protection where no protection is available.
WBMSC AE-18.12.2023 • Plug Setting Multiplier (P.S.M.)-
• Electrical power consumed by the relay circuit at the RPSC AE-28.09.2025, MPMKVVCL JE-30.03.2025, Shift-II
APSC AE (PHED)-09.06.2024,
specified voltage and current is called burden. CGPEB AE-2024, UP ITI Principal-09.01.2022,
• The burden indicates the power consumption of the UPPSC Poly. Electrical Exam-2022, Paper-II
relay circuit elements. UKPSC AE-27.04.2022, Paper-II, WBPSC AE-2022
● Burden is resistive element so it will always absorb GETCO JE-03.01.2022, 12:00 PM to 2:00 PM
power. TNPSC [Link] Inspector-25.07.2022
DSSSB AE-20.06.2022, UPPSC AE-29.05.2022, Paper-II
• Burden is expressed in volt-Ampere (VA) for AC MPPSC AE Mains-29.10.2022, Paper-II, TSSPDCL AE-2022
and watt for DC. AEGCL AM-2021, JPSC AE-10.04.2021, Paper-I
Thermal relay- UPRVUNL AE-04.07.2021, GPSC AE-05.09.2021
RRB JE 19.09.2019, Shift-II UPPSC AE-13.12.2020, Paper-II
Thermal relay are used in time delay. They operate Fault current in relay coil
under predetermined conditions to fulfill the control P.S.M. =
requirements. Pick up current
• When thermal relay is used in motor, it provides Fault current in relay coil
overload protection. P.S.M. =
Operating Speed- It is the speed which elapses Rated secondary current of C.T. × Current setting
from the instant at which the actuating quantity ● Fault current in relay coil = Line fault current × C.T.
exceeds the relays pick-up values to the instant at ratio
which the relay closes it. The operating speed of the Pickup Current-
relay depends upon- RPSC Vice Principal/Superintendent ITI-30.07.2025
(i) Rate of flux blind up. DSSSB-08.03.2022, AEGCL AM-2021
HPPSC PWD AE-24.07.2021
(ii) Armature core air gap.
● Pickup Current = Rated secondary current of CT × Current setting
(iii) Spring tension.
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Pick up Current ● Electromagnetic induction relay operate on the

● Current setting = × 100 principle of induction motor and are widely used for
Rated Secondary Current of CT
protective relaying purposes involving ac quantities.
• Time Multiplier Setting (TMS)- ● They are not used with dc quantities.
RSSB JE(Degree)-06.02.2025 ● In an inverse definite minimum time
UPPSC AE-29.05.2022, Paper-II
MPPSC AE Mains-29.10.2022, Paper-II electromagnetic type over current relay, the
GETCO JE-03.01.2022, 12:00 PM to 2:00 PM minimum time feature is achieved because of
saturation of the magnetic circuit.
Required operating time T
TMS = , TMS = Operating principle of electromagnetic attraction
Operating time at TMS = 1 Tm relays -
Note- For DC operation- In DC operation, the
● TMS ∝ operating time electromagnetic force is constant when this force
● PSM and TMS both depend on fault current. exceeds the restraining force, the relay operates.
● TMS is used modify the time delay based on fault f e = k1I 2 fr = k 2
severity.
• Calculation of relay operating time - Where,
Parameters must be known. fe = Electromagnetic force
i. Current setting ii. Time multiplier setting k1 = Constant, k2 = Constant
iii. Level of fault current iv. Corresponding C.T. ratio I = Operating current in a coil
v. Time/P.S.M. curve or tabular data fr = Restraining force due to spring including friction
• Classification of protective relays – on the average of relay operating
Electromagnetic Solenoid type fe = fr, k1I2 = k2
attraction type Attracted armature type k2 k 2 (constant)
relays Balanced beam type I2 = , I=
k1 k1
Induction type Induction Disc type
relays Induction cup type This is the current at which relay operates in case of
Directional type Reverse current type DC operation -
relays Reverse power type For AC operation- In AC electromagnetic relays,
the electromagnetic force is proportional to the
Relays based on Instantaneous type
square of the current, but it is not constant.
timing Definite time lag type
Inverse time lag type 1 2 1 2
f e = kI 2 = kI m − kI m cos 2ωt
Distance type Impedance type 2 2
relays Reactance type Where,
Admittance type k = Constant
Differential type Current differential type Im = Maximum value of the operating current
relays Voltage differential type ● It shows that the electromagnetic force consist of
Other types of Under voltage, current, two components-
relays power relay i. Constant, independent of time
Over voltage, current, power ii. Pulsating at double the frequency of apply voltage.
relay The total force thus pulsates at double the frequency.
Thermal relay Rectifier
relay
Permanent magnet moving
coil relay
Static relay Gas operated
relay
Electromagnetic Relay-
GPSC AE-05.09.2021, GPSC AE-10.04.2021, Paper-I
GPSC AE-2020, GPSC AE-01.03.2020 Remember point-
Thus relay armature pulsates at double frequency.
This causes the relay to hum and produces a noise. It
may cause damage to the relay contacts. To
overcome this difficulty using shading in a relay.
Advantages of electromagnetic relays -
1. Can be used for both AC and DC.
2. They have fast operation and fast reset.
3. These are almost instantaneous.

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4. High operating speed with operating time in mili Induction Disc Relay-An induction disc type relay
seconds (ms) is a type of electromagnetic relay. It is not an
5. The pickup value can be as high as 90-95% for DC instantaneous relay.
operation and 60 to 90% for the AC operation. ● The rotation of an induction disc relay under the
Disadvantages - poles is from unshaded pole to shaded pole.
1. The directional feature is absent. ● The induction disc relay is made up of two
2. The working can be affected by the transients. electromagnets and a rotating disc set on a shaft.
3. Due to the presence of moving parts, the response is ● Types (Based on construction)
not very quick due to inertia of the parts, compared 1. Shaded pole type
to modern static relays. 2. Watt hour meter type
5. Due to high burden on current and potential 3. induction cup type
transformers, the size is large and cost is high. Note-
6. Life is less and high failure rate compared to static relay. The most efficient torque producing actuating
Applications of electromagnetic relays - structure in a induction relay is induction cup
1. The protection of various AC and DC equipments. structure.
2. Over/under current and voltage protection of various Induction cup structure relays are very fast in
AC and DC equipments. operation and may have on operating time of less
3. In the definite time lag over current and earth fault than 0.01 second.
protection. Torque equation for induction type relays -
4. For the differential protection.
T ∝ φ1φ2 sin α
5. used as auxiliary relays in the contact systems of
protective relaying schemes. Where,
Induction type relays α = Phase difference between φ1 & φ2
RRB JE-04.06.2025, Shift-I (Re-exam) Note:
● The induction type relays are also called magnitude Net force or torque acting on the disc is same at
relays. These relays works on the principle of the every instant. The action of relay under such force is
induction motor or an energy meter. free from vibrations.
Direction of net force –
Decided by which flux is leading the other.
1- Shaded pole type Watt hour meter type Induction cup type relay
Induction relay UPPSC AE-13.12.2020, Paper-II
WBMSC AE-18.12.2022
T ∝ φs φu sin α , if φs & φu ∝ I T = Kφ1φ2 sin α • Most accurate relay
• Very fast in operation. (10 ms)
T ∝ I 2 sin α , • Current setting can be
adjusted • Adjustable speeds are possible
T = kI 2
• Most of the induction • Various shapes of time against operating quantity
Where, relays are of watt hour curves can be obtained.
φs = Flux shaded portion meter type. ● It has the most efficient torque producing actuating
φu = Flux in unshaded portion • Operation can be structure.
sin α = Constant for the given design. controlled by opening or ● Induction cup relay is operated due to changes in
closing of the secondary
current, voltage, impedance.
winding.
Universal relay torque equation - Components -
Mercury switch pair Alarm circuit
T = k1I + k 2 V + k 3 VI cos ( θ − τ ) + k 4
2 2
Trip circuit Float Test cock
Where, Flap valve Drain valve Release cock
k1I2 = Torque produced by current coil Advantage -
k2V2 = Torque produced by voltage coil ● Buchholz relay indicates fault at incipient stage by
k3VI cos (θ-τ) = Torque produced by both coils detecting the fault early and operating the alarm
k1, k2 and k3 are constant circuit.
θ = Angle between V and I ● It is the simplest protection in case of transformers.
τ = Maximum torque angle Limitations -
k4 = Torque produced by control spring. ● Buchholz relay is used only for oil immersed
3. Buchholz relay (Gas actuated relay) - transformers.
● Buchholz relay is a gas operated relay. It is used for ● Only faults below oil level are detected.
the protection of oil immersed transformers against ● Setting of the mercury switches cannot be kept too
all internal faults. sensitive otherwise the relay can operate due to
● It is also known as incipient fault relay. bubbles, vibration, earthquakes, mechanical shocks etc.
● Oil decomposes - generating the hydrogen gas. ● The relay is slow to operate having minimum
● Buchholz relays are provided for the transformer operating time of 0.1 seconds and average time of
having rating above 500 kVA. 0.2 seconds.
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Applications - Characteristic-
● Local overheating Winding short circuit ESE-2023
● Bushing puncture Winding earth faults
● Entrance of air bubbles in oil
● Short circuited lamination
● Loose electrical contacts
● Short circuit between phases
● Loss of oil and reduction in oil level due to leakage.
Design considerations of electromagnetic relay -
BEL EAT PUNE-2025 IDMT Relay Characteristics-
1. Coils 2. Case 3. Movable assembly MPSC AE Mains-29.10.2022, Paper-II
4. Relay contacts 5. Bearings 6. Operation indicator GETCO-05.01.2022, 4:00 PM to 6:00 PM
7. Adjustment of reset IDMT relay Equations [IEC 60255]
4. Overcurrent relays- characteristics
SSC JE (Pre) 06.12.2025, Shift-I Normally Inverse or 0.14
MPPSC AE-03.07.2022 Standard Inverse t= × T.M.S.
PGCIL Diploma Trainee-05.12.2020 PSM 0.02 − 1
● The overcurrent relays are classified depending upon Very inverse 13.5
the time of operation. t= × TMS
PSM1 − 1
● Overcurrent relays are single actuating quality Extremely inverse 80
relays. t= × TMS
● In an overcurrent relay the time of operation is PSM 2 − 1
inversely proportional to the square of the current. Long time inverse or long 120
time stand by earth fault t= × TMS
1 PSM1 − 1
T∝ Generally,
I2
Where, β
T = Time of operation t= α
× T.M.S
 I
I = Current   −1
Instantaneous No intentional time delay  I0 
over current provided. Where,
relays The operating time is less than t = Time of actuation
NHSRCL JM- 0.01 seconds. α, β = Constant which depends on the type of
13.07.2023 relay
These relays are effective only
when the impedance between the I = Fault current
relay and the source (Zs) is very I0 = Pick up current.
small compared to the impedance TMS = Time multiplier setting.
of the protected section (Ze). Note-
Inverse If the saturation occurs at a very ● Inverse definite minimum time lag relay is also
called over current relay.
definite time early stage then the time of
● An IDMT type relay is used as a back up protection
relays operation almost remains same in over current relay scheme.
over the entire working range of Non-directional induction type over current
relay. This is called definite time relay-
characteristic. ● It is also called earth leakage induction type relay.
Inverse The core saturation current slightly ● Its construction similar to a watt hour meter with
definite higher than the pickup value of the slight modification.
minimum time current. this is called inverse Directional power relay -
relay (IDMT) definite. UP ITI Principal -09.01.2022
RRB JE 30.08.2019, Shift-II
Very inverse The core saturation occurs at a
relays further later stage then the inverse
nature of characteristics continues
for longer range and takes the
shape indicated by the curve C.
This is called very inverse time
characteristic.
After saturation, the curve tends to
definite time.
Extremely In such relays the saturation occurs
inverse relays at very later stage and the curve
has an inverse nature for almost
entire working range.

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• Directional relays respond to the direction of power • A differential relay operates when the difference
flow. between the currents in its two coils exceeds a preset
• Directional relays are commonly used to preventing value.
excess power flow from a small generating station • Differential relays are used to protect the equipment
into a larger system. from internal faults.
• This means that they are designed to detect the Examples- Merz price protection current balance
direction of power flow and to protect the system relay, electromotive force balance relay.
against faults which occur in that direction. Types of differential relay -
NFL JE-14.12.2024
T ∝ VI cosφ ∝ power in circuit
1. Current differential relay-
Directional power relay is used to Provide the • A current differential relay operates on the result of
reverse power protection in synchronous machines. comparison between the phase angle and magnitudes
Directional induction type over current relay – of the currents entering and leaving the system of
RRB JE 04.06.202025, Shift-I (Re-exam)
the alternator.
• The directional power relay is not suitable to use as
Nr
a protective relay under short circuit conditions. ( I1 + I 2 )
No
Hence in practice, directional induction type over ( 1 2)
I − I ≥
current relay is used. 2
• This relay operates almost independent of system Where,
voltage and power factor. Nr = Restraining coil number
Use-Two relay elements mounted on a common No = No. of operating coil.
case. 2. Biased beam relay or percentage differential
Note- relay-
• Directional induction type overcurrent relay is GPSC AE-29.12.2024
TNTRB Poly. Lect.-11.12.2024
mainly used for protection of ring main distribution
• In a biased differential relay, the bias is defined as a
lines.
ratio of number of turns of restraining coil (Nr) and
These elements are -
number of turns of operating coil (No).
i. Directional element which is directional power
relay. Nr
Biased ratio =
ii. Non directional element which is non-directional N0
overcurrent relay – 3. Voltage balance differential relay-
T = KVI sin ( θ + φ ) , T = KVI cos ( θ − τ )
Where,
φ = 90 – τ, θ = angle between V and I
τ = maximum torque angle
Relay use as comparators- The relays operate
based on the resultant of the comparison of the two
quantities.

5. Differential relays- • In voltage balance differential relay, two CTs. are

PGCIL Diploma Trainee-05.12.2023 connected at either each end.
GETCO JE-03.01.2022, 12:00 PM to 2:00 PM • The relay is connected in series with the pilot wires,
MPSC AE (Mains)-29.10.2022, Paper-II
one at each end.
Chandigarh JE-14.08.2021
• A differential relay is defined as the relay that • Under normal operating condition, there is no
operates when the phasor difference of two or more current in the relay.
similar electrical quantities exceeds a predetermined • The restraining coil or over load coil is not required
value. in the voltage differential relay.

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. Distance relay-
RPSC Vice Principal /Superintendent ITI-30.07.2025
RSSB JE (Degree)-07.02.2025, APPSC AE-2025
GETCO JE-03.01.2022, 12:00 PM to 2:00 PM
WBPSC AE-2022, HPSC Poly Lect.-11.06.2022
WBMSC AE-18.12.2022, MPSC AE (Mains)-29.10.2022
MPSC AE (Mains)-29.10.2022, Paper-II
DSSSB AE-20.06.2022, GPSC AE-05.09.2021
UPRVUNL AE-04.07.2021
• The primary purpose of using a distance relay in
transmission line protection is to detect faults based Classification of distance relay-
on impedance to the fault location. • Definite distance relay- Definite distance type
• In distance relays the operation is dependent on the impedance relay.
ratio of the voltage and current which is expressed in • Distance time relay-Distance time impedance relay.
terms of impedance. Setting of distance relays-
• A distance relay is said to be inherently directional if C.T. ratio
its characteristic on R-X diagram is a circle that Zs = Z p ×
P.T. ratio
passes through the origin.
H.V. phase current
• In distance relay, zone-1 protects about 80% -90% C.T. ratio =
Re lay phase current
of the transmission line.
H.V. phase to phase voltage
• If the relay operates for a fault beyond the protected [Link] =
Relay phase to phase voltage
line, this phenomenon is called over reach.
Zp = Primary positive sequence impedance
• In three step distance protection of transmission line,
Zs = Secondary positive sequence impedance
the reach of the three zones of the relay at the
Different effect on distance relay-
beginning of the first line typically extends into
• Effect of arc resistance on distance relays-
80%, 50% of the second line and 20% of the third
line. Mho relay > Impedance relay > They become
Types of distance relay- under reach but reactance relay is unaffected.
ECIL GET-01.01.2026 Advantages of distance relay-
SSC JE (Pre) 06.12.2025, Shift-I
SSC JE (Pre) 06.06.2024, Shift-II
• Provides protection very fastly.
• Distance relay are 3 types. • It replaces the protection of over current
(i) Mho relay- It is used for the protection of long transmission line.
transmission lines. • Effect of a generation of fault levels, fault current
RRB JE 01.09.2019, Shift-I magnitude is less.
(ii) Impedance relay- It is used for the protection of Disadvantage of distance relay-
medium transmission lines. • It operates on both sides faults of a line, i.e. non-
(iii) Reactance relay- It is used for the protection of short directional.
transmission lines. • The power swings affect the performance of the
Characteristics of Distance relay- distance relay because the area covered by the circle
• When the impedance of transmission line is less than on the sides of the R-X plane is large.
the impedance setting of the relay in a fault Application of distance relay-
condition, the positive torque is produced. • Distance relay are widely used for protection of
Zf < Z (Relay operates) high-voltage transmission and distribution lines, and
they protect against all types of line faults.
• When the impedance of transmission line is more
• In Balance beam type relay under normal working
than the impedance setting of the relay in a fault
condition beam in held in a horizontal position by
condition, the negative torque is produce. the spring.
Zf > Z (Relay does not operate) RRB JE 04.06.2025, Shift-I (Re-exam).

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Electrical Protecting
Schemes
Content Details:
Introduction Types of protection Types of protection scheme The directional induction type over
currernt relay System Protection Merz Price Protection scheme.

Introduction- Protection system are essential for (ii) Differential protection scheme-
detecting and isolating faults to ensure safety, GPSC AE-2020, GPSC AE-01.03.2020
reliability and efficiency. Each protection scheme SSC JE (Pre) 03.12.2025, Shift-II
safeguards a defined area known as protection zone.
Types of protection-
ECIL GET-01.01.2026
(i) Primary protection/main protection
(ii) Secondary protection/backup protection
Main Protection- First line of defence, which
protect the system during abnormal condition.
● Main protection system is also known as unit
protection system.
● A unit protection is one in which only fault
occurring with its protected zone are isolated.
● Faults occurring elsewhere in the system have no
influence on the operation of a unit system.
Backup protection- Second line of defence, it will
operate the main protection fails to operate.
● Backup protection system is also known as non-unit
protection system. ● Differential protection scheme is very popular to
● A non unit system is a protective system which is detecting the faults.
activated even when the faults are external to its ● To compare any two currents their phase magnitude
protected zone. or both considered.
Types of protection scheme- ● Differential protection scheme is employed for the
(i) Over current protection scheme. detection of internal fault.
(ii) Differential protection scheme. ● Differential protection is used to protect generators,
(iii) Distance protection scheme. transformers.
(iv) Directional protection scheme. ● Differential protection scheme are mainly used for
(i) Over current protection scheme- protection against phase to phase fault and phase to
● An over current protection scheme can detect a earth faults.
sudden buildup of current magnitude.
● In differential protection scheme, a stabilizing
● It is considered as an effect of fault.
resistance connected to reduce the effect of non-
● The magnitude of fault current is related type of
identical CTs.
fault and source impedance.
● The source impedance depends upon number of ● Differential protection used for power transformer is
generating units. based on merz-price circulating current principle.

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● Differential protections are generally used for ● The directional element determines the direction of
transformers of rating exceeding 2 MVA(or current flow w.r.t voltage.
2000kVA). ● The non-directional element detects the fault current
(iii) Distance protection scheme- and isolates the system from the fault.
GPSC AE-2020 System Protection-
● Distance protection scheme is also known as GPSC AE 2020, GPSC AE -01.03.2020
impedance protection or under impedance ● System protection is used to protect the transformer
protection. and generator.
● Distance protection scheme is related to the ratio of ● Under frequency relays are a part of system
voltage to the current at same end. protection.
● Ratio of apparent impedance seen by a relay and
Merz Price Protection Scheme-
positive sequence impedance is less than unity, it
indicate fault occurring in transmission line.
● Distance protection scheme computes the impedance
between the protection location and the fault point.

• Merz-price protection scheme is the one form of

differential protection.
V • It is containing an extra restring coil which produces
Z=
I additional restraining force to overcome the
(iv) Directional protection scheme- disadvantages of differential relay.
UP ITI Principal-09.01.2022 • The disadvantages of ordinary differential relay is
● Directional protection scheme is used where the overcome by using percentage differential relay.
fault get fed from both sides.
 i +i  
● Directional protection scheme is sensitive enough to Relay trip ( i1 − i 2 ) >  I 0 +  1 2  k 
detect the direction of the fault power flow.   2  
● Directional protection unit is more costly.  i +i  
● Directional overcurrent relay is used for the Relay block ( i1 − i 2 ) ≤  I 0 +  1 2  k 
  2  
protection of ring main distribution lines.
Where, i1, i2 = Current from CTs
I0 = restraint current
k = Slope (Percentage bias)
Note-
In differential relay, percentage bias is defined the
ratio of difference of currents in operating coil to the
mean circulating currents in restraining coil.
The purpose of the restring coil in a biased
differential relay is to limit the spill current through
the relay during heavy external fault.
For preventing the mal-operation of merz-price
protection scheme in-rush of magnetizing current the
relay restraining coil is biased with the second
harmonic current.
Magnetizing inrush current is nothing but a current
which flows when you energize the transformer.
Internal connection diagram of
Since starting the transformer has zero induced emf
a directional overcurrent relay.
in the winding.
The directional induction type overcurrent relay-
MPMKVVCL JE-30.03.2025, Shift-I
Magnetizing inrush current mal operation can be
● The driving torque is produced due to the interaction easily resolved.
between the directional and the non-directional Magnetizing inrush current has more second
element of the relay. harmonics current approximately 70%.

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Content Details:
Introduction Protection of alternator The earth fault in stator Protection in abnormal condition
Merz-Price protection of alternator Protection of motor Induction motor protection

Introduction- Many equipments are in alternator. It • Earth fault is between the live conductor and the
is desirable and necessary to protect each equipment earth.
from abnormal condition. The most serious fault in • When earth fault occurs, the electrical system gets
alternator is stator faults. short- circuited.
Some faults are occurred in alternator- • The fault current returns through the earth or any
(i) Stator faults- Phase to phase faults, phase to earth electrical equipment, which damages the equipment.
faults, inter turn faults. • The earth fault in stator of alternator causes arcing to
(ii) Rotor fault- Over heating of field winding. the core and severe heating in conductors and
(iii) Abnormal condition- Over loading, over speeding, thereby damaging the insulators.
over voltage, failure of field, failure of prime mover, Protection in Abnormal Condition –
GPSC AE-30.03.2025
cooling system failure, unbalanced loading. RSSB JE (Degree)-06.02.2025
Causes of instability in alternators- Abnormal Running Protection (Use)
(i) Over loading Condition
(ii) Over voltage Over loading Over current relay
(iii) Over current fault Over speeding Turbo-governor
(iv) Short circuit fault Unbalanced loading Negative sequence currents
(v) Over loading fault (IDMT Relay)
(vi) Earth fault / earth leakage fault. Over voltage Over voltage relay used
Protection of alternator Failure of prime Wattmetric relay with
Stator faults Protection mover directional characteristics
Phase to phase differential protection (merz- Loss of excitation Offset mho relay or directional
(field failure) impedance relay
faults price protection)
Cooling system Thermocouples or resistance
Phase to earth faults Restricted earth fault failure thermometers
protection
• Alternator is also called synchronous generator.
Inter-turn faults split-phase protection
• A large synchronous generator is protected from over
Note load by a temperature sensitive relay.
Stator winding fault is the most severe fault in • If the excitation of the synchronous generator is fail,
alternator. it acts as an induction generator.
Earth fault relay is used for the protection of
• Reactive power generation of an alternator, having
generator against motor field ground faults. constant input from prime mover can be changed by
The most important stator winding fault of an varying field excitation.
alternator is earth fault.
EV
The earth fault in stator- P= sin δ
HPPSC Asst. Prof.-2016 XS

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Where, Note-
P = Real power , E = Excitation voltage Merz price protection system is applied to protect
V = Terminal voltage, XS = Synchronous reactance the alternators against internal faults.
δ = torque angle Merz price protection is also called biased
• Overspeed protection of the alternator is done with differential protections and present as differential
protection.
the help of governor.
Merz price protection scheme alternator stator is
• An overspeed relay is used for the protection of
protected from burning through at least 80% of it.
generator against over speed.
• The differential protection relay is used for the
• Frame leakage protection is used for the protection protection of the generator, transformer, feeder,
of synchronous generator. large motor, bus-bars etc.
Merz-Price Protection of Alternator Resistance thermometer-
SSC JE (Mains) 07.04.2026 • Resistance thermometers are used to measure the
DVC JE Gr-II, 23.03.2025, 12:30 PM-2:30 PM stator winding temperature of the generator.
SSC JE (Pre) 06.12.2025, Shift-I
• Resistance thermometers are usually used to
SSC JE (Pre) 05.12.2025, Shift-I
GETCO-05.01.2022, 4:00 PM-6:00 PM
measure temperatures between 200ºC to 500ºC.
HPSSC JE-08.08.2021 • Resistance thermometers work by changing
resistance with a change in temperature in a
repeatable manner.
• Resistance thermometer is commonly known as
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD).
Negative sequence relay-
APSC AE (PHED)-09.06.2024, GPSC AE-29.12.2024
GPSC AE-29.12.2024, UKPSC AE -27.04.2022
UKPSC AE-27.04.2022, Paper-II, GPSC AE-2020
GPSC AE-01.03.2020

• The most common system employed for the

protection of stator against earth faults and phase to
phase faults makes use of circulating current
principle.
• In this scheme of protection, currents at the two ends
of the protected section are compared under normal
operating conditions, these currents are equal but
may differ on the occurrence of a fault in the
protected section.
• The difference of the currents under faulty
• A relay which protects the electrical system from
conditions is made to flow through the relay
negative sequence component is called a negative
operating coil.
sequence relay or unbalance phase relay.
• The relay then closes its contacts and trips the circuit
• The negative sequence relay protects an alternator
breaker, thereby isolating the protected section from from the unbalanced load.
the system. • A negative sequence relay is commonly used to
• Such a protective scheme is very effective for earth protect an alternator.
faults and faults between phases. • The negative sequence relay has earthing so it
• Merz-price protection method of alternator is also protects from phase to earth fault but it does not
known as differnetial protection method. protect from phase to phase fault.

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Effect of earth resistance on % of winding • Thermal relay are often used in motor starters.
unprotected- • The thermal relay is designed to protect the motor or
UP ITI Principal-09.01.2022
other load from damage in the even of a short circuit
RI 0 or being over loaded and over heating.
% of winding unprotected = × 100
V
• The simplest overload relay is activated by heat
Where- R = Earth Resistance caused by high current during overload condition.
I0 = Minimum operating current in the primary of
• Thermal relay is used for the protection of motors
CT.
against overload.
Protection of motor- Note- For motor protection, the following relays are
Types of motor faults-
used-
Motor faults can be external (unbalanced supply
a. Thermocouple type relays
voltages) and internal (e.g. bearing failure).
Fuses- Fuses protect motors by melting and b. Bimetallic type relays
interrupting the circuit during overloads or short c. Electronic type relays
circuits. • Thermal Bi-metallic strip is used in over load relay.
Circuit Breakers- Circuit breakers can be reset • A Bi metallic strip breaks the circuit when the
after interrupting faults and offer overload and under current exceeds its set value.
voltage protection.
• They are usually made of steel and copper in some
Induction Motor Protection case of steel and brass.
BEL EAT PUNE-2025
Advantages- Simple, reliable and cost-effective
Abnormal condition Choice of protection
circuit offering protection against unbalanced currents and
Mechanical over load Overload, relay, thermal phase failures.
overload relay, overcurrent • Thermal relay is widely used in motor control
relay MCB with built-in trip circuits and industrial systems for thermal overload
coil. protection.
Stalling or prolonged Thermal relays, Single Phase Preventers (SPP)-
starting of motor Instantaneous overcurrent Mizoram PSC IOLM-26.03.2020
relay • Single phase preventer is a protective device used to
Under voltage Under voltage relays, detect phase failure (loss of one phase) in three
Unbalanced voltage Negative phase sequence phase system.
relay
• It prevents damage to motors and other three phase
Reverse phase Phase reversal relay
equipments by disconnecting the load if any phase is
sequence
missing.
Phase to phase fault or HRC fuse, Instantaneous
phase to earth fault overcurrent relays. • Single phase preventers are used to protect pumps
(for large motor) - and motors from burnout due to phase unbalance,
differential protection missing phase or negative phase sequence.
Single phasing Thermal over load relays, Remember point-
single phase preventer Ground Fault protection -
Thermal Relay- Thermal relay protects a motor • ELCB (Earth leakage circuit breaker)
from over load & overheating.
• Zero sequence current transformer (ZSCT)
• The lubricating oil used with sleeve bearings should
be renewed once in six months.
• An on-off switch with overload protection is called a
manual starter.
• The main function of under voltage protective
device generally employed with a motor starter is to
open the supply circuit when the power supply fails.

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Content Details:
Introduction Possible Transformer faults Percentage differential protection for Transformer CT
Connection Problems Encountered in differential protection Buchholz relay, Harmonic Restraint
Relay Voltage Transformer Pockels effect Frame Leakage Protection, Over Fluxing Protection.

Introduction- Percentage differential protection for

DSSSB-08.03.2022 transformer
● Transformer is a static device, totally enclosed and ECIL GET-01.01.2026, SSC JE (Pre)-04.12.2025, Shift-II
generally oil immersed. Therefore, the chances of UPPSC AE-13.12.2020, Paper-II, PSPCL JE-15.11.2021, Shift-I
faults occurring in the transformer are very rare.
● Transformer is a passive element. It is not a source
of fault power.
● Transformer protection involves electrical and
mechanical systems to detect faults (over current,
earth faults, over-fluxing) and abnormal conditions
(overheating, high pressure) using relays, sensors
and protective devices to isolate the transformer.
Buchholz relay for gas/oil issues, differential relays
for winding faults, over current relays for external
faults etc.
Possible Transformer Faults -
(i) Open circuit faults ● It is also called Merz- price protection
(ii) Over heating ● Principle → circulating current
(iii) Winding short-circuit faults (Earth faults, phase to ● Protect → phase to phase faults & phase to ground
phase faults, inter turn faults) faults
Over heating thermocouples or resistance ● Merz Price protection is used to protect the
temperature transformer from internal short circuit, Internal
Winding faults Phase to phase faults → Percentage ground fault.
differential relay ● Large internal fault in Transformer is protected by
Earth faults Percentage differential relay merz-price percentage differential protection.
Inter turn Percentage differential relay Note-
faults HPCL AE-23.12.2023
Through faults Over current relay with under voltage Differential relays are commonly used to protect
blocking, zero sequence protection → transformers with rating larger than 10MVA.
negative sequence protection The percentage differential fault protection in a
Over fluxing over fluxing relay transformer is given for internal fault protection.

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IDMT [Inverse Definite Minimum Time] relay is Buchholz Relay

generally used as back-up protection of transformer. SSC JE (Mains)-07.04.2026
Hence, external fault and earth fault protection can MPMKVVCL JE-30.03.2025, Shift-III
detected. DVC JE GR-II-23.03.2025. 4:00PM- 6:00 PM
HPCL AE -16.08.2025, KPSC AEI-04.06.2023
Current Transformer Connection TSPSC AE-05.03.2023, Paper-II, NHSRCL JM-13.07.2023
RSSB JE(Degree)-06.02.2025, APSC AE (PHED)-09.06.2024 OHPC Electrical Trainee-29.11.2022,
MPSC AE Mains-29.10.2022, DSSSB AE -20.06.2022 UKPSC AE-27.04.2022, Paper-II
Power Transformer C.T. (Current NIT TA-24.04.2022 , MPPSC JE-11.11.2022
UP ITI Principal-09.01.2022, WBMSC AE-18.12.2022
Connection Transformer)
MPSC AE (Mains)-29.10.2022, Paper-II,
Connection MPESB JE-11.11.2022, Paper-II
Primary Secondary Primary Secondary UPPCL AE-29.08.2021, GPSC AE-05.09.2021
RRB JE 30.08.2019, Shift-II
Star Delta Delta Star
Delta Delta Star Star
Star Star Delta Delta
Delta Star Star Delta
Note-
C.T never operates with its secondary winding open
but P.T. can be operated with its secondary winding
open.
So, before disconnecting an ammeter from an
energized current transformer circuit, the current
transformer secondary should be shorted.
In merz-price protection of 3-φ star-delta
transformer, star side of transformer CTs are
connected in delta and delta side of transformer CTs
are connected in star.
In a given current transformer, if permissible current
ratio error is 5% of rated primary current then the
CT is suitable for measuring purpose.
Problems Encountered in Differential protection
Unmatched Overcome by using
characteristics of C.T. percentage differential
relay
Ratio change due to tap overcome by using
change percentage differential relay. ● Buchholz relay is a gas operated relay (gas
Difference in lengths of overcome by connecting actuated device). It is used for the protection of oil
immersed transformer against all internal faults.
pilot wires the adjustable resistors in
● It is also known as incipient fault relay.
pilot wires on both sides.
● Oil decomposes - the generating hydrogen gas.
Magnetizing inrush overcome by restraining
● Buchholz relay is connected between the
current coil.
transformer main tank and conservator tank.
Note- ● A release cock is provided for pressure release
DVC JE GR-II, 23.03.2025, 12:00 PM - 2:30 PM before the operation.
Transformer experience magnetizing inrush current. ● Buchholz relay is provided for the transformer
When, the transformer is first energized. having rating above 750 kVA.

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Components- Order of Harmonic Amplitude as a % of

Mercury switch pair Alarm circuit content in magnetize fundamental
Trip circuit Float Test cock current
Flap valve Drain valve Release cock 2nd 63.0
Advantage 3rd 26.8
GPSC AE-30.03.2025, APSC AE (PHED)-09.06.2024 th
4 5.1
UPCL AE -29.08.2021 th
● Buchholz relay gives an indication of the fault at 5 4.1
very early stage, by anticipating the fault and 6th 3.7
th
operating the alarm circuit. 7 2.4
Limitations Voltage transformer-
● Used only for oil-immersed transformers having a GETCO AE-06.01.2022
conservator tank. • Voltage transformer is designed to have low
● Only faults below oil level are detected. magnetizing current and high magnetizing reactance.
● Setting of the mercury switches cannot be kept too • Voltage transformer is also known as potential
sensitive otherwise the relay can operate due to transformer.
bubbles, vibrations, earthquakes mechanical shocks etc. • When a new load is connected to the secondary of a
● The relay is slow to operate having minimum transformer, the primary current drawn from the
operating time of 0.1 seconds and average time of source slightly increases due to the additional
0.2 seconds. current required to maintain the magnetic flux in the
Applications core.
● Local overheating • The additional current component is called the
● Winding short circuit magnetizing current.
● Bushing puncture Pockels effect-
● Winding earth fault GETCO-05.01.2022
● Entrance of air bubbles in oil ● Optical Voltage Transformer (OVT) is an alternative
● Short circuited lamination to the conventional transformer for protection and
● Loose electrical contacts metering purpose with a much smaller footprint and
● Short circuit between phases weight their advantages were widely discussed in
● Loss of oil and reduction in oil level due to leakage. scientific and technical literature and commercial
Note- application based on the well known pockels effect.
• Buchholz relay is used only in oil-cooled Frame leakage protection-
transformers. Protect → earth fault of a transformer.
• The operating time of a Buchholz relay is 0.1 Over-fluxing protection-
second. UPPSC AE-29.05.2022, Paper-II, GPSC AE-05.09.2021
• Buchholz relay is used on power transformers of ● Under over fluxing condition→ transformer draws
rating above 500kVA (750 kVA). very high magnetizing current.
• Earthing transformer is used to provide artificial ● V
Protection by→ relay
earthing. f
• When puncture of bushings occurs. Tripping of the Volt
or relay
transformer from the main circuit is required. Hertz
Harmonic restraint relay- • Over fluxing protection is generally provided for
• Harmonic restraint relay is used to guard against generator transformer.
magnetizing inrush current. ● Protection against over fluxing is required where
• The protection relay used for low fault settings and over fluxing due to sustained over voltage can occur.
high operating speeds in a transformer is harmonic ● Usually, up to 10% of over fluxing can be allowed
restraint relay. without damage.

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Closes
Feeder protection
Busbar Distance Transmission
protection

Protection of Bus bar, Feeders

and Transmission Lines
Content Details:
Bus Bar Protection of feeder Time graded protection Protection of radial feeders Protection of
parallel feeders Protection of ring main feeders Feeder distribution panel Induction regulator
Protection of transmission lines Impedance relay Reactance relay Mho Relay.

Introduction of Bus bar- Advantages-

BDL MT-17.04.2022 • Improves the efficiency of the electrical system
• The electrical component which connects a number • Improves the reliability of the electrical system.
of transmission lines operating at the same voltage is • To reduce voltage drop.
the bus bar. Disadvantages
• Bus bars are the conductors, typically made of • Design in complex.
copper or aluminum with very low impedance and
• Additional cost of installing interconnection.
high current carrying capacity.
Differentiator-
Bus bar faults -
• Differentiator is not used in electrical systems
• Failure of insulation Failure of C.B.
(Distribution Networks) for the reduction of voltage
• Earth fault Flashover
drops.
• Earth quake and mechanical damage
Protection - Protection of Feeder
• Frame leakage or fault bus protection of bus bar • Feeder protection systems can include both primary
• Circulating current protection of bus bar and backup protection.
•. High impedance differential protection of bus bar Types of Feeder Protection
• Over voltage protection
Bus coupler-
• Distance protection
APPDCL JM-24.09.2023 • Differential protection
• Bus coupler is very essential in main and transfer
bus.
• Bus coupler is a device.
• It connects two bus bars inside an electrical panel. • A differential relay is defined as the relay that
Inter connector- operates when the phasor difference of two or more
BHEL ET-23.08.2023 similar electrical quantities exceeds a predetermined
• To reduce voltage drops in various section, distant value.
points of the distributors are joined though a Note:
conductor is called interconnector. Non directional over current relays are used on the
• An interconnector is a conductor. source side.
• It is used to connect distant point of a distributor in Directional over current relays are used on the load
an electrical system. side.

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Time graded Protection - (ii) Protection of parallel feeders-

• Time graded protection is a scheme in which the KPSC AEI-04.06.2023, TSPSC AE-05.03.2023, Paper-II

time setting of relay is coordinated such that in the • The parallel connection of the supply is mainly used
event of a fault, the smallest possible part of the for the continuity of the supply and for sharing the
system is isolated. load.
Note- • When the fault occurs on the feeder, the protective
The drawback of time-graded over-current device will select and isolate the defective feeder
protection schemes is that for faults near the power while the other instantly assume the increased load.
source the operating time is more. • One of the simplest method for the protection of the
The application of time graded protection- relay is the time graded overload relay with inverse
(i) Protection of Radial feeders. time characteristic at the sending end and
(ii) Protection of parallel feeders. instantaneous reverse power relay (directional relay)
(iii) Protection of ring main feeders. at the receiving end.
(i) Protection of Radial Feeders-
• The number of feeders are connected in series in a
radial system.
• It is desired that the smallest possible part of the
system should be off.
• This is conveniently achieved by employing time
graded protection. Non-directional relay ↔
• The over-current system should be adjusted in such Directional relay→
a way that the longer the relay from the generating Note-
station the lesser time of operation. Differential protection is also added along with the
overloaded protection at both end of the line.
This method is only satisfactory when the fault is
heavy and reverse the power.
In the protection of parallel feeders fed from one end
both directional and non-directional relays are used.
(iii) Protection of Ring main system-
KPTCL-24.07.2022

• According to the figure, the time settings these

relays must be properly graded.
• The minimum interval of time which can be allowed
for the two adjacent circuit breaker depends on its
own clearance time for the safety main.
• The main characteristic of a radial system is that
• The ring main is a system of interconnection
between a series of the power stations by a different
power flow only in one direction (from the supply
route.
end to the load end)
Note- • In the main ring system, the direction of power flow
The main disadvantage of time-graded scheme used can be changed at will, particularly when the
in over-current protection of a radial feeder is that interconnection is used.
fault near the generator are cleared in maximum • Directional over-current relays are used in ring main
time. distributor.

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Feeder distribution panel-

GETCO-05.01.2022
• Feeder distribution panels generally contain over-
current protective device rated at more than 30A to
protect sub feeders that extend to smaller branch-
circuit panel boards.
• At the generating station, the power flow only in one If Zf < Z Relay operates
direction; hence, no time lag over-current relay is Zf > Z Relay does not operate
used. such a relay is non-directional.
• The time grade over-current relay is placed at the Torque Top = K1I 2 − K 2 V 2 –ve =
end of the sub-station and it will trip only when equation
overload current flows away from the substation Restrain
which they protect. Top= 0 at balance condition
Induction regulator- Induction regulator is used to Top > 0 Relay operate
maintain constant voltage in the feeder circuit. 2
V K1 K1
• Induction regulator controls the voltage in the   = , (Z) =
 I K 2 K 2
electrical network.
Protection of transmission lines- Balance condition or pickup value
Feeder = transmission line & Distribution circuit Other name Voltage restrain over current
The following relays are used in the transmission relay or Voltage restrain non-
lines- directional relay.
(i) Mho relay Use Medium transmission line.
DVC JE Gr. II-
(ii) Impedance relay 23.03.2025, 4:00 PM
(iii) Reactance relay - 6:00 PM
1. Impedance relay- 2. Reactance relay -
KPSC AE-04.06.2023, KSEB Sub Engg.-10.02.2023 RPSC Vice Principal/Superintendent ITI-30.07.2025
UKPSC AE-27.04.2022, Paper-II, BDL MT-17.04.2022 RSSP JE (Degree)-06.02.2025, ESE-2024, KPSC AE-04.06.2023
The relay whose working depends on the distance UPPSC Poly. Electrical Exam-2022, Paper-II
UPPSC AE-29.05.2022, Paper-I,
between the impedance of the faulty section and the UKPSC AE-27.04.2022, Paper-II,
position on which relay installed. UPPSC AE-29.05.2022, Paper-II
• The operating time of an impedance relay is a UPRVUNL-04.07.2021, HPCL AE-11.08.2021
function of ratio of line voltage at the relay to fault UPPSC Poly Lect.-22.12.2021, Paper-II
current. Operating Operating torque → current
Operating 1
characteristic restraining torque → current -
Z= voltage directional.
characteristics Slope of characteristics
Thus the reactance relay is an
over current relay with the
directional torque
The directional element is so
designed that the maximum
torque angle is 900.
Construction Induction cup type
R - X diagram Torque
Z=R+jx, Z = R 2 + X 2
MPPSC AE equation
(Mains)-29.10.2022, X
Paper-II Z2 = R 2 + X 2 , tan φ =
R
X = Z sinθ, R = Z cosθ
X
φ = tan −1 T = K1I 2 − K 2 VI cos ( θ − τ )
R
Zf = Impedance between relay at the balance condition
and fault point
K1 K
Z = Set value for impedance = Zsin θ = , X = 1 constant
Radius of circle K2 K2

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R - X diagram K1
= Zr =Ohmic setting of relay =
K2
diameter
The relay operates when the impedance
seen by the relay falls within this circle
K1 τ = 45º-(11 or 33 kV) distribution line
X= = Constant
K2 τ = 60º- (66 kV or 132 kV) transmission
The relay will operate for all the line
impedances whose heads lies below τ = 75º- (275 kV or 400 kV)
the operating characteristics, whether transmission line
below or above the R – axis
• Mho relays have an R-X plane
Other name Directional restrain over current relay.
characteristic depicted by circle passing
Use Short transmission line.
through origin
Note-
Other name Voltage restrained directional relay.
• Reactance relay is not affected by the arc resistance .
• Reactance relay is the most sensitive to power Use Long transmission line
swings (Mal operations). Note-
• Reactance relay is used for protection against earth Mho relay is also called angle impedance relay.
fault Mho relay is a voltage controlled directional relay.
3. Mho relay or admittance relay Admittance relay is a directional relay.
UPPSC Poly. Lect.-22.12.2025, Paper-II
MPPSC AE-24.08.2025 Mho relay operation is the most affected due to arc
ESE-2024 resistance.
GPSC AE -29.12.2024, KPSC AE -07.06.2023
NHSRCL JM-13.07.2023 The best suited relay for 3-zone protection scheme is
UPPSC Poly. Electrical Exam-2022, Paper-II mho relay.
UKPAC AE -27.04.2022, Paper-II, HPSC -06.011.2022
Various methods for transmission lines -
GETCO JE-03.01.2022
UP ITI Princpal-09.01.2022, DMRC AM-2020
UPPCL AE-02.04.2022, Shift-II 1. Overcurrent protection
GETCO-05.01.2022
2. Distance protection
DSSSB AE(E&M)-08.03.2022 Shift-II,
GSSSB AAE-07.02.2021 3. Pilot relaying protection
GPSC AE-05.09.2021 1. Over-current protection of transmission lines-
WBPSC AE-2022, WBPSC JE-2022
Operating The mho relay is made inherently • Non-directional time and current graded method
Principle directional by adding a voltage →Inverse time relays
winding called polarizing winding. • Directional time and current graded method
This relay works on the measurement 2 Distance protection of transmission line -
of admittance Y < θ.
• High speed impedance relay, (top = 20 ms)
Construction Induction cup type structure.
3. Differential protection of feeders (Pilot wire
Torque Operating torque -
equation protection)
T = K1VI cos ( θ − τ ) − K 2 V 2 UPPSC AE-13.12.2020, Paper-II
at the balance condition • Differential protection is very useful method for the
K1 protection of 3-φ feeder.
Z2 = cos ( θ − τ ) • The differential relay compares the incoming phase
K2
current of an object to the outgoing phase current of
R-X diagram
the same object.
• If there is any difference in current then it will trip
the C.B.
1. Merz - price voltage balance system
2. Translay scheme-Translay relay is mainly applied
for differential protection of feeders.
3. Solkor scheme - (Based on balanced voltage)

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Content Details:
Introduction Overvoltage in power system Protection Against lightning Lightning arrester or surge
diverters The dependency of lightning arrester Types of lightning arrester Improving the grounds of
transmission line The discharge voltage Impulse ratio Type of lighting arrester on the basis of
application Surge impedance Arcing horns.

Introduction- Protection Against lightning

BEL Bengaluru FTE-08.01.2025 Earthing screen-
● Over voltage protection involves measures and GETCO-05.01.2022, 4:00PM- 6:00 PM
devices designed to prevent excessive voltage levels ● Earthing screen provides protection to power station
from damaging electrical systems, equipment and and sub-station against direct stroke.
insulation. • Earthing screen protects the system from direct
● It guards against dangerous transients and surges lightning strokes, reduces the voltages induced
caused by lightning, switching operation and faults. electrostatically or electromagnetically, but does not
Note: provide any protection against voltage waves which
may still reach the terminal equipment.
Excessive current flow that leads to overheating and
Note-
damage power system equipment and connecting
It provides a low resistance path to earth for fault
wires during electrical surges. current and surges.
Over voltage in power system- Substations, interconnectors and power houses are
PSPCL JE-15.11.2021, Shift-II protected from direct strokes by earthing screen.
External Due to mainly lightning → protected Earth wire-
MPSC AE (Mains)-29.10.2022, Paper-II
over by shielding methods Earth wire on EHV overhead transmission lines is
voltages provided to protect the line against lightning surge.
Internal Due to switching operations → The earth wire is a very low resistance wire. Earth
over Protected by Non shielding methods → wire is running at the top of transmission line and
voltages Principle of insulation breakdown directly connected to earth. Basically earth wire is at
Non shielding method - zero potential. So when lightning occurs the earth
The non-shielding methods of over voltage wire passes it to ground directly, so line is protected.
protection is based on the principle of insulation • The ground wires shields the transmission line
conductor from induced charges, from clouds as
breakdown, as the over voltage is incident on the
well as from lighting discharge.
protective device there by a part of every content in
Protection against lightning-
the overvoltage is discharge to the ground though
• All the electrical equipment must be protected from
the protective device.
severe damage due to the lightning strokes-
Over voltage causes -
(i) Protection of power stations and substations from
● Lightning strikes ● Switching operations direct lightning strokes.
● Resonance ● Arcing grounds (ii) Protection of overhead transmission lines from
● Faults ● Traveling waves direct lightning strokes.
● Sudden changes in circuit condition (iii) Protection of electrical equipment from travelling
● Insulation failure waves.
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Methods of protection against over voltage- ● A lightning arrester acts as a insulator at normal
APPDCL JM-24.09.2023 operating voltage.
MPSC AE (Mains)-29.10.2022, Paper-II
● Under normal condition, lightning arrester behaves
• The protection against over voltage due to lightning like open circuit when high voltage surge occurs.
is provided by- There is ionization, So conductivity increases and is
(i) Use of surge diverters. diverted to the ground.
(ii) Use of overhead ground wire. ● Lightning arresters are connected between the line
(iii) Low tower footing resistance. or line conductor and ground (earth) in a power
• Direct stroke/lightning is most dangerous to line system protects the terminal equipment against
conductors because it falls directly on line or line travelling surges.
element. ● Lightning arresters are also known as surge diverters
● To avoid this, ground wires, ground screens, and or surge arresters.
ground rods etc are used. ● The main purpose of lightning arresters is to divert
Lightning arrester or surge diverters: or discharge surge to the ground.
RSSB JE Degree-07.02.2025 ● A lightning arrester is usually located near to
TNPSC CTS TA-2025, Paper-II, HURL GET -2024 transformer.
PGCIL Diploma Trainee-05.05.2023, ● Surge diverters and surge absorbers are the type of
ISRO IPRC TA-20.09.2023
PSPCL JE-15.11.2021, Shift-I, over voltage protection devices. Low resistance
TNTRB [Link].-11.12.2021 offered by surge arrester during high voltage
UPPSC [Link]-22.12.2021, Paper-II, diverted to ground.
UPPSC AE-13.12.2020, Paper-II The dependency of lightning arrester-
MPSC AE (Mains)-29.10.2022, Paper-II
● The choice of lightning arrester depends upon the
following factors-
(i) Voltage of the line
(ii) Frequency of the lightning
(iii) Cost
(iv) Weather conditions
(v) Reliability
(vi) The rate of rise of voltage, type of system, operating
characteristics of the arrester.
Types of lightning arrester-
NFL JE -14.12.2024
• Surge diverter is a device that is connected between MPESB JE-11.10.2022, Shift-II
line and earth. i.e. in parallel with the equipment 1. Rod gap lightning arrester
under protection at the substation. 2. Horn gap lightning arrester
• Lightning arrester and capacitor combinations can • Surge absorber-
be for the protection of rotating machine against UPPSC [Link]-22.12.2021, Paper-II
lightning surges. 1. A surge absorber is a protective device which
Note- reduces the steepness of wavefront of a surge by
An electrical discharge of atmospheric origin absorbing surge energy.
between a cloud and the earth consisting of one or 2. Surge absorbers are used for protection against low
more strikes is known as lightning flash to earth. voltage and high frequency oscillation.
Lightning arrester or surge diverter is a protective 3. Thyrite lightning arrester
device used for diverting abnormal high voltage to 4. Expulsion gap or protective tube
ground without affecting the continuity of supply. 5. Valve type lightning arrester
6. Metal oxide lightning arrester
Rod gap arrester It is a type of surge diverter
Connection → Between line terminal and earthed terminal medium of gap → air.
air gap → 12 mm approximately

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Note-
Rod gap has the advantage of low cost and easy adjustment on site.
In rod gap arrester in current limiting resistance is connected series with the
load in order to avoid continuous sparking even at low voltage.
The rod gap depends upon the operating voltage of the system.
To protect the insulator from the arc the distance between the rod gap and the
insulator should be more than one-third of the rod gap length.
Horn Gap arrester The steepness of the wave incident on the equipment to be protected is reduced
UPPCL AE-29.08.2021 It reflects the voltage surge back on to the horn
Drawbacks- The time of operation of the gap is quite large as compared to the
modern protective gear.
Note
Horn gap is provide protection against high voltage surge due to lightning and
switching.
An arc gap found by two horn-shaped electrodes that diverges so that arc
extinguishes itself.
It is connected in shunt between each conductor and earth.
The gap between the horns is less at the bottom and large at the top.
Expulsion gap or protective It is also known as expulsion type of lightning arrester.
tube arrester The breakdown voltage of expulsion tubes is slightly lower than for plain rod
gaps for the same spacing.
Note
Expulsion type arrester is also called "Protector Tube."
It consists of a tube made of fiber which is very effective.
It is commonly used in a system operating at a voltage up to 33KV.
Valve type lightning More expensive surge diverter.
arresters Valve type lightning arresters is also called a non-linear diverter.
Thyrite lightning arrester The current-voltage relation for thyrite-
HPPSC AE-06.11.2022
PSPCL JE-15.11.2021, Shift-II E = KI n
Where,
E = The crest-voltage
I = the crest current.
K = Geometrical constant

Note
Thyrite arrester is most common and is mostly used for the protection
against high dangerous voltages.
Thyrite device is used as lightning arrester.
Thyrite has non-linear characteristics.
In sub-stations, the most commonly used type of arrester is thyrite lightning
arrester.
In thyrite lightning arrester, on doubling the voltage the current increases to
12.6 time.
It consists of discs of 15 cm diameter and 19 mm thickness.
These discs are assembled inside the glazed porcelain container.
It is mostly used for the protection against high dangerous voltage and offers
a low resistance path to the surge.

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Metal Oxide Lightning ● Metal oxide lightning arrester is simple in construction and has superior
arrester energy absorption capability, better surge protection, more stable protective
characteristics and provides substantial reduction in over voltage across the
equipment as compared to thyrite arrester.
Note
A metal oxide varistor protect against high voltage.
Oxide film arrester-
It operates on the fact that certain dry chemicals have the property to change
rapidly from a good conductor to almost perfect insulator when slightly
heated.
Example- Lead peroxide, which has a specific resistance of 25 ohms per
mm cube at normal temperature, becomes red lead at about 150ºC and has a
specific resistance of the order of 600MΩ/mm3.
The great advantage of oxide film arrester is that it does not require daily
charging.
It may thus be installed at points on transmission systems where daily
attendance is difficult or expensive to provide.
Note
The impulse ratio of oxide film arrester is more than unity.
In oxide film arrester when heated, lead peroxide gets converted to red lead.
Improving the grounds of transmission ● They are used for the protection of substation and
line power transformers.
Ground rods Reduce the tower footing (ii) Line type Lighting arrester-
resistance GPSC AAE-30.03.2025
Counter Made of - Galvanized steel The voltage rating vary from 20kV to 73 kV and
poise wire can discharge currents between 65000 amps and
Maximum residual voltage 100000 amps.
● Protective Ratio = ● They are used for the protection of distribution
Maximum power voltage
transformers, small power transformers and some-
Discharge voltage (Crest value) times small substations.
● Discharge factor =
Rated voltage (RMS value) (iii) Distribution type lightning arrester-
The discharge voltage-The maximum voltage ● The voltage rating vary from 8 kV to 15 kV and can
developed across the arrester terminal and discharge currents upto 65000 amps.
transmitted to the terminal equipment is known as ● They are used for pole mounted substation for the
the discharge voltage of the arrester.
protection of distribution transformers upto and
Impulse Ratio-
WBPSC AE-2022, NRL GET-22.09.2021 including the 15 kV classification.
● An impulse wave represents a uni-direction wave Note:
which rises to its peak from zero to 1.2µsec and then GPSC AE -2020
falls to 50% of peak value in 50µ sec. The time span of electro-magnetic transients and
switching surges in power system will be (0-100) m sec.
Surge Impedance-
UPPSC AE (Mains) Electrical Exam-2025, Paper-I
UPPSC Poly. Lect.-22.12.2021, Paper-II
● Surge impedance
Z L
Z0 = ZC = =
Y C
● Impulse Ratio of any lightning arrester is the ratio of
the breakdown voltage of a wave of special duration ● Surge impedance is also known as characteristic
to the breakdown voltage of a 50 Hz wave thus, it is impedance.
a function of time duration of the transient wave. ● Surge impedance does not depend on the length of
Impulse Ratio of insulator the transmission line.
>1 Arcing, Horns-
Impulse ratio of lightning arrester
AEGCL AM-2021
● Impulse Ratio is calculated for lightning arrester. ● Arcing horns are used for protecting insulators from
Types of lightning arrester on the basis of cracking or breaking due to flash over.
application- ● Arcing horns are projecting conductors used to
(i) Station Type Lightning arresters- The voltage
rating of such arresters vary from 3kV to 312 kV protect insulators or switch hardware on high
and are designed to discharge currents not less than voltage electric power transmission systems from
100000 amps. damage during flashover.

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Content Details:
Introduction The purpose of using reactor in electrical circuit Series reactor Shunt reactor
Reactor control of shunt circuit current Location of reactor Generator reactors Feeder reactors
Busbar reactors Ring system Tie-Bar system.

Introduction- points. A reactor is a coil having large number of

Reactors are large inductors that control and turns, designed to provide high inductance as
stabilize electricity flow, primarily by managing compared to its ohmic resistance.
reactive power to maintain voltage, stability limit Note-
fault currents, reduce harmonics and protect ● To limit the short circuit current during fault
equipment. condition, A coil of high inductive reactance as
The purpose of using reactor in electrical circuit- compared to its resistance is used.
● Absorb reactive power in transmission line. ● Reactor is employed in substation to limit the short
● Limit the magnitude of short circuit current. circuit current in the power system.
● Suppress arcing ground. Advantages :
● Greater ohmic resistance. (i) Reactors limit the flow of short-circuit current and
Series reactors- Series reactors are installed at thus protect the equipments from over heating as well
strategic locations of power systems to bring down as from failure due to destructive mechanical forces.
the fault level within the capacity. (ii)Troubles are localised or isolated at their point of
● Series reactors are used as current limiting reactors origin without communicating their disturbing effects
and to increase the impedance of a system. to other parts of the power system. This increases the
● Such reactors are also used to limit the starting chances of continuity of supply.
currents of synchronous motors. (iii) They permit the installation of circuit breakers of
Shunt Reactors- lower rating.
● Shunt reactors are connected in parallel to the Location of reactors :
system. Short circuit current limiting reactor may be
● To absorb reactive power, stabilizing voltage and connected-
compensating for line capacitance, especially in long
(i) in series with each generator
transmission lines, shunt reactors are used.
(ii) in series with each feeders.
Reactor control of short circuit current :
● In order to limit the short-circuit current to a value (iii) in bus-bar.
that circuit breakers can handle, additional (i) Generator reactors :
reactances known as reactors are used. Reactors are ● When the reactors are connected in series with each
connected in series with the system at suitable generator, they are known as generator reactors.

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section of the bus-bar the reactor shields the other

section from the fault's impact, limiting the affected
area. An ideal reactor should drop the voltage by
approximately 30 to 50% at full current.
● The reactance of a single bus-bar reactor is
recommended to be around 0.3 to 0.5 p.u.
● The following methods describe how to reduce
Disadvantage :
continuous voltage drop and power losses in feeder
(i) There is a constant voltage drop and power loss in the
reactors even during normal operation. and generator reactors.

(ii) If a bus-bar of feeder fault occurs close to the bus- (a) Ring system
bar, the voltage at the bus-bar will be reduced to a (b) Tie Bar system.
low value, thereby causing the generators to fall out Ring system-
of step. ● In this system, the bus bar is divided into sections,
● If a fault occurs on any feeder, the continuity of
each section connected to one another through a
supply to other is likely to be effected.
reactor with separate generators. Supplying power to
(ii) Feeder reactors :
their respective loads the ring system minimizes
When the reactors are connected in series with each
power losses in the reactors during normal
feeder, they are known as feeder reactors. Since most
of short-circuit occurs on feeders, a large number of operation.

reactors are used for such circuit.

(b) Tie-Bar system.

● The generators in the tie bar system are connected to
a common bus-bar through reactors, while the
Disadvantage : feeders receive power through the generator side of
● There is a constant power loss and voltage drop in the
the reactors.
reactor even during normal operation.
● This system is particularly effective for larger power
● If a short circuit occurs at the bus-bar, no protection
systems.
is provided to the generators.
● If the number of generators increased to keep the ● The reactance of the reactors in this configuration is

short-circuit currents within the ratings of the feeder half compared to the reactance in the ring system.
circuit breakers.
(iii) Bus-bar reactors :
● Bus bar reactors are connected directly to bus-bar,
dividing them into smaller sections. When the voltage
level remains the same, no current passes through.
The reactors, allowing each section to act as an
independent bus-bar. Should a fault occurs in one

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