CHAPTER-2

ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY

Concepts of an Ecosystem – Structure and Function of an Ecosystem – Producers,
Consumers and Decomposers – Energy Flow in the Ecosystem – Ecological
Succession – Food Chains, Food Webs and Ecological Pyramids – Introduction,
Types, Characteristic Features, Structure and Function of the (A) Forest Ecosystem
(B) Grassland Ecosystem (C) Desert Ecosystem (D) Aquatic Ecosystems (Ponds,
Streams, Lakes, Rivers, Oceans, Estuaries)
BIODIVERSITY Introduction to Biodiversity – Definition: Genetic, Species and
Ecosystem Diversity – Biogeographical Classification of India – Value of
Biodiversity: Consumptive Use, Productive Use, Social, Ethical, Aesthetic and Option
Values – Biodiversity at Global, National and Local Levels – India as a Mega-
Diversity Nation – Hot-Spots of Biodiversity – Threats to Biodiversity: Habitat Loss,
Poaching of Wildlife, Man-Wildlife Conflicts – endangered and Endemic Species of
India – Conservation of Biodiversity: In-Situ and Ex-Situ conservation of
Biodiversity. Field Study of Common Plants, Insects and Birds.

2.1 ECOSYSTEMS
2.1.1INTRODUCTION:
ECOLOGY:
 The term was first coined by Hons Reiter and Haekel in 1869.
 The term ecology (Okekologie) is originated from two Greek words Oikos (eco) –
means “house” (or) place of living and “ology” means “the science of (or) the study of.
Hence, ecology is the branch of science that deals with the study of the pattern of
relations between the organism and their environment.
(OR)
 Ecology is the study of interactions among organisms (or) group of organisms with
their environment.
(OR)
 Ecology is the study of ecosystems.
ECO SYSTEM:
 In 1935, the British ecologist [Link] coined the term “eco system”.

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  The term “eco system” is made up of two Greek words. “Eco” means ecological
sphere (or) house (or) place of living (or) surroundings (or) Environment, w here living
organism does exist while “system” means “group of organisms joined in regular and
interdependent manner. Hence,
 A group of organisms interacting among themselves and with environment is known as
ecosystem.
(OR)
 A system of interaction of organisms with their surroundings (i.e., environment) is
called as “ecosystem”.
Examples: Pond, lake, ocean, forest and desert…. Etc are some of the examples of the
ecosystems.

2.1.2 FUNDAMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ECOLOGY

STRUCTURE:
 Living /Biotic
 Non-Living /Abiotitic
PROCESS:
 Energy flow
 Cycling of matter
CHANGE:
 Dynamic (Not static)
 Succession etc.
FUNCTION:
 Food chain
 Food web
 Ecological pyramids
 Energy Flow
 Cycling of matter

2.1.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF ECOSYSTEM

 Eco system is the basic functional unit of ecology.
 It contains both biotic and abiotic components.

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  The function of ecosystem is related to the cycling of matter (materials) and flow of
energy.
 The amount of energy needed to maintain an ecosystem depends on its structure.
 Ecosystem passes from a less complex state to more complex state, which is called as
“ecological succession”.

2.1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF ECOSYSTEM:

 The ecosystem can be generally classified into two types:
1. Natural Ecosystem
2. Artificial Eco system
1. NATURAL ECOSYSTEM:
 A natural ecosystem is developed and governed by nature.
 These are capable of operating and maintaining themselves without any major
interference by man.
 The following are the two types of natural ecosystem based on their habitat.
1. Terrestrial Ecosystem.
2. Aquatic Ecosystem.
1) Terrestrial Ecosystem:
 This ecosystem is related to land.
Examples: Grassland ecosystem.
Forest ecosystem, and
Desert ecosystem etc.
2) Aquatic Ecosystem:
 This ecosystem is related to water, it is further sub divided into two types
based on salt content.
i. Fresh Water Ecosystem:
a. Running Water Ecosystems
Examples: Rivers, streams (small narrow rivers)
b. Standing Water Ecosystems
Examples: Pond, lake & well, etc
ii. Marine Ecosystem:
Examples: seas and sea shores <land along the edges of sea>

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 2. MAN MADE (OR) ARTIFICIAL ECOSYSTEM:
An artificial ecosystem is created and maintained by man for his different needs.
Examples: Reservoirs, Artificial lakes and gardens, etc.
2.1.5 STRUCTURE (OR) COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM:
 The term structure refers to various components. So, the structure of an
ecosystem explains the relationship between the abiotic (non-living) and the
biotic (living) components.
 Each and every ecosystem has two major components are:
1. Biotic (living) components.
2. Abiotic (Non-living) components.

Biotic
Components

Eco System

Abiotic
Components

Fig: Components Of Ecosystem

1. Biotic Components: The living component of an ecosystem is called “Biotic

component”.
Examples: Plants (Producers)

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 Animals (Consumers) and
Micro Organisms (Decomposers)
 The biotic components of an ecosystem are classified into three types based on how
they get their food.

A. Producers (Autotrophs) : Plants

B. Consumers (Heterotrophs) : Animals
C. Decomposers (Saprotrophs) : Micro organisms.

A. Producers (or) Autotrophs (Auto=self, troph=feeder)

 Self food producing organisms are known as autotrophs.
Examples: All green plants and trees.
 Producers synthesize their food themselves through photosynthesis. Hence
they are also called “Photo autotrophs”. (photo = light)
B. Consumers (or) Heterotrophs (Hetero = other, troph = feeder:
 Consumers are organisms, which cannot prepare their own food and depend
directly (or) indirectly on the producers.
Examples: Plant Eating Species: Insects, rabbit, goat, deer, cow, etc.
Animals Eating Species: Fish, lions, tigers, etc.
 Depending upon the food habits the consumers are divided into four types.
i. Herbivores (or) Primary Consumers (Plant Eaters)
ii. Carnivores (or) Secondary Consumers (Meat Eaters)
iii. Omnivores (or) Tertiary Consumers (With plant & meat eaters)
iv. Detritivores (dead organism eaters)

i. Herbivores: (Herbi = the green plant & Vorare = to devour)

 Animals that eat only plants are called Herbivores.
 They directly depend on the plants for their food. So they are called Plant
eaters.
Examples: Insects, goat, deer, cow, horse, etc.
ii. Carnivores: (Carne = flesh meat & Vorare = to devour)
 Animals that eat other animals are called carnivores.

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  They directly depend on the herbivores for their food.
Examples: Frog, cat, snake & foxes, etc.
iii. Omnivores: (Omni = whole comes from “ohm” & Vorare = to
devour)
 Animals that eat both plants and animals are called omnivores.
 They depend on both herbivores and carnivores for their food.
Examples: humans, tigers, lions, rats and fox etc.
iv. Detritivores: (Detritifeeder)
 Animals that eat dead organisms and waste of living are called detritivores.
Examples: beetles, termites, ants, crabs, earthworms, etc.
C. Decomposers (or) Saptrotrophs: (Sapros = Rotten, trophos = feeder)
 Decomposers attack the dead bodies of producers and consumers and
decompose them into simple compounds. During the decomposition inorganic
nutrients are released.
 The organisms which break down the complex compounds into simple
products are called decomposers (or) reducers.
Examples: micro-organisms such as bacteria and fungi, etc.
2. Abiotic Components:
 The non-living component of an ecosystem is called “abiotic component”
 These non-living components enter the body of living organism, take part in
metabolic activities and then return to the environment. The abiotic
component of the ecosystems divided into three portions.
1. Climate factors : Solar radiation, temperature, wind, water current,
rainfall, etc.
2. Physical factors : light, fire, soil, air, etc.
3. Chemical factors : Organic and Inorganic substances.

Chemical Factors

Organic Substances Inorganic Substances

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 2.1.6 FUNCTION OF AN ECOSYSTEM:
 The function of an ecosystem is related to the cycling of materials (matter) and flow of
energy.
2.6.1 Types of functions:
 Functions of an ecosystem are of three types:
1. Primary Function: The producers (plants) can make their food themselves
through photosynthesis. This process is called primary function of eco system.
Examples: All green plants and trees.
2. Secondary Function: The consumers (animals and humans) cannot make their
own food. They are always depending upon the producers for their energy. This
is called secondary function of eco system.
3. Tertiary Function: Decomposers attack the dead bodies of consumers and
producers and decompose them into simpler compounds. During the
decomposition inorganic nutrients are released.
Examples: Micro organisms like bacteria and fungi, etc.
The functioning of an ecosystem may be understood by studying the following
terms:
A. Food chains
B. Food webs
C. Food pyramids (or) Energy pyramids
D. Energy and material flow.
A. Food Chain:
 Anything which we eat to live is called food.
 Food contains energy.
 Food can be transferred from one organism to the other.
 The process of transfer of food (energy) from one organism to a series of
organisms is called as “food chain”.
 A food chain always starts with a plant life and end with animal life. Thus,
a food chain is a picture (or) model that shows the flow of energy from
autotrophs (producers) to series of organisms in an environment, as
shown in the following figure.

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 Producers Herbivores Carnivores Omnivores Decomposer
SUN

Figure: Schematic representation of food chain.

 Infact, all the food chains starts with the sun. The sun provides energy for
plants.
 The producers (plants) can make their food themselves with the help of
the sunlight, chlorophyll, water and air. The consumers, including animals
and humans, cannot make their own food. They are always depending
upon the producers for their energy.
 Decomposers are the micro-organisms that break down the dead animals
and plants and release nutrients that become part of the soil, which are
re-used by new plants, back to the starting point of the food chain.
Types of food chain:
Three basic types of food chains are found in a typical eco system. They are:
1. Grazing food chains.
2. Detritus food chains.
3. Parasitic food chains.
1. Grazing food chains:
 Grazing food chain starts with green plants (producers) and goes to
decomposer food chain (or) detritus food chain through herbivores and
carnivores.
 It has two types :
a. Terrestrial food chain and
b. Aquatic food chain
a. Terrestrial food chain: Food chain on land is called terrestrial food chain.
Example: Grassland food chain
Forest land food chain
Desert land food chain
Grass land food chain
Grasses Grasshoppers Frog Snake Eagles
Forest food chain

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 Green plants Deer Tiger (or) lion
b. Aquatic food chain : This food chain is slightly different from terrestrial
food chain. It is seen in aquatic (water) eco system. Food chain in water is
called “Aquatic food chain”.
Example: Marine food chain Example: Ocean
Fresh water food chain Example: Pond, lake, streams, etc.
Food chain in a pond
Phytoplankton Zoo Plankton Small fish Large fish Man
Marine Food chain:
Sea Weeds Small fish Large fish Sharks and other animals

Figure:

Food chain

Grazing food chain Detritus food chain Parasite food chain

Terrestrial food chain Aquatic food chain

Marine food chain Fresh water food chain

Standing water food chain Running water food chain

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 2. Detritus’ food chain: Detritus food chain starts with dead organic matter
(plants and animals) and goes to decomposer through consumers. Detritus food
chains, independent of solar energy, but they depend on influx of dead organic
matter.
Example:
Dead Plants Soil mitts Algae Crabs Small fish Large
fish
3. Parasitic food chain: Parasitic food chain operates in many ecosystems. In this
food chain either consumer (or) producer is parasitized and the food passes to
smaller organisms. A parasitic food chain involves host parasite hyper parasites’
links.
Example: Trees Fruit eating birds Lice & Bugs Bacteria Fungi

B. Food Web:
 Web means “network” such as spider’s web, World Wide Web (WWW) etc.
 So, food web is a network of food chains.
 In a food web many food chains are inter connected, where different types of
organisms are connected at different tropic levels, so that there are a number of
options of eating and being eaten at each tropic level. Thus, there is a inter
connecting of various food chains are called food webs and as shown in following
figure.

Bird(Eagle)
Snake
Fish

Insect

Frog Grass

Grasshopper

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 Figure: Food Web
Sparrow

Hawk

Snake Insect

Mouse

Cat Lizard

Grain Grass

This food web shows many linear food chains <as shown in figure>. These linear food
chains are inter connected with other food chains operating in the eco system to form a
food web. The grazing food chains are as follows:
 Grains Mouse Cat
 Grains Mouse Hawk
 Grains Mouse Snake Hawk
 Grains Insect Sparrow Hawk
 Grass Insect Lizard Snake Hawk
 Grass Insect Sparrow Snake Hawk
The above food web is a simple one. Much more complex food webs do exist in nature.
C. Ecological Pyramids:
 The concept of ecological pyramids was first developed by British ecologist Charles
Elton in 1927.
 Ecological pyramids are the diagrammatic representation of tropic structures in which
the tropic levels (i.e., tiers) are depicted in successive stages.
 An ecological pyramid is shown in the following figure.

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 Apex

Tertiary Consumers (Omnivores)

Decrease in number (or) Biomass (or) Energy

Secondary Consumers
(Carnivores)

Primary Consumers
(Herbivores)

Producers

Base

Figure: Formation of an Ecological Pyramid

 In ecological pyramids, tropic levels are shown in the following manner:

i. The producers represent first tropic level in the ecological pyramid.
ii. The herbivores (or) primary consumers represent second tropic level in the
ecological pyramid.
iii. The carnivores (or) secondary consumers represent third tropic level in the
ecological pyramid.
iv. The omnivores (or) tertiary consumers represent fourth tropic level in the
ecological pyramid.

 On the basis of the number of organisms, the biomass of organisms and energy flow in
organist population. Three types of ecological pyramids are:
1. Pyramid of numbers.
2. Pyramid of biomass
3. Pyramid of energy.

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 1. Pyramid of numbers:
 It shows the number of individual organisms present in each tropic level.
 It is expressed in numbers per unit area.
 Depending upon the type of ecosystem, we have three types of pyramid of numbers.
a. Upright pyramid of numbers.
b. Partly upright pyramid of numbers.
c. Inverted pyramid of numbers.

1. Upright Pyramid of numbers:

 The number of individual organisms gradually decreases from lower tropic
level to higher tropic level is called “upright pyramid of numbers”.
Example: A grassland ecosystem and a pond ecosystem show an upright
pyramid of numbers.
 The producers in the grass lands are grasses, which are small in size and
large in numbers. So, producers occupy lower tropic level (1 s t tropic level).
 The primary consumers (herbivores) are rats, which occupy the II tropic
level. Since the numbers of rats are lower when compared to the grasses,
the size of which is lower.
 The secondary consumers (carnivores) are snakes, which occupy the III
tropic level. Since the numbers of snakes are lower when compared to the
rats, the size of which is lower.
 The tertiary consumers (omnivores) are eagles, which occupy the IV tropic
level. The number and size of the last tropic level is lowest <as shown in
figure>.
 Similarly, in the case of pond ecosystem, producers, herbivores and
carnivores are decreases from lower tropic level to the higher tropic level.
Thus, these pyramids are upright.
 Therefore, the numbers of individual organisms permit area, decreases from
lower tropic level to higher tropic level as shown in figure.

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 Apex

Large Tertiary Consumers

Fish
Distance in Number

Secondary Consumers
Small Fish

Primary Consumers
Zoo Plankton Ex: Protozoa
In Number

Producers
Phytoplankton (Algae)

Base

Large Fish Tertiary Consumers

Small Fish Secondary Consumers

Zoo Plankton
Ex: Protozoa Primary Consumers

Phytoplankton (Algae) Producers

Figure: Pyramid of numbers in an aquatic (pond) ecosystem

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 2. Partially Upright Pyramid Of Numbers:
 A forest eco system is an example of partially upright pyramid.
 In a forest eco system, big trees are the producers, which are less number.
So, these producers occupy the lower tropic level which is narrow base.
 The primary consumers (herbivores) are birds, insects, which occupy the II
tropic level. Since the number of birds, insects and other species are higher
when compared to the trees, the size of which is broader.
 The secondary consumers (Carnivores) are fox, snakes, lizards, which occupy
the third tropic level. Since the number of fox, snakes are lower when
compared to the birds, insects the size of which is lower.
 The tertiary consumers (omnivores) are lion, tiger, which occupy the IV
tropic level. Since the number of lion, tiger are lower when compared to the
fox and snakes the size of which is very (or) narrow lower. So the pyramid is
narrow on both sides and broader in the middle and hence it is called
partially upright of number as shown in figure.

Tertiary Consumers
Lion,
Tiger

Snakes, Secondary Consumers

Foxes

Insects, Birds Primary Consumers

Trees

Producers

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 Lion, Tiger Tertiary Consumers

Snakes, Foxes
Secondary Consumers

Insects, Birds Primary Consumers

Trees Producers

Figure: Pyramid of numbers in the forest ecosystem

3. Inverted Pyramid Of Numbers:

The number of individual organisms gradually increases from lower tropic level to higher
tropic level, is known as “inverted pyramid of numbers”.
Example: Parasitic food chain shows as inverted pyramid of number as shown in the
following figure.

Hyper parasites-Fleas, Microbes

Tertiary Consumers

Parasites, Lice & Bugs Secondary Consumers

Birds
Primary Consumers

Trees
Producers

2. Pyramid of Biomass:
 It represents the total amount of biomass (mass (or) weight of biological
material (or) organism) present in each tropic level.
 It is expressed in gram per unit area.

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  Depending upon the type of ecosystem, we have two types of pyramid of
biomass.
i. Upright pyramid of biomass.
ii. Inverted pyramid of biomass.
i. Upright Pyramid Of Biomass:
 The pyramid of biomass gradually decreases from the produce level (or) first
tropic level to consumer level (higher tropic level) is called “upright pyramid of
biomass”
 A forest ecosystem showed an upright pyramid of biomass.
 In this ecosystem, the biomass decreases from the producer level to consumer
levels (as shown in figure)

Apex

Lion- Tertiary Consumers

10kgs
Distance in Number

Snakes,
Secondary Consumers
fox- 100kgs

Insects, Birds- Primary Consumers

1000kgs
In Number

Trees-10000kgs Producers

Base

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 Lion, Tiger Tertiary Consumers

Snakes, Foxes
Secondary Consumers

Insects, Birds Primary Consumers

Trees Producers

ii. Inverted pyramid of biomass:

 The pyramid of biomass gradually increases from producer level to consumer
level are called as Inverted pyramid of biomass.
 Example: The pond ecosystem shows an inverted pyramid of biomass.
 In this, ecosystem, the biomass increases from producer level to consumer
levels as shown in the following figure.

Big fish
Tertiary Consumers

Small fish Secondary Consumers

Insect
s Primary Consumers

Algae
Producers

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 Big fish Tertiary Consumers

Small fish
Secondary Consumers

Insects Primary Consumers

Algae
Producers

Figure: Pyramid of biomass in pond (eco system)

3. Pyramid of Energy:
 It represents the amount of flow of energy in each tropic level.
 It is expressed in calories per unit area per year.
 In an eco system, the energy flows from producer level to the consumer level.
At each successive tropic level, there is a huge loss of energy (about 90%) in
the form of heat, respiration, etc. Thus, at each next higher level only 10% of
the energy passes on. Hence, there is a sharp decrease in energy at each and
every producer to omnivores (or) top carnivores. Therefore, the pyramid of
energy is always upright as shown in figure.

Tertiary Consumers
Decrease in Energy

5 Kcals

50 K cals Secondary Consumers

500 K Cals Primary Consumers

In Number

5000 K cals Producers

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 5 K Cals Tertiary Consumers

50 K cals
Secondary Consumers

500 k cals Primary Consumers

5000 K cals Producers

2.1.7 MAJOR TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS

[Link] FOREST ECOSYSTEM
Definition: It is a natural ecosystem consisting of dense growth of trees and wild
animals
Types:
1. Tropical – deciduous, evergreen, wet green
2. Littoral and swamps
3. Sub tropical
Characteristics:
Abiotic: soil, sun light, temperature etc
Biotic : forest trees, shrubs and animals
Structure:
Producer : Trees and shrubs
Consumer : Primary – elephants, deer etc.
Secondary – snakes, birds, lizards etc
Tertiary – lions, tigers etc
Decomposers : fungi, bacteria
[Link] AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM
Definition:
Deals with water bodies and biotic communities present in them-Classified as fresh
water and marine ecosystems. Fresh water systems are classified as lentic and lotic
ecosystems.

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 Types:
A. Pond ecosystem: Small fresh water ecosystem – seasonal in nature –
organisms: algae, aquatic plants, insects, fishes etc. Ponds are very often
exposed to anthropogenic pressure like cloth washing, bathing, cattle bathing,
swimming etc.
B. Lake ecosystem: Big fresh water ecosystem – Zonation or stratification,
especially during summer is a common one.
Top layer – shallow, warm, prone to anthropogenic activities – Littoral zone
Second layer – enough sunlight, high primary productivity – Limnetic zone
Third layer – very poor or no sunlight – Profundal zone
Eg. Dal lake in Srinagar, Naini lake in Nainital
Organisms:
1. Planktons – phytoplankton eg. Algae – zooplankton eg. Rotifers
2. Nektons – that swims in water eg. Fishes
3. Neustons – that float on the surface of water Benthos – that attached
to sediments eg. Snails
Types of lakes : Many types
1. Oligotrophic lakes – with less nutrient content
2. Eutrophic lakes – with very high nutrient content due to fertilizer
contamination
3. Desert salt lakes – that contains high saline water due to over
evaporation
4. Volcanic lakes – formed by water emitted from magma due to volcanic
eruptions
5. Dystrophic lakes – that contains highly acidic water (low pH)
6. Endemic lakes – lakes that contain many endemic species, etc.

C. Streams: fresh water ecosystem where water current plays a major role.
Oxygen and nutrient content are uniform. Stream organisms have to face
extreme difference in climatic conditions but they do not suffer from oxygen
deficiency as pond and lake organisms. This is because large surface area of
running water provides more oxygen supply. The animals have very narrow

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 range of tolerance towards oxygen deficiency. Thus stream are worst victims of
industrial pollution.
D. River ecosystem: large streams flowing from mountain highlands are rivers.
 Three phases:
1. Mountain highlands – rushing down water fall of water – large quantity of
dissolved oxygen – plants attached to rocks and fishes that require more
oxygen are found.
2. Second phase – gentle slopes of hills – warmer – supports the growth of
plants and fishes that require less oxygen are seen.
3. Third phase: river shapes the land – lots of silts, nutrients are brought –
deposited in plains and delta – very rich in biodiversity.

E. Oceans: Gigantic reservoirs of water covering >70% of earth surface –

2,50,000 species – huge variety of sea products, drugs etc. – provide Fe, Mg,
oils, natural gas, sand etc. – major sinks of carbon di oxide – regulate
biochemical cycles.
 Two zones:
1. coastal zone – warm, nutrient rich, shallow – high sunlight – high primary
productivity.
2. Open sea – away from continental shelf – vertically divided in to 3 zones.
 Euphotic zone – abundant sunlight
 Bathyal zone – dim sunlight
 Abyssal zone – dark zone – world’s largest ecological unit.

F. Estuary: coastal area where river meet ocean – strongly affected by tidal
actions – very rich in nutrients – very rich in biodiversity also – organisms are
highly tolerant – many species are endemic – high food productivity – however
to be protected from pollution.
Characteristics:
Structural Components:
Abiotic: pH, nutrients, D.O, temp, climatic conditions, etc.
Biotic: Phytoplankton, fishes, snails insects, birds, etc.

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 3. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

UNIT III ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

Definition – Causes, Effects and Control Measures of:- (A) Air Pollution (B) Water Pollution
(C) Soil Pollution (D) Marine Pollution (E) Noise Pollution (F) Thermal Pollution (G) Nuclear
Hazards – Solid Waste Management:- Causes, Effects and Control Measures of Urban and
Industrial Wastes – Role of an Individual in Prevention of Pollution – Pollution Case
Studies – disaster Management:- Floods, Earthquake, Cyclone and Landslides.

3.1 INTRODUCTION
 Pollution may be defined as an undesirable change in the physical, chemical or
biological characteristics of air, water and land that may be harmful to human life
and other animals, living conditions, industrial processes and cultural assets.
Pollution can be natural or manmade.
 The agents that pollute are called pollutants.
3.2 POLLUTANTS
Pollutants are by-products of man’s action. The important pollutants are summarized
below:
• Deposited matter—Soot, smoke, tar or dust and domestic wastes.
• Gases—CO, nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides, halogens (chlorine, bromine
and iodine).
• Metals—Lead, zinc, iron and chromium.
• Industrial pollutants—Benzene, ether, acetic acid etc., and cyanide
compounds.
• Agriculture pollutants—Pesticides, herbicides, fungicides and fertilizers.
• Photochemical pollutants—Ozone, oxides of nitrogen, aldehydes,
ethylene, photochemical smog and proxy acetyl nitrate.
• Radiation pollutants—Radioactive substances and radioactive fall-outs of
the nuclear test.
3.2.1 Classification of Pollutants
[Link] Nature of disposal: On the basis of natural disposal, pollutants are of two
types:

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 1. Non-degradable pollutants: These are the pollutants, which degrade at a very
slow pace by the natural biological processes. These are inorganic compounds
such as salts (chlorides), metallic oxides waste producing materials and
materials like, aluminum cans, mercuric salts and even DDT. These continue to
accumulate in the environment.
2. Biodegradable pollutants: These include domestic sewage that easily
decomposes under natural processes and can be rapidly decomposed by natural/
artificial methods. These cause serious problems when accumulated in large
amounts as the pace of deposition exceeds the pace of decomposition of
disposal.

[Link] Nature of form: On the basis of the form in which they persist after their release
into the environment, pollutants can be categorized under two types:
(i) Primary pollutants: These include those substances, which are emitted
directly from some identifiable sources. This include-
a. Sulphur compounds: SO2, SO3, H2S produced by the oxidation of
fuel.
b. Carbon compounds: Oxides of carbon (CO+CO2) and hydrocarbons.
c. Nitrogen compounds: NO2 and NH3.
d. Halogen compounds: Hydrogen fluoride (HF) and hydrochloric acid
(HCl).
e. Particles of different size and substances: These are found
suspended in air. The fine particles below the diameter of 100u are
more abundant and include particles of metals, carbon, tar, pollen,
fungi, bacteria, silicates and others.
(ii) Secondary pollutants: The secondary pollutants are produced by the
combination of primary emitted pollutants in the atmosphere.
Ex: In bright sunlight, a photochemical reaction occurs between
nitrogen oxides; oxygen and waste hydrocarbons from gasoline that
forms peroxy-acetyle nitrate (PAN) and ozone (O3), both of them are
toxic components of smog and cause smarting eyes and lung damage.

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 3.3 TYPES OF POLLUTION
3.3.1 AIR POLLUTION
[Link] Introduction: Air pollution is one such form that refers to the contamination of
the air, irrespective of indoors or outside. A physical, biological or chemical alteration to
the air in the atmosphere can be termed as pollution. It occurs when any harmful gases,
dust, smoke enters into the atmosphere and makes it difficult for plants, animals and
humans to survive as the air becomes dirty.
The WHO defines air pollution as the presence of materials in the air in such
concentration which are harmful to man and his environment. A number of ingredients
find their way in the air and these are mostly gases, which rapidly spread over wide areas.
[Link] Causes of Air pollution:
1. Burning of Fossil Fuels: Sulfur dioxide emitted from the combustion of fossil
fuels like coal, petroleum and other factory combustibles is one of the major causes
of air pollution. Pollutants emitting from vehicles cause immense amount of
pollution. Carbon Monoxide produced by improper or incomplete combustion
emitted from vehicles is another major pollutant along with Nitrogen Oxides that is
produced from both natural and manmade processes.
2. Agricultural activities: Ammonia is a very common by product from agriculture
related activities and is one of the most hazardous gases in the atmosphere. Use of
insecticides, pesticides and fertilizers in agricultural activities emit harmful
chemicals into the air and cause water pollution.
3. Exhaust from factories and industries: Manufacturing industries release
large amount of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, organic compounds, and
chemicals into the air thereby depleting the quality of air. Petroleum refineries also
release hydrocarbons and various other chemicals that pollute the air and also
cause land pollution.
4. Mining operations: Mining is a process wherein minerals below the earth are
extracted using large equipments. During the process dust and chemicals are
released in the air causing massive air pollution.
5. Indoor air pollution: Household cleaning products, painting supplies emit toxic
chemicals in the air and cause air pollution.

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 6. Suspended Particulate matter: Suspended particulate matter popular by its
acronym SPM, is another cause of pollution.

[Link] Types of Air Pollutants

 Primarily air pollutants can be caused by primary sources or secondary sources.
The pollutants that are a direct result of the process can be called primary
pollutants. A classic example of a primary pollutant would be the sulfur-dioxide
emitted from factories
 Secondary pollutants are the ones that are caused by the inter mingling and
reactions of primary pollutants. Smog created by the interactions of several primary
pollutants is known to be as secondary pollutant.

[Link] Common air pollutants

1. Carbon Dioxide: CO2 content of air has increased by 20% during the last
century. CO2 causes nausea and headache. Its increase in the air may
cause green house effect, rise in the atmospheric temperature. This may
melt the polar ice resulting in rise in level of oceans and flooding of
coastal regions.
2. Carbon Monoxide: It is a very poisonous gas and is produced by incomplete
combustion of fuel. If inhaled. It combines with hemoglobin and reduces
its oxygen-carrying capacity. This leads to laziness, reduced vision and
death.
3. Oxides of Nitrogen: These include NO and NO 2 , which are released by
automobiles and chemical industries as waste gases and also by burning
of materials. These are harmful and lower the oxygen carrying capacity of
blood.
4. Oxides of Sulphur: SO2 and SO3 are produced by burning of coal and
petroleum and are harmful to buildings, clothing, plants and animals. High
concentration of SO2 causes chlorosis (yellowing of leaves), plasmolysis,
damage to mucous membrane and metabolic inhibition. SO2 and SO3 react
with water to form Sulphuric and sulphurous acids. These may precipitate
as rain or snow producing acid rain or acid precipitation.

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 5. Photochemical Oxidants: Formed by the photochemical reactions between
primary pollutants, viz. oxides of nitrogen and hydrocarbons. Nitrogen
oxides in the presence of sunlight react with un-burnt hydrocarbons to
form peroxyacyl nitrate (PAN), Ozone, aldehydes and some other complex
organic compounds in the air.
6. Hydrocarbons: These are un-burnt discharges from incomplete combustion
of fuel in automobiles. These forms PAN with nitrogen oxides, which is
highly toxic.
7. Particulate Matter: Industries and automobiles release fine solid and liquid
particles into the air. Fly ash and soot from burning of coal, metal dust
containing lead, chromium, nickel, cadmium, zinc and mercury from
metallurgical processes; cotton dust from textile mills; and pesticides
sprayed on crops are examples of particulate pollutants in the air. These
are injurious to respiratory tract.
8. Aerosols: Aerosols are chemicals released in the air in vapor form. These
include fluorocarbon (carbon compound having fluorine) present in
emissions from the Jet aero planes. Aerosols deplete the ozone layer.
Thinning of ozone layer results in more harmful ultraviolet rays reaching
the earth, which are harmful to skin, and can lead to skin cancer also.
9. Radioactive Substances: These are released by nuclear explosions and
explosives. These are extremely harmful for health.
10. Fluorides: Rocks, soils and. minerals containing fluorides release an
extremely toxic gas called hydrogen fluoride on heating. This gas is highly
injurious to livestock and cattle.

[Link] Control measures

The atmosphere has several built-in self cleaning processes such as dispersion,
gravitational settling, flocculation, absorption, rain-washout, etc to cleanse the
atmosphere. However, control of contaminants at their source level is a desirable and
effective method through preventive or control technologies.
1. Source control: Some measures that can be adopted in this direction are
1. Using unleaded petrol

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 2. Using fuels with low sulphur and ash content
3. Encouraging people to use public transport, walk or use a cycle as
opposed to private vehicles
4. Ensure that houses, schools, restaurants and playgrounds are not located
on busy streets
5. Plant trees along busy streets as they remove particulates, carbon dioxide
and absorb noise
6. Industries and waste disposal sites should be situated outsdide the city
preferably on the downwind of the city.
7. Catalytic converters should be used to help control emissions of carbon
monoxide and hydrocarbons
2. Control measures in industrial centers:
1. Emission rates should be restricted to permissible levels by each and
every industry
2. Incorporation of air pollution control equipment in design of plant layout
must be made mandatory
3. Continuous monitoring of the atmosphere for pollutants should be carried
out to know the emission levels.

[Link] Equipment used to control air pollution

Air pollution can be reduced by adopting the following approaches.
1. Ensuring sufficient supply of oxygen to the combustion chamber and adequate
temperature so that the combustion is complete thereby eliminating much of the
smoke consisting of partly burnt ashes and dust.
2. To use mechanical devices such as scrubbers, cyclones, bag houses and electro-
static precipitators in manufacturing processes. The equipment used to remove
particulates from the exhaust gases of electric power and industrial plants are
shown below. All methods retain hazardous materials that must be disposed safely.
Wet scrubber can additionally reduce sulphur dioxide emissions.
3. The air pollutants collected must be carefully disposed. The factory fumes are dealt
with chemical treatment.

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 3.3.2 WATER POLLUTION
[Link] Introduction: Water pollution may be defined as “the alteration in physical,
chemical and biological characteristics of water which may cause harmful effects on
humans and aquatic life.”

[Link] Sources of water pollution

1. Point sources: These are pollutants that are discharged at specific locations
through pipes, ditches or sewers into bodies of surface waters.
Ex: Factories, sewage treatment plants, abandoned underground mines and
oil tankers.
2. Non point sources: These pollutants cannot be traced to a single point of
discharge. They are large land areas or air-sheds that pollute water by runoff,
subsurface flow or deposition from the atmosphere.
Ex: Acid deposition, runoff of chemicals into surface water from croplands,
livestock feedlots, logged forests, urban streets, lawns, golf courses and parking
lots.

[Link] Types, effects and sources of water pollution

Water pollution is any chemical, biological or physical change in water quality that has a
harmful effect on living organisms or makes water unsuitable for desired uses.
[Link] Pollutants Human sources Health Effects
1 Infectious agents Human and animal Variety of diseases
Ex: Bacteria, Viruses, wastes
Protozoa, and parasitic
worms.
2 Oxygen demanding wastes Sewage, Animal Degrade water quality by
(Dissolved oxygen) feedlots, paper mills depleting water of dissolved
Ex: Organic wastes such as and food processing oxygen. This causes fish and
animal manure and plant facilities other forms of oxygen-
debris consuming aquatic life to die.
3 Inorganic chemicals Surface runoff,  Make freshwater unusable
Ex: Water soluble inorganic industrial effluents for drinking and irrigation

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 chemicals: and household  Cause skin cancer and
Acids, Compounds of toxic cleansers neck damage, Damage to
metals such as lead (Pb), nervous system, liver and
arsenic (As) and selenium kidneys
(Se) and Salts such as NaCl  Harm fish and other
in oceans and fluoride (F - ) aquatic life
found in some soils.  Lower crop yields
 Accelerate corrosion of
metals exposed to such
water
4 Organic chemicals Industrial effluents,  Can threaten human
Ex: Oil, Gasoline, Plastics, household cleansers health by causing nervous
Pesticides, Cleaning and surface runoff system damage and some
solvents and Detergents. from farms. cancers.
 Harm fish and wildlife.
5 Plant nutrients Sewage, manure and  Can cause excessive
Ex: Water soluble runoff of agricultural growth of algae and other
compounds containing and urban fertilizers aquatic plants, which die,
nitrate, Phosphate and decay, deplete dissolved
Ammonium ions. oxygen in water thereby
killing fish
 Drinking water with
excessive levels of
nitrates lower the oxygen
carrying capacity of the
blood and can kill urban
children and infants.
6 Sediment Land erosion  Causes cloudy water
Ex: Soil, silt, etc. thereby reducing
photosynthetic activity
 Disruption of aquatic food
chain

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  Carries pesticides,
bacteria and other
harmful substances
 Settles and destroys
feeding and spawning
grounds of fish
 Clogs and fills lakes,
artificial reservoirs,
stream channels and
harbors
7 Radioactive materials: Nuclear power Genetic mutations, birth defects
Ex: Radioactive isotopes of: plants, mining and and certain cancers.
Iodine, Radon, Uranium, processing of
Cesium and Thorium. uranium and other
ores, nuclear
weapon production
and natural sources.
8 Heat (Thermal pollution) Water cooling of  Low dissolved oxygen
Ex: Excessive heat electric power plants levels thereby making
and some types of aquatic organisms more
industrial plants. vulnerable to disease,
parasites and toxic
chemicals.
 When a power plant starts
or shuts down for repair,
fish and other organisms
adapted to a particular
temperature range, can
be killed by an abrupt
temperature change
known as thermal shock.

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 [Link] Control measures of water pollution
1. Administration of water pollution control should be in the hands of state or central
government
2. Scientific techniques should be adopted for environmental control of catchment
areas of rivers, ponds or streams
3. Industrial plants should be based on recycling operations as it helps prevent
disposal of wastes into natural waters but also extraction of products from waste.
4. Plants, trees and forests control pollution as they act as natural air conditioners.
5. Trees are capable of reducing sulphur dioxide and nitric oxide pollutants and hence
more trees should be planted.
6. No type of waste (treated, partially treated or untreated) should be discharged into
any natural water body. Industries should develop closed loop water supply
schemes and domestic sewage must be used for irrigation.
7. Qualified and experienced people must be consulted from time to time for effective
control of water pollution.
8. Public awareness must be initiated regarding adverse effects of water pollution
using the media.
9. Laws, standards and practices should be established to prevent water pollution and
these laws should be modified from time to time based on current requirements
and technological advancements.
[Link] and applied research in public health engineering should be encouraged.

3.3.3 THERMAL POLLUTION

[Link] Introduction
Thermal pollution is defined as the addition of excess of undesirable heat to water thereby
making it harmful to man, animal or aquatic life. Thermal pollution may also cause no
significant departures from or activities of aquatic communities.

[Link] Sources of Thermal Pollution

The following sources contribute to thermal pollution.

1. Nuclear power plants: Nuclear power plants including drainage from

hospitals, research institutions, nuclear experiments and explosions,

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 discharge a lot of heat that is not utilized along with traces of toxic radio
nuclides into nearby water streams. Emissions from nuclear reactors and
processing installations are also responsible for increasing the temperatures
of water bodies. The operations of power reactors and nuclear fuel processing
units constitute the major contributor of heat in the aquatic environment.
Heated effluents from power plants are discharged at 10 C higher than the
receiving waters that affect the aquatic flora and fauna.
2. Coal-fired power plants: Coal fired power plants constitute a major source
of thermal pollution. The condenser coils in such plants are cooled with water
from nearby lakes or rivers. The resulting heated water is discharged into
streams thereby raising the water temperature by 15C. Heated effluent
decreases the dissolved content of water resulting in death of fish and other
aquatic organisms. The sudden fluctuation of temperature also leads to
"thermal shock" killing aquatic life that has become acclimatized to living in a
steady temperature.
3. Industrial effluents: Industries like textile, paper, pulp and sugar
manufacturing release huge amounts of cooling water along with effluents
into nearby natural water bodies. The waters polluted by sudden and heavy
organic loads result in severe drop in levels of dissolved oxygen leading to
death of several aquatic organisms.
4. Domestic Sewage: Domestic sewage is discharged into rivers, lakes,
canals or streams with minimal treatment or without any treatment. These
wastes have a higher organic temperature and organic load. This leads to
decrease in dissolved oxygen content in the receiving waters resulting in the
set-up of anaerobic conditions causing release of foul and offensive gases in
water. Eventually, this leads to development of anoxic conditions resulting in
rapid death of aquatic organisms.
5. Hydro-electric power: Generation of hydroelectric power sometimes leads
to negative thermal loading in water systems. Apart from electric power
industries, various factories with cooling requirement contribute to thermal
loading.

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 [Link] Thermal pollution in streams by human activities
 Industries and power plants use water to cool machinery and discharge the warm
water into a stream
 Stream temperature rises when trees and tall vegetation providing shade are cut.
 Soil erosion caused due to construction also leads to thermal pollution
 Removal of stream side vegetation
 Poor farming Practices also lead to thermal pollution

[Link] Effects of Thermal pollution

1. Reduction in dissolved oxygen: Concentration of Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
decreases with increase in temperature.
2. Increase in toxicity: The rising temperature increases the toxicity of the poison
present in water. A 10C increase in temperature of water doubles the toxicity effect
of potassium cyanide, while 80C rise in temperature triples the toxic effects of o-
xylene causing massive mortality to fish.
3. Interference in biological activity: Temperature is considered to be of vital
significance to physiology, metabolism and biochemical processes that control
respiratory rates, digestion, excretion, and overall development of aquatic
organisms. Temperature changes cause total disruption to the entire ecosystem.
4. Interference in reproduction: In fishes, several activities like nest building,
spawning, hatching, migration and reproduction depend on optimum temperature.
5. Direct mortality: Thermal pollution is directly responsible for mortality of aquatic
organisms. Increase in temperature of water leads to exhaustion of microorganism s
thereby shortening the life span of fish. Above a certain temperature, fish die due
to failure of respiratory system and nervous system failure.
6. Food storage for fish: Abrupt changes in temperature alter the seasonal variation
in the type and abundance of lower organisms leading to shortage of right food for
fish at the right time.

[Link] Control measures for thermal pollution

The following methods can be adapted to control high temperature caused by thermal
discharges:

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 1. Cooling towers: Use of water from water systems for cooling systems for
cooling purposes, with subsequent return to the water way after passage
through a condenser, is called cooling process. Cooling towers transfer heat
from hot water to the atmosphere by evaporation. Cooling towers are of two
types:
(i) Wet cooling tower: Hot water coming out from the condenser (reactor)
is allowed to spray over baffles. Cool air, with high velocity, is passed from
sides, which takes away the heat and cools the water.
(ii) Dry cooling tower: Here, hot water is allowed to flow in long spiral
pipes. Cool air with the help of a fan is passed over these hot pipes, which
cools down hot water. This cool water can be recycled.
2. Cooling ponds: Cooling ponds are the best way to cool thermal discharges.
Heated effluents on the surface of the water in cooling ponds maximize
dissipation of heat to the atmosphere and minimize the water area and
volume. The warm water wedge acts like a cooling pond.
3. Spray ponds: The water coming out from condensers is allowed to pass into
the ponds through sprayers. Here water is sprayed through nozzles as fine
droplets. Heat from the fine droplets gets dissipated to the atmosphere.
4. Artificial lakes: Artificial lakes are manmade water bodies that offer once-
through cooling. The heated effluents can be discharged into the lake at one
end and water for cooling purposes may be withdrawn from the other end.
The heat is eventually dissipated through evaporation

3.3.4 SOIL POLLUTION

[Link] Introduction
Soil pollution is defined as, “contamination of soil by human and natural activities which
may cause harmful effect on living organisms”.

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 [Link] Types, effects and sources of soil pollution

[Link] Pollutants Sources Health Effects

1 Industrial wastes Industrial pollutants are These pollutants affect
mainly discharged from and alter the chemical
various origins such as pulp and biological properties
and paper mills, chemical of soil. As a result,
fertilizers, oil refineries, hazardous chemicals can
sugar factories, tanneries, enter into human food
textiles, steel, distilleries, chain from the soil or
fertilizers, pesticides, coal water, disturb the
and mineral mining biochemical process and
industries, drugs, glass, finally lead to serious
cement, petroleum and effects on living
engineering industries etc. organisms.
2 Urban wastes Plastics, glasses, metallic- Alter the constitution of
cans, fibers, paper, rubbers, soil
street sweepings, fuel- Cause Water logging
residues, leaves, containers,- Cause biomagnifications
abandoned vehicles and of toxic materials
other discarded through food chain
manufactured products.
3 Agricultural fertilizers, pesticides, Water logging,
practices weedicides, farm wastes, Salinisation,
manure debris, soil erosion micronutrient imbalance,
loss of fertile soil
4 Radioactive Atomic reactor, nuclear Mutations, changes
pollutants radioactive devices, functions of living beings,
Explosion of hydrogen Biomagnifications,
weapons and cosmic cancers, Infant mortality
radiations

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 5 Biological agents The human and animal Variety of diseases
wastes, garbage, waste Cause nutrient imbalance
water
6 Pesticides chlorinated hydrocarbon Reduces the activity of
insecticide sex hormones of male
Organic phosphorous and female.
pesticides Causes diseases to
human beings.
7 Fertilizers Different fertilizers The nitrate causes
discharge N, Na, K, S, cancer, blue baby
Nitrates etc syndrome in infants.
8 Polymer, Plastics Waste from different Biomagnifications, water
& other water sources logging, create cancers
in animals and human
beings.

[Link] Control measures of soil pollution

1. Soil erosion can be controlled by a variety of forestry and farm practices.

Ex: Planting trees on barren slopes
2. Contour cultivation and strip cropping may be practiced instead of shifting
cultivation
3. Terracing and building diversion channels may be undertaken.
4. Reducing deforestation and substituting chemical manures by animal wastes
also helps arrest soil erosion in the long term.
5. Proper dumping of unwanted materials: Excess wastes by man and
animals pose a disposal problem. Open dumping is the most commonly
practiced technique. Nowadays, controlled tipping is followed for solid waste
disposal. The surface so obtained is used for housing or sports field.
6. Production of natural fertilizers: Bio-pesticides should be used in place of
toxic chemical pesticides. Organic fertilizers should be used in place of
synthesized chemical fertilizers. Ex: Organic wastes in animal dung may be

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 used to prepare compost manure instead of throwing them wastefully and
polluting the soil.
7. Proper hygienic condition: People should be trained regarding sanitary
habits.
Ex: Lavatories should be equipped with quick and effective disposal
methods.
8. Public awareness: Informal and formal public awareness programs should
be imparted to educate people on health hazards by environmental
education.
Ex: Mass media, Educational institutions and voluntary agencies can
achieve this.
9. Recycling and Reuse of wastes: To minimize soil pollution, the wastes
such as paper, plastics, metals, glasses, organics, petroleum products and
industrial effluents etc should be recycled and reused.
Ex: Industrial wastes should be properly treated at source. Integrated
waste treatment methods should be adopted.
10. Ban on Toxic chemicals: Ban should be imposed on chemicals and
pesticides like DDT, BHC, etc which are fatal to plants and animals. Nuclear
explosions and improper disposal of radioactive wastes should be banned.

3.3.5 NOISE POLLUTION

[Link] Introduction
Noise is defined as, "the unwanted, unpleasant or disagreeable sound that causes
discomfort to all living beings". Sound intensity is measured in decibels (dB) , that is the
tenth part of the longest unit Bel. One dB is the faintest sound that a human ear can hear.

[Link] Types of noise: Environmental noise has been doubling every ten years. Noise is
classified as:
1. Industrial Noise
2. Transport Noise
3. Domestic Noise

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 Industrial Noise:
It is sound with a high intensity sound caused by industry machines. Sources
of such noise pollution are caused by machines from machines in various factories,
industries and mills. Noise from mechanical saws and pneumatic drills is unbearable
and a nuisance to the public. The Indian Institute of Oto -Rino Laryngology, Chennai
reported that increasing industrial pollution damages the hearing ability by at least
20%. Workers in steel industry, who work close to heavy industrial blower, are
exposed to 112dB for eight hours suffer from occupational pollution.
Transport Noise:
Transport noise mainly consists of traffic noise from road, rail and aircraft.
The number of automobiles on roads like motors, scooters, cars, motor cycles,
buses, trucks and diesel engine vehicles has increased enormously in the recent
past further aggravating the problem of transport noise. Noise levels in most
residential areas in metropolitan cities are hovering around the border line due to
increased vehicular noise pollution. This high level of noise pollution leads to
deafening in the elderly.
Domestic noise:
This type of noise includes disturbance from household gadgets and
community. Common sources of noise are musical instruments, TV, VCR, Radios,
Transistors, Telephones, and loudspeakers etc. Statistically ever since the industrial
revolution, noise in the environment has been doubled every ten years.

[Link] Effects of Noise pollution

 Noise pollution affects both human and animal health. It leads to:
o contraction of blood vessels
o making skin pale
o Excessive adrenalin in the blood stream which is responsible for
high blood pressure.
o Blaring sounds are known to cause mental distress
o Heart attacks, neurological problems, birth defects and abortion
 Muscle contraction leading to nervous breakdown, tension, etc

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  The adverse reactions are coupled with a change in hormone content of blood,
which in-turn increases heart beat, constriction of blood vessels, digestive
spams and dilation of the pupil of the eye.
 Adverse affects health, work efficiency and behavior. Noise pollution may cause
damage to the heart, brain, kidneys, liver and may produce emotional
disturbance.
 The most immediate and acute effect of noise is impairment of hearing that
diminishes some part of the auditory system. Prolonged exposure to noise of
certain frequency pattern leads to chronic damage to the inner ear.
 Impulsive noise may cause psychological and pathological disorders
 Ultrasonic sound can affect the digestive, respiratory, cardiovascular system and
semicircular canals of the internal ear.
 The brain is adversely affected by loud and sudden noise by jets and airplanes.
People are subjected to psychiatric illness.
 Recent reports suggest that blood is thickened by excessive noise.
 The optical system of human beings is also affected by noise pollution. Severe
noise pollution causes:
 Popularly dilation
 Impairment of night vision and
 Decrease in rate of color perception
[Link] Control measures:
1. SOURCE CONTROL: This includes source modification such as acoustic
treatment to machine surface, design changes, limiting operational timings,
etc
2. TRANSMISSION PATH INTERVENTION: This includes containing the
source inside a sound insulating enclosure, constructing a noise barrier or
provision of sound absorbing materials along the path.
3. RECEPTOR CONTROL: This includes protection of the receiver by altering
the work schedule or provision of personal protection devices such as ear
plugs for operating noisy machinery. The measure may include dissipation
and deflection methods.
4. OILING: Proper oiling will reduce noise from the machine.

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 [Link] Preventive measures

1. Prescribing noise limits for vehicular traffic

2. Ban on honking (usage of horns) in certain areas
3. Creation of silence zones near schools and hospitals
4. Redesigning buildings to make them noise proof
5. Reduction of traffic density in residential areas
6. Giving preference to mass public transport system.

3.3.6 MARINE POLLUTION

[Link] Introduction
The discharge of waste substances in to the sea resulting in harm to the living resources,
hazards to the human health hindrances to the fishery and impairment of quality use of
sea water.

[Link] Sources
1. Dumping the wastes: Dumping of untreated wastes and sewages in the oceans
by coastal towns, cities and industries. Rivers on the way to sea carry huge amount
of sewage garbage agricultural discharge pesticide heavy metals. Huge quantity of
plastic dumped in to the sea.
2. Oil: This is discharged in to the sea as crude oil and as separate fraction. Oil and
it’s fractions are used in houses automobiles and industries. This causes
devastation of marine environment
3. Radioactive materials enter the ocean from nuclear weapon testing.
4. Toxics: Toxic waste is the most harmful form of marine pollution. Once toxic
wastes affects an organism it quickly passes along the food chain and as sea food
which cause various problems.
5. Marine Debris: Garbage like plastic bags, ropes helium balloons

[Link] Effects of marine pollution

1. Heavy metals and organic pollutants damages birds by thinning of egg shells
and tissue damage of egg.

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 2. Oil pollution causes damage to marine animals and plants including algae
bird, fish etc.
3. Oil spilling in the sea causes abnormal low body temperature in birds
resulting in hypothermia. During Exxon Valdez accident 150 rare species of
bald eagles are affected by ingested oil.
4. Oil films are able to retard the rate of oxygen uptake by water.
5. Hydrocarbon and benzpyrene accumulate in food chain and consumption of
fish by man may cause cancer.
6. Many marine birds ingest plastic that causes gastrointestinal disorders.
7. Oil spills inhibit photosynthesis and the growth of planktons. All aquatic
animals depend either directly of indirectly on planktons the basis of tropic
chain.
[Link] Control of marine pollution
 Nature and world conservation union suggest the principles
1. The industrial unit on the coastal lines should be equipped with pollution
control instrument.
2. Urban growth near the coast should be regulated.
 Methods of removal of oil
1. Physical methods.
 skimming the oil off the surface with suction device
 Floating oil can be absorbed using absorbing materials like ploy
urethane foam. Chopped straw and saw dust also used to absorbed oil
from the sea water.
2. Chemical methods like dispersion , emulsification and using chemical
additives are used to coagulated the oil

[Link] Protective method

1. Municipal and industrial waste should be treated before disposing in to sea
2. Coastal waste are periodically analyzed for detecting pollution level
3. Soil erosion in the coastal land should be arrested be suitable techniques
4. Recreation beaches should be maintained to meet hygienic and aesthetic
standard.

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 3.3.7 Nuclear Pollution
Nuclear pollution is the physical pollution of air, water and soil by radioactive materials.

[Link] Sources of Nuclear Pollution

The sources of radioactivity include both natural and manmade.

[Link] Effects of Nuclear Pollution

Studies have shown that the health effects due to radiation are dependent on the level of
dose, kind of radiation, duration of exposure and types of cells irradiated. Radiation
effects can be somatic or genetic.

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 1. Somatic effects: Somatic affects the function of cells and organs. It
causes damages to cell membranes, mitochondria and cell nuclei resulting
in abnormal cell functions, cell division, growth and death.
2. Genetic effects: Genetic effects the future generations. Radiations can
cause mutations, which are changes in genetic makeup of cells. These
effects are mainly due to the damages to DNA molecules. People suffer
from blood cancer and bone cancer if exposed to doses around 100 to
1000 roentgens.

[Link] Management of Radioactive Waste

 The radioactive waste which comes out from industry, nuclear reactors
should be stored and allowed to decay either naturally in closed drums or
in very large underground air tight cemented tanks (Delay and Decay).
 The intermediate radioactive waste should be disposed off into the
environment after diluting it with some inert materials (Dilute and
Disperse)
 Now-a-days small quantities of high activity wastes are converted into
solids such as concrete and then it is buried underground or sea.
(Concentrate and contain)

[Link] Control Measures

 Laboratory generated nuclear wastes should be disposed off safely and

scientifically.
 Nuclear power plants should be located in areas after careful study of the
geology of the area, tectonic activity and meeting other established
conditions.
 Appropriate protection against occupational exposure.
 Leakage of radioactive elements from nuclear reactors, careless use of
radioactive elements as fuel and careless handling of radioactive isotopes
must be prevented.

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  Safety measure against accidental release of radioactive elements must be
ensured in nuclear plants.
 Unless absolutely necessary, one should not frequently go for diagnosis by x-
rays.
 Regular monitoring of the presence of radioactive substance in high risk area
should be ensured.
 Among the many options for waste disposal, the scientists prefer to bury the
waste in hundreds of meters deep in the earth’s crust is considered to be the
best safety long term option.

3.3.8 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

[Link] Introduction
Rapid population growth and urbanization in developing countries has led to people
generating enormous quantities of solid waste and consequent environmental
degradation. The waste is normally disposed in open dumps creating nuisance and
environmental degradation. Solid wastes cause a major risk to public health and the
environment. Management of solid wastes is important in order to minimize the adverse
effects posed by their indiscriminate disposal.

[Link] Types of solid wastes

Depending on the nature of origin, solid wastes are classified into

1. Urban or municipal wastes

2. Industrial wastes
3. Hazardous wastes

 Sources of urban wastes: Domestic wastes containing a variety of materials

thrown out from homes.
Ex: Food waste, Cloth, Waste paper, Glass bottles, Polythene bags, Waste
metals, etc.
 Commercial wastes: It includes wastes coming out from shops, markets,
hotels, offices, institutions, etc.
Ex: Waste paper, packaging material, cans, bottle, polythene bags, etc.

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  Construction wastes: It includes wastes of construction materials.
Ex: Wood, Concrete, Debris, etc.
 Biomedical wastes: It includes mostly waste organic materials
Ex: Anatomical wastes, Infectious wastes, etc.

[Link] CLASSIFICATION OF URBAN WASTES

urban wastes are classified into:
 Bio-degradable wastes - Those wastes that can be degraded by micro organisms
are called bio-degradable wastes
Ex: Food, vegetables, tea leaves, dry leaves, etc.
 Non-biodegradable wastes: Urban solid waste materials that cannot be degraded
by micro organisms are called non-biodegradable wastes.
Ex: Polythene bags, scrap materials, glass bottles, etc.

[Link] SOURCES OF INDUSTRIAL WASTES

 The main source of industrial wastes is chemical industries, metal and mineral
processing industries.
Ex: Nuclear plants: It generated radioactive wastes
 Thermal power plants: It produces fly ash in large quantities
 Chemical Industries: It produces large quantities of hazardous and toxic
materials.
 Other industries: Other industries produce packing materials, rubbish,
organic wastes, acid, alkali, scrap metals, rubber, plastic, paper, glass, wood,
oils, paints, dyes, etc.

[Link] EFFECT OF IMPROPER SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

1. Due to improper disposal of municipal solid waste on the roads and

immediate surroundings, biodegradable materials undergo decomposition
producing foul smell and become a breeding ground for disease vectors.

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 2. Industrial solid wastes are the source for toxic metals and hazardous wastes
that affect soil characteristics and productivity of soils when they are dumped
on the soil
3. Toxic substances may percolate into the ground and contaminate the
groundwater.
4. Burning of industrial or domestic wastes (cans, pesticides, plastics,
radioactive materials and batteries) produce furans, dioxins and
polychlorinated biphenyls that are harmful to human beings.
5. Solid waste management involves waste generation, mode of collection,
transportation, segregation of wastes and disposal techniques.

[Link] STEPS INVOLVED IN SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Two important steps involved in solid waste management are- Reduce, Reuse and Recycle
of Raw Materials
1. Discarding wastes
 Reduce - If usage of raw materials is reduced, the generation of waste
also gets reduced.
 Reuse - Refillable containers that are discarded after use can be
reused. Rubber rings can be made from discarded cycle tubes and this
reduces waste generation during manufacture of rubber bands.

2. Recycle- Recycling is the reprocessing of discarded materials into new useful

products
Ex: Old aluminum cans and glass bottles are melted and recast into new
cans and bottles, preparation of cellulose insulation from paper, Preparation
of automobile body and construction material from steel cans
This method (Reduce, Reuse & Recycle), i.e, 3R's help save money,
energy, raw materials and reduces pollution.

[Link] Discarding wastes

The following methods are adopted for discarding wastes:

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 1. Landfill
2. Incineration and
3. Composting
1. LANDFILL: Solid wastes are placed in a sanitary landfill in which alternate layers of 80
cm thick refuse is covered with selected earth-fill of 20 cm thickness. After 2-3 years solid
waste volume shrinks by 25-30% and land is used for parks, roads and small buildings.
This is the most common and cheapest method of waste disposal and is mostly employed
in Indian cities.
Advantages:
1. It is simple and economical
2. Segregation of wastes is not required
3. Land filled areas can be reclaimed and used for other purposes
4. Converts low-lying, marshy waste-land into useful areas.
5. Natural resources are returned to soil and recycled.
Disadvantages:
1. Large area is required
2. Land availability is away from the town, transpo rtation costs are high
3. Leads to bad odor, if landfill is not properly managed.
4. Land filled areas will be sources of mosquitoes and flies requiring application of
insecticides and pesticides at regular intervals.
5. Causes fire hazard due to formation of methane in wet weather.

2. INCINERATION:
 It is a hygienic way of disposing solid waste. It is suitable if waste contains more
hazardous material and organic content. It is a thermal process and very effective
for detoxification of all combustible pathogens. It is expensive when compared to
composting or land-filling.
 In this method municipal solid wastes are burnt in a furnace called incinerator.
Combustible substances such as rubbish, garbage, dead organisms and non-
combustible matter such as glass, porcelain and metals are separated before
feeding to incinerators.

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  The non-combustible materials can be left out for recycling and reuse. The leftover
ashes and clinkers may account for about 10 to 20% which need further disposal by
sanitary landfill or some other means.
 The heat produced in the incinerator during burning of refuse is used in the form of
steam power for generation of electricity through turbines.
 Municipal solid waste is generally wet and has a high calorific value. Therefore, it
has to be dried first before burning. Waste is dried in a preheated from where it is
taken to a large incinerating furnace called "destructor" which can incinerate about
100 to 150 tons per hour.
 Temperature normally maintained in a combustion chamber is about 700 C which
may be increased to 1000 C when electricity is to be generated.

ADVANTAGES:
1. Residue is only 20-25% of the original and can be used as clinker after treatment
2. Requires very little space
3. Cost of transportation is not high if the incinerator is located within city limits
4. Safest from hygienic point of view
5. An incinerator plant of 3000 tons per day capacity can generate 3MW of power.

DISADVANTAGES:
1. Its capital and operating cost is high.
2. Operation needs skilled personnel.
3. Formation of smoke, dust and ashes needs further disposal and that may cause air
pollution.

3. COMPOSTING: It is another popular method practiced in many cities in our country.

In this method, bulk organic waste is converted into fertilizer by biological action.
Separated compostable waste is dumped in underground trenches in layers of 1.5m and
finally covered with earth of 20cm and left for decomposition. Sometimes, Actionmycetes
are introduced for active decomposition. Within 2 to 3 days, biological action starts.
Organic matter is destroyed by actinomycetes and lot of heat is liberated increasing the
temperature of compost by 75C and the refuse is finally converted into powdery brown

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 colored odorless mass called humus that has a fertilizing value and can be used in
agriculture. Humus contains lot of Nitrogen essential for plant growth apart from
phosphates and other minerals.

ADVANTAGES:
1. Manure added to soil increases water retention and ion-exchange capacity of soil.
2. This method can be used to treat several industrial solid wastes.
3. Manure can be sold thereby reducing cost of disposing wastes
4. Recycling can be done

DISADVANTAGES:
1. Non-consumables have to be disposed separately
2. The technology has not caught-up with the farmers and hence does not have an
assured market.

3.3.9 DISASTER MANAGEMENT

[Link] FLOODS
Increased rainfall or rapid snow melting causes more flow of water in the streams. This
excess water flow in a stream covering the adjacent land is called a flood. Floodplain is
defined in terms of a flood frequency. Flood frequency is referred as 10 -year flood, 100-
year flood, etc. A 10-year flood at any point in a stream is that discharge of water which
may be expected to occur on average once in 10 years. Floodplains are genera lly fertile,
flat and easily formed.

[Link] CAUSES OF FLOOD

 Construction of buildings in a flood plain

 Removing vegetation
 Paving roads and parking areas
 Deforestation
 Heavy rainfall
 Urbanization

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  Earthquakes

[Link] Effects of flood

 Erosion of top soil and vegetation
 Damage and loss to land, house and property
 Spread of endemic waterborne diseases
 Interruption of basic facilities of community such as highways, railways,
telephone, electricity and day-to-day essentials
 Silting of reservoirs and dams
 FLOOD CONTROL
 Construction of flood control dam
 Deepening, widening and straightening of streams
 Lining of streams
 Banning of construction of buildings in floodplains
 Converting flood-plains into wildlife habitat, parks, and recreation areas.

[Link] LANDSLIDES

 Landslides occur when mass of earth material move downward. It is also called
mass wasting or mass movement.
 sudden landslide occurs when unconsolidated sediments of a hillside are saturated
by rainfall or water logging.
 Many landslides take place in coincidence with earthquakes. The most common
form of landslides is earthquake induced landslides or more specifically rock falls
and slides of rock fragments that form on steep slopes.
 The size of area affected by earthquake induced landslides depends o n the
magnitude of the earthquake, its focal depth, the topography and geologic
conditions near the causative fault, the amplitude, frequency, composition and
duration of ground shaking.

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 [Link].1 Control measures for landslides
 Avoid construction activity in landslide occurring areas.
 Reducing slope of hilly side
 Stabilizing the slope portion
 Increasing plantation of deep rooted vegetation on the slope.

[Link] EARTHQUAKES
 An earthquake occurs when rocks break and slip along a fault in the earth.
Earthquakes occur due to deformation of crust and upper mantle of the earth.
 Due to heating and cooling of the rock below these plates, movement of adjacently
overlying plates and great stresses, deformation occurs.
 Tremendous energy cans build-up between neighboring plates.
 If accumulated stress exceeds the strength of the rocks, the rocks break suddenly
releasing the stored energy as an earthquake.
 The earthquake releases energy in the form of waves that radiate from the
epicenter in all directions.
 The 'p' wave or primary wave alternately compresses and expands material in the
same direction it is travelling.
 This wave can move through solid rocks and fluids.
 These are the fastest waves. The is wave or secondary wave is slower and shake
the ground up, down, back and forth perpendicular to the direction in which it is
travelling. Surface waves follow both the 'P' and 'S' waves.
 The magnitude of an earthquake is measured in Richter scale. The Richter scale is
logarithmic.

[Link].1 Effects of earthquake

 Ground shaking
 Liquefaction of ground
 Ground displacement
 Landslides
 Flood
 Fire

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  Tsunami

[Link].2 Control of earthquake

 There is virtually no technique to control the occurrence of earthquake. However,
certain preventive measures can be taken to minimize the damage.
 Minimizing development activity (especially construction, mining, construction of dams
and reservoirs) in areas known to be active seismic zones.
 Continuously monitoring seismic activity using 'seismographs' and alerting people
regarding any recorded disturbance in advance.

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 UNIT IV SOCIAL ISSUES AND THE ENVIRONMENT
From Unsustainable To Sustainable Development – Urban Problems
Related To energy – Water conservation, Rain Water Harvesting,
Watershed Management – Resettlement and Rehabilitation of People, Its
Problems and Concerns, Case Studies – Environmental Ethics:- Issues
and Possible Solutions – Climate Change, Global Warming, Acid Rain,
Ozone Layer Depletion, Nuclear Accidents and Holocaust, Case Studies –
Wasteland Reclamation – Consumerism and Waste Products –
Environment Production Act – Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution)
Act – Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act – Wildlife
Protection Act – Forest Conservation Act – Issues Involved in
enforcement of Environmental Legislation – Public Awareness.

SOCIAL ISSUES AND ENVIRONMENT

Introduction:
From Unsustainable to Sustainable Development
Man is part of the nature and he is bound to obey the laws of nature. He depends on his
environment for basic things. More developmental activities are adopted in order to
increase the quality of life. For that he uses the available resources. The Earth has limited
supply of resources and renewable resources. These are to be managed in a scientific
manner for availing the generations to come. Hence developmental activities are to be
taken with more care about the environment and its protection. It brings benefits to all
not only to the present generation but also for future generations.

Sustainable development: Meeting the needs o f the present without compromising the
ability of future generation to meet their own needs.

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 Important components of Sustainable development:

1. Economic development

2. Community development

3. Environmental protection

True sustainable development aims at optimum use of natural resources with high
degree of reusability, minimum wastage, least generation of toxic by-products and
maximum productivity. Aspects of sustainable development:

Inter generational equity-It states stat we should hand over a safe, healthy and
resourceful environment to future generation.

Intra generational equity:

A technological development of rich countries should support the economic growth of
poor countries and help in narrowing the wealth gap and lead to sustainability.

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 Approaches for sustainable development:
1. Devloping appropriate technology-technology which is locally adoptable, ecofriendly,
resource efficient and culturally suitable should be adopted. It uses local labour, less
resources and produces minimum waste.
2. Reduce ,Reuse and Recycle (3Rapproach) –Optimum use of natural resources using it
again and again instead of throwing it on wasteland or water and recycling the material
in to further products. It reduces waste generation and pollution.
3. Providing environmental education and awareness-Thinking and attitude of people
towards earth and environment should be changed by providing environmental
awareness and education.
4. Consumption of renewable resources- It is very important to consume the natural
resources in such a way that the consumption should not exceed the regeneration
capacity.
5. Non-renewable resources should be conserved by recycling and reusing.
6. By population control we can make sustainable development.

Urban problems related to energy:

Urbanization –Movement of human population from rural; areas to urban areas for
want of better education, communication, health, employment etc.

Causes:
Cities are the main centers of economic growth, trade transportation, medical
facilities and employment.
Urban sprawl:
The phenomenon of spreading of the cities in to sub-urban or rural areas is called urban
sprawl. Urban growth is so fast and is difficult to accommodate all commercial industrial
residential and educational facilities within the limited area.

Energy demanding activities:

Urban people consume lot of energy and materials in comparison with rural people.
This is because urban people have high standard of life and their life style demand
more energy.

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 Examples for energy demands:
1. Residential and commercial lightings.
2. Industries using large proportion of energy.
3. Usage of fans fridge, A.C, washing machines.

Control and prevention of pollution technologies need more

energy.
Solution for urban energy problems:

1. Energy consumption must be minimized in all aspects.

2. Public transportation should be used instead of motor cycles and cars.
3. Using of solar energy and wind energy.
4. Production capacity must be increased.

WATER CONSERVATION
The original source of water is precipitation from the atmosphere. The water available on
the earth may occur in all three stages as gas, liquid or solid. Temperature is the main
factor in deciding the state of water. As a liquid, the water forms hydrosphere. About 75%
of the Earth’s surface is covered by the hydrosphere.
The process of saving water for future utilization is called conservation of water.

Need for water conservation.

1. Better life style requires more fresh water.

2. Agriculture and Industrial activities require more fresh water.
3. As the population increases the requirement of water is also more .

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 Strategies of water conservation
Reducing evaporation losses

Evaporation of water in humid regions can be reduced by placing horizontal

Barriers of asphalt below the soil surface.

Reducing irrigation losses

Sprinkling and irrigation conserves water by 30- 40%. Irrigation in early morning
(or) later evening reduces evaporation losses. Growing hybrid crop varieties also
conserve water.

Reuse of water

Treated waste water can be reused for irrigation. Water from washings, bath rooms etc.
can be used for washing cars, gardening.

Preventing of wastage of water

Closing the taps when not in use and repairing any leakage from pipes.

Decreasing run off losses

Run off , on most of the soils can be reduced by using contour cultivation
(or) Terrace farming.

Avoid discharge of sewage

Disposal into natural water resources should be avoided

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 Methods of water conservation

Rain water Harvesting and Watershed management

It means capturing rain where it falls or capturing the run off in your own village or
town. And taking measures to keep that water clean by not allowing polluting activities
to take place in the catchment.

Therefore, water harvesting can be undertaken through a variety o f ways

Capturing runoff from rooftops

Capturing runoff from local catchments

Capturing seasonal floodwaters from local streams

Conserving water through watershed management

These techniques can serve the following the following purposes:

Provide drinking water

Provide irrigation water

Increase groundwater recharge

Reduce stormwater discharges, urban floods and overloading of sewage treatment plants

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 In general, water harvesting is the activity of direct collection of rainwater. The
rainwater collected can be stored for direct use or can be recharged into the
groundwater. Rain is the first form of water that we know in the hydrological cycle,
hence is a primary source of water for us. Rivers, lakes and groundwater are all
secondary sources of water. In present times, we depend entirely on such secondary
sources of water. In the process, it is forgotten that rain is the ultimate source that
feeds all these secondary sources and remain ignorant of its value. Water harvesting
means to understand the value of rain, and to make optimum use of the rainwater at
the place where it falls.

Rainwater harvesting. It is a technique of collecting and storing rain water for use
in non-monsoon periods. In the present age, concrete houses, well-built roads,
footpaths and well –concreted courtyards have left few open grounds. With the decrease
in natural forest cover, increase in concrete jungles and the decrease in exposed earth;
very little open ground is left for water to soak in and thereby increase the ground water
table. So, artificial recharging of the ground water is extremely essential. It is done
through rain water harvesting. For the purpose, rain water is collected at the roof top or
in an open well and then carried down for immediate use or it is directed into the
aquifer.

Rain water harvesting techniques

There are two main techniques for rain water harvesting:

1. Storage of rain water on the surface for future use

2. Recharge of ground water

Recharge of ground water is a recent concept and the structures used for the purpose
are:

Pits

Trenches

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 Dug wells

Hand pumps

Recharge shaft

Lateral shafts with bore wells

Spreading technique

Objectives of rain water harvesting.

1. To raise the water table by recharging the ground water.

2. To minimize water crises and water conflicts

3. To reduce rain water run off and soil erosion.

4. To reduce the ground water contamination from intrusion of saline water

Concept of rain water harvesting

Rain water harvesting involves collecting water that falls on roof of house
during Rain and conveying water through PVC or Al pipe to a near by
covered storage tank.

Method of rain water harvesting

1. Roof top method: collecting rain water from roof of the building and storing in the
ground. It is the low cost and effective technique for urban houses and buildings.

2. The rain water from roofs, road surfaces, play grounds is diverted into the
surface tank or recharge pits. The pit base is filled with stones and sand which
serves as a

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 Advantages:
Rise in ground water level and minimizing the soil erosion and flood Hazards. Scarcity of
water is reduced.

Rainwater harvesting systems channel rainwater that falls on to a roof into storage via a
system of gutters and pipes. The first flush of rainwater after a dry season should be
allowed to run to waste as it will be contaminated with dust, bird droppings etc. Roof
gutters should have sufficient incline to avoid standing water. They must be strong
enough, and large enough to carry peak flows. Storage tanks should be covered to
prevent mosquito breeding and to reduce evaporation losses, contamination and algal
growth. Rainwater harvesting systems require regular maintenance and cleaning to keep
the system hygienic.

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 WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

Water shed (or) drainage basin: It is defined as land area from which water drains
under the influence of gravity into stream, lake, reservoir (or) other body of surface
water. Watershed management of rain fall and resultant run off is called watershed
management.

Factors affecting watershed :

1. Overgrazing . deforestation , mining , construction activities affect and degrade

watershed.
2. Droughty climate also affects the water shed.

Need or objectives of watershed management

1. To raise the ground water level.

2. To protect the soil from erosion by run off.

3. To minimize the risks of floods, drought and landslides.

4. To generate huge employment opportunities in backward rain fed areas

to ensure security for livelihood.

Watershed management techniques

Trenches (pits) were dug at equal intervals to improve ground water

storage. Earthern dam or stone embankment must be constructed to
check run off water.

Farm pond can be built to improve water storage capacity of the catchment’s area.

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 Maintenance of watershed

Water harvesting: Proper storage of water in water shed can be used in

dry season In low rainfall areas.

Afforestation and agro-forestry help to prevent soil erosion and

retention of moisture in watershed areas

Reducing soil erosion: Terracing, contour cropping minimize soil erosion and run off
on the slopes of water sheds

Scientific mining and quarrying minimize the destructive effect of mining in

water shed areas Public participation is essential for water shed management.
People should be motivated for maintaining water harvesting structures
implemented by the government.

RESETTLEMENT & REHABILITATION

Based on the resettlement schemes proposed by each affected village and present
policies, laws and regulations of different levels of go vernments and the resettlement
requirements of ADB, the Resettlement Plan of Lauding Expressway Project was prepared
by PPTA consulting team and the staff from NPAEC under GPCD assisted by design
institute and Local County and township governments.

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 Target and Task
The overall objective of resettlement and rehabilitation is to ensure that the affected
production base will be restored, the affected labor force will be re-employed, and
income and livelihood of affected people will be improved or at least restored to their
previous levels before resettlement.

At present, the rural population of project impact area is mainly engaged in agricultural
actives, with most of their income coming from planting, economic trees, and animal
husbandry. According to the actual production and living standard among affected
villages, and the approved economic and social development plans for the relevant
counties, the target of

Resettlement and rehabilitation is set as follows:

(1) The resettle’s grain production level will be self-sufficient after resettlement.

(2) The income per capita shall be recovered to the standard before resettlement.

(3) The affected public infrastructures, school, hospitals, social

welfare level, natural environment and traffic condition etc. shall be
improved after resettlement.

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 Resettlement Task

In 2005, there were 2,829 households with 13,149 persons to be resettled or

rehabilitated, in which 520 households and 2,352 persons will need house relocation.

The basic resettlement policy of Lauding Expressway Project is to respect the wishes of
affected People and maintain their current production and living traditions. Based on
consultation of local affected peoples, the economic rehabilitation will be based on
developing replaced farming Resources within their own townships and villages. Planting
will be the focus of economic Rehabilitation strategy by developing new farmland and
improving the remaining farmland in the affected villages, and supplemented by
developing various other income generation opportunities in the project areas. In other
words, the resettlement and rehabilitation strategy will first to reestablish the physical
production bases for the affected persons, which will provide a long-term development
potential by fully utilizing local land resources.

Resettlement Principle

Under such policy, a number of resettlement and rehabilitation principles have been
developed for the Project.

(1) The resettlement plan will be based on detailed inventory for land
acquisition and houses Demolition, and adopted compensation standards and
subsidies.

(2) The resettlement shall be combined with the local development,

resource utilization and Economic growth as well as environment protection.
Considering the local conditions, a Practical and feasible resettlement plan
should be developed to restore or improve their Economic production and create
basic conditions for long-term development.

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 Overall Scheme of Resettlement
Since the construction of Lauding Expressway Project will only acquire limited land
acquisition and demolition along the road alignment line, it will not have significant
negative impacts on production and livelihood for most affected villages. A series of
consultation meetings were held among affected villages and townships. According to
the resettle’s opinion and suggestion, and combined with the actual condition of affected
area, the basic rehabilitation scheme was determined as follows:

(1) Project affected persons will be resettled within their original villages and village
groups, so
that their way of production, living and social relationship can be maintained, which will
be beneficial for them to restore or improve their production and income level after
resettlement.

(2) In order to reduce the impacts on the production and livelihood among resettle’s,
the demolished houses will be dismantled after the new houses built. The
reconstruction of houses will adopt two approaches. For most relocated households,
they will choose to rebuild their houses by themselves, and all salvage materials will
belong to them. The second approach is for those who live near towns, their
rehabilitation will be carried out by local government in order to promote small town
development and save farmland.

(3) The rural relocated households will be resettled in their original villages. For those who
lose
Some farmland, the land-based rehabilitation will be adopted with a combination of
developing new farmland, redistributing remaining farmland and receiving their share of
resettlement subsidy among affected village groups.

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 Environmental Ethics

It refers to issues, principles and guidelines related to human interactions

with their Environment. (OR)

Ethics is a branch of philosophy. It deals with morals and values. An ethic is a

principle or value that we use to decide whether an action is good or bad.

Ethics differs from country to country.

Functions of Environment:

1. It moderates climate conditions of the soil.

2 A healthy economy depends on healthy

environment. 3It is the life supporting medium for
all organisms.

3. It provides food , air , water and other important natural resources to the human
beings Environmental problems : Deforestation activities , population growth and
urbanization water Pollution due to effluents and smoke from industries, Scarcity.

Solution to environmental problems:

Reduce the waste matter and energy resources.

Recycle and reuse as many of our waste product And resources as

possible. Avoid over exploitation of natural resources.

Minimse soil degradation and Protect the biodiversity of the earth. Reduce population and
increase the economic growth our country.

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 Ethical guidelines on environmental protection:

1. The earth is the habitat of all living species and not of human beings alone.
2. Natural resources and energies are depleting fast. We must protect them.
3. Involve yourself in the care of the earth and experience nature.
4. Respect nature, you are a part of it.
5. Think of the global cause and act for local protection
6. Keep yourself informed about ecological changes and developments.
7. Observe austerity, reserve scarce resources for the future and the future generations.
8. We must be cooperative, honest, affectionate and polite to society and nature.

CLIMATE:

It is the average weather of an area. It is the general weather condition, seasonal

variations of the region. The average of such conditions for a long period is called climate.

Causes of climate changes:

1. Presence of green house gases in the atmosphere Increases the
global temperature.
2. Depletion of ozone layer increases the global temperature.

Effects of climate change:

1. Small climate changes disturb agriculture which leads To migration of
animals and human.
2. Climate change may upset hydrological cycle which results in floods and
droughts in different parts of the world.
3. Global pattern of winds and oceans currents also gets disturbed by climate change.

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 Green house effect: Green house gases are CO 2 , Methane .Nitrous oxide NO 2 , CFC
Among these CO2 is the most important green house gas.O 3 and SO 2 act as serious
pollutants causing global [Link] warming up of a gas surface due to
blanketing effect of man made CO2 atmosphere.

GLOBAL WARMING:
Green house gases in the atmosphere are transparent to light but absorb IR radiation.
These gases allow sunlight to penetrate the atmosphere and are absorbed by the earth
surface. This sunlight is radiated back as IR which is absorbed by gases. As a result the
earth surface and lower atmosphere becomes warm. This is called global warming.

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 105

EFFECTS OF GLOBAL WARMING:

[Link] level increases as result of melting and thermal expansion of ocean.

[Link] CO2 level in the atmosphere have a long term negative effect on crop production
and forest growth.

[Link] rainfall pattern will change .Drought and floods will become more common.
Raising temperature will increase domestic water demand.

[Link] plants and animal species will have a problem of adapting. Many will be at the risk
of extinction, more towering verities will thrive.

[Link] the earth becomes warmer the floods and drought becomes more frequent. There
would be increase in water-borne diseases.

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 MEASURES TO CHECK GLOBAL WARMING:

1. CO2 emission can be cut by reducing the use of fossil fuel.

2. Plant more trees.
3. Shifting from coal to natural gas.
4. Stabilize population growth.
5. Remove efficiently CO2 from smoke stocks.
6. Removal atmospheric CO2 by utilizing photo synthetic algae.

ACID RAIN:

Normal rain water is always slightly acidic (pH 5-5.6) because of Co2 present in the
atmosphere gets dissolved in it. Because presence of SO2 and NO2 gases as pollutants in
the atmosphere. The pH of the rain is further lowered. This type of precipitation of water
is called acid rain.

Formation:
Acid rain means the presence of excessive acids in the rain water. The thermal power
plants industries and vehicles release NO 2 and SO2 in to the atmosphere due to the
burning of coal and oil. These gases reacts with water vapor in the atmosphere and from
acids like HNO3 ,H2SO4 .These acids descends on to the earth as acid rain through rain
water.

SOx +H2 O H2 SO4

NOy +H2 O HNO3

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 107

EFFECTS:

Effect on human being:

Human nervous system respiratory system and digestive system are affected by acid
[Link] cause premature death from heart and lung disorder like asthma, bronchitis.

On building:

At present Taj mMahal in Agra is suffering due to SO2 and H2SO4 fumes from Madura
[Link] rain corrodes houses, monuments ,statues ,bridges and fences.

Acid rain causes corrosion of metals.

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 Terestrial and lake Ecosystem.

Reduce the rate of photosynthesis and growth in terrestrial vegetation.

Acid rain retards the growth of crops like beans potatoe ,carrot ,spinach. Acid rain rduces
fish population ,black flies,mosquitoes ,deer flies occurs largely which causes number of
complications in ponds rivers and lakes.

Activity of bacteria and other microscopic animals is reduced in acidic water. The dead
materials are not rapidly [Link] the nutrients like N,P are locked up in dead
matter.

Control of acid rain:

Emmision of No2 and SO2 from industries from power plants should be reduced by using
pollution control equipments.

Liming of lakes nad soils should be done to correct the adverse effect of acid rain. In
thermal points low sulphur content coal should be used.

OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

Ozone gas is present in the atmosphere. It is highly concentrated at the stratosphere

Between10to 50 Km above the sea level and is called as ozone layer.

Importance: O 3 protects us from damaging UV radiation of the sun. It filters UV- B

radiation. Now days certain parts of O 3 layer is becoming thinner and O 3 holes are
formed. Because of this more UV–B radiation reaches the earth’s surface. UV –B radiation
affects DNA molecules, causes damages to the outer cell of plants and animals.

It causes skin cancer and eye disease in human beings.

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 Formation of O3 : It is formed in the atmosphere by photochemical reaction

O 2 + hv ------------) O * + O *

The atomic oxygen reacts with molecular O 2 to

form O 3 O * + O 2 + M ----------) O 3 +M

Where M = third body like nitrogen.

Causes of O 3 layer depletion : Refrigerators , air conditioners , aerosol sprays and

cleaning solvents release CFC s into the atmosphere. CFCs releases chlorine which
breakes O 3 to O2

Cl + O 3 ----------- ) Cl O + O 2 (g) Cl O
+ O * -----------) Cl + O 2

Each chlorine atom is capable of breaking several O 3 molecules . It is a chain reaction.

1% loss of O3 results in 2% increase in UV rays reaching the earth surface .

Ozone depletion chemicals CFC , HCFC , BFC. Some times atmospheric sulfur dioxide
Is converted in to H 2 S O 4 which increases the rate of O 3 layer depletion.

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 109

Effects ozone layer depletion:

Effects on human beings

[Link] rays causes skin cancer.
[Link] the rate of non melanin skin cancer in fair colored people.
[Link] expose to UV rays leads to actinia Katatities ( slow blindness) and cataracts.

Effects on aquatic system :

[Link] rays affects phytoplankton , fish , larval crabs.
2. phytoplankton consumes large amounts of CO 2 .
[Link] in phytoplankton results in more amount of CO2 in atmosphere. This
contributes to global warming.3. Ozone Depleting chemicals can causes global warming.

Control measures : Manufacturing and using of O 3 depleting chemicals should be

stopped. Use of methyl bromide .which is a crop fumigant should be controlled.
Replacing CFC s by other maerials which are less damage

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 NUCLEAR ACCIDENTS AND HOLOCAUST

Energy released—during a nuclear reaction is called nuclear energy. Nuclear fission and
Nuclear fusion are used to prepare nuclear energy. During nuclear accidents large amount
of energy and radioactive products are released into the atmosphere.

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 Types of nuclear accidents :-

Nuclear Test- Nuclear explosions –release radioactive particles and radioactive

rays into the atmosphere.

Nuclear power plant accidents: Nuclear power plants located in seismic vulnerable
area may cause nuclear accidents which releases radiation.

Improper disposal of radioactive wastes: Drums with radioactive wastes, stored

underground rust and leak radioactive wastes into water, land and air.

Accidents during transport . Trucks carrying radioactive wastes (or) fuels in accidents.
The major accident at a nuclear power plant is a core melts down.

Effects of nuclear radiation

1. Radiation affects DNA in cells.

[Link] to low dose of radiation (100to 250 rds ) people suffer from fatigue, vomiting
,and loss of hair.
3. Exposer to high radation (400- 500 rds ) affect bone marrow ,blood cells , natural
resistance fail of blood clot.
4. Exposure to very high dose of radiation (10000rds ) kills organisms by damaging
the tissues of heart and brain.

Nuclear Holocaust : -Destruction of Biodiversity by nuclear equipments and nuclear

bombs is called nuclear holocaust.

Effects of nuclear holocaust.

Nuclear winter, Nuclear bombardment will cause combustion of wood , plastics , forests
etc.

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 Large quantity of soot will be carried out into the atmosphere.

Black soot absorbs all UV radiation and will not allow the radiation to reach the earth.
There fore cooling will result. This reduces evaporation of water .In stratosphere there
wont be significant moisture to rain out the black soot. Due to nuclear explosion a process
opposite to global warming will occur. This is called Nuclear winter.

Nuclear holocaust in Japan

In 1945 two nuclear bombs were dropped in Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan. About
100000 people were

Killed and the cities were badly destroyed. This explosion emitted forceful neutrons and
gamma radiation.

Radioactive Strontium liberated in the explosion replaced calcium in the bones .Large
scale bone deformities occurred in the people of these cities.

WASTE LAND RECLAMATION

Waste land. The land which is not in use is called waste land . Waste land is unproductive,
unfit for cultivation and grazing etc. 20% of the geographical area of India is waste land.

Types of waste land:

1. Uncultivable waste land.
2. Cultivable waste land.
Uncultivable waste land: Barren rocky areas, hilly slopes,
sandy deserts.
Cultivable waste land: These are cultivable but not cultivated for more than 5 [Link]
Degraded forest land.

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 Causes of waste land formation:
1. over exploitation of natural resources.
2. Industrial and sewage wastes.
3. Due to soil erosion, deforestation, water logging, salinity etc.
4. Mining activities destroy the forest and cultivable land.

Objects of waste land reclamation:

1. To prevent soil erosion, flooding and land

slides.
2. To avoid over exploitation of natural resources.
3. To improve the physical structure and quality of the soil.
4. To conserve the biological resources and natural ecosystem.

Methods waste land reclamation:

Drainage: Excess water is removed by artificial drainage. This is for water logged soil
reclamation.

Leaching: Leaching is a process of removal of salt from the salt affected soil by applying
excess amount of water. Leaching is done by dividing the field into small plots. In
continuous leaching 0.5to 1.0cm

Water is required to remove 90% of soluble salts.

Irrigation practices: High frequency irrigation with controlled amount of water helps to
maintain better availability of water in the land. Application of green manure and bio
fertilizers improves saline soil.

Application of gypsum: Soil sodality can be reduced with gypsum. Ca of gypsum

replaces sodium from the exchangeable sites. This converts clay back into calcium clay.

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 Social Forestry programme: These programs involve strip plantation on road, canal sides
and degraded forest land etc.

COSUMERISM AND WASTE PRODUCTS

The consumption of resources by the people is called consumerism. It is related to both

increase In population size as well as increase in our demand due to change in life style.
If needs increases The consumerism of resources also increases.

TRADITIONAL FAVOURABLE RIGHTS OF SELLERS

1. The right to introduce any product.

2. The right to change any price.
3. The right to use incentives to promote their products

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 IMPORTANT INFORMATION TO BE KNOWN TO BUYERS

1. Ingredients of the products.

2. Manufacturing date and expiry date .Whether the product has been
manufactured against an established law of nature or involved in right
variation.

Objectives of consumerism.
1. It improves the right and powers of buyers.
[Link] involves making manufacturer liable for the entire life cycle of a
product
[Link] force the manufacturer to reuse and recycle the product after
usage.
[Link] consumerism improves human health and happiness and also it saves
resources. Sources of wastes are agriculture, mining, industrial and municipal
wastes.

Example for waste products. It includes paper, glass, plastic, garbage,

food waste, Scrap, construction and factory wastes.

E- waste : Electronic equipments like computer, printers, mobile phones, calculator etc
After usage thrown as waste.

Effects of waste: Waste from industries and explosives are dangerous to human life.
Dumped wastes degrade soil and make it unfit for irrigation.

E-wastes contain more than 1000 chemicals which are toxic and cause environmental
Pollution. In computers lead is present in monitors, cadmium in chips and cathode ray
tube , pvc in cables. All these cause cancer and other respiratory problems if inhaled for
long long periods.

Plastics are non-degradable and their combustion produces many toxic gases.

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 Factors affecting consumerism and generation of wastes:

People over population –Over population cause degradation of sources, poverty and
premature deaths. This situation occurs in less developed countries (LDC’s).In LDC’s the
percaptia consumption f resources and waste generation are less.

Consumption Over population: It occurs when there are less people than the
available Resources . due to luxurious life style per captia consumption of
resources is very high. Consumption is more and waste generation is more.
Environment is also degraded.

ENVVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION AND LAWS

Water (prevention and control of pollution ) Act.1974.

This act provides for maintaining and restoring the sources of water. It also provide
for preventing and controlling water pollution.
Features of water act.

[Link] act aims to protect the water from all kind of pollution and to preserve the quality
of water in all aquifers.
[Link] act further provides for the establishment of central board and state boards
For prevention of water pollution.
3. The states are empowered to restrain any person from discharging a
pollutant (or) sewage or) effluent into any water body with out the consent
of the board.
[Link] act is not clear about the definition of pollutant, discharge of
pollutant Toxic pollutant.

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 State pollution control board

The consent of this board is needed

1. To establish any industry or any treatment and disposal system or any extension or
addition which likely discharge Or trade effluent into a stream or well or river or on land.
2. To use any new or altered outlet for the discharge of sewage.
3. To begin to make any new discharge of sewage.
Act also empowers the state board to order closure or stoppage of
supply of Electricity, water or any other service to the polluting unit.

AIR PREVENTION ACT 1981

This act was enacted in the conference held at Stock Holm. It envisages the
establishments Of central and State control boards to monitor air quality and
pollution control.
Important features:
[Link] central board may lay down the standards for quality of air.
[Link] central board co-ordinates and settle the disputes between state boards.
[Link] central board provides technical assistance and guidance to state boards.
[Link] state boards are empowered to lay down the standards for emission of
air pollutants from industries or other resources.
[Link] state boards are to examine the manufacturing processes and control
equipment for for the prescribed standards.
[Link] direction of central board is mandatory on state boards.
[Link] out the consent of the central board operation of an industrial unit is
prohibited in heavily polluted area.
[Link] of law is punishable with imprisonment for three months or fine of Rs
10000 or both.

This act applies to all pollution industries. This act empowers the state
board to order closure of any industrial unit or stoppage of water supply or
stoppage of electricity.

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 FOREST (COSERVATON) ACT 1980

This act is enacted in 1980. It aims to arrest deforestation. This act covers
all types of Forests including reserved forests, protected forests and any forest
land.

IMPORTANT Features of the act :

[Link] reserved forests shall not be diverted or dereserved wit out the
permission Of central govt.
[Link] forest land may not be used nonforest purposes.
[Link] act stops illegal activities with in forest area.
Features of amendment act of 1988

.[Link] departments are departments are forbidden to assign any forest land by way
of lease or to any private person or NG body for re- afforestation.
[Link] re-afforstation clearance of any forest land is forbidden.
[Link] division of forest land for non –forest uses is punishable.

WILD LIFE ACT 1972.

This act was amended in 1983, 1986, and [Link] act is aimed to protect and preserve
all animals and plants that are not Domesticated. India has 350 species of mammals,
1200 species of birds and about 20000 Known species of insects. Some of them are listed
as endangered species in wild life protection act. Wild life is declining due to human
action. Wild life products like skins, firs, feathers, Ivory etc. have decimated the
population of many species. Wild life population monitored regularly and management
strategies formulated to protect them.

Important Features
1The act covers the rights and non- rights of forest dwellers.
2It allows restricted grazing in sanctuaries but prohibits in national parks.

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 3.I t also prohibits the collection of non timber forest.
[Link] rights of forest dwellers recognized by forest policy of 1988 are taken
away by Amended wild life act of 1991.

ENVIRONMENT (PROTECTION) ACT 1986

This act empowers the central govt. to fix the standards for quality of air, water, soil,
and noise. The central govt. formulates procedures and safe guards for handling of
hazard substances.
Important features: 1. this act empowers the govt. to lay down procedures and safe
guards for the prevention of accidents which cause pollution and remedial measures if
accidents occur.
2 The [Link] the authority to close or prohibit or regulate any industry or its
operation if
The violation of provisions of the act occurs.
[Link] of the act is punishable with imprisonment for 5 years or fine of one lakh or
both.
[Link] violation continues an additional fine of Rs5000 per day may be imposed for entire
period of Violation of rules.
[Link] act empowers the officer of the central [Link] inspect the sight or the plant or
machinery for preventing pollution and to collect samples of air , water, soil and other
materials from any
Factory or its premises for testing.

PUBLIC AWARENESS

In order to conserve our environment each and every one must be aware about our
environment problems and objectives of various environmental policies at natural and
local level.

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 Objectives of public awareness:
1. To create awareness among rural and city people about ecological Imbalance, local
environment and technological development.
2 To organize meetings, tree plantation programs, group discussion on development,
exhibitions.
[Link] focus on current environment problems and situations.
[Link] train our planners, decision makers, politicians and administrators.
[Link] eliminate poverty by providing employment that over comes the basic
environmental issues.

METHODS TO CREATE ENVIRONMNTAL AWARENESS

1. Environmental education must be imparted to the students in schools and colleges.

2. Media like TV Radio and cable net work can educate the people on environmental
issues through Cartoons, documentaries, street plays.
3. Cinema about environmental education should be prepared a nd screened in
theatres compulsorily .This films may be released with tax free to attract the
public.
[Link] the news papers and magazines must publish the environment related problems.
[Link] audio visual and slide shows should be arranged in public places.
[Link] organizations like NCC, NSS, and ROTRACT Club should be effectively
utilized for creating environmental awareness.
[Link] competitions like story and essay writing painting competition on
environmental issues for student as well as [Link] prizes should be
awarded for the best effort.
[Link] leaders cine actors and popular social reformers can make an appeal to the
public about the urgency of environmental protection.

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