VECTOR CONTROL

Lecture 1: Introduction to Vector Control and History of Vector Control

 Learning Objectives

By the end of this lecture, students should be able to:

1. Define a vector.
2. Define vector control.
3. Explain the importance of vector control.
4. Identify common disease vectors.
5. Describe the history and development of vector control.
6. Explain the role of vector control in public health.

Introduction
Vector-borne diseases are among the leading causes of illness and death worldwide. These diseases are
transmitted by living organisms called vectors, which carry disease-causing pathogens from one host to
another. Effective vector control reduces disease transmission, protects communities, and improves
environmental health.

Definition of a Vector
A vector is a living organism, usually an arthropod, that transmits disease-causing microorganisms
(pathogens) from an infected person or animal to another person or animal.

Examples of Vectors

 Mosquitoes – Malaria, Dengue, Yellow fever

 Houseflies – Cholera, Typhoid fever, Dysentery
 Tsetse flies – African sleeping sickness
 Sandflies – Leishmaniasis
 Fleas – Plague
 Ticks – Lyme disease, Tick-borne fever
 Lice – Epidemic typhus
 Blackflies – River blindness (Onchocerciasis)

Definition of Vector Control

Vector control is the use of environmental, biological, chemical, and physical methods to reduce or
eliminate disease vectors and prevent the spread of vector-borne diseases.

Importance of Vector Control

 1. Prevents vector-borne diseases.
2. Reduces illness and death.
3. Protects public health.
4. Improves environmental sanitation.
5. Reduces healthcare costs.
6. Increases community productivity.
7. Supports sustainable development.

History of Vector Control

Ancient Period
People used smoke, herbs, and fire to repel insects.

Swamps were drained to reduce mosquitoes.

19th Century

Scientists discovered that mosquitoes transmit malaria and yellow fever.

This discovery changed disease prevention worldwide.

20th Century

DDT and other insecticides were introduced.

Large-scale mosquito control programs were established.

Indoor Residual Spraying (IRS) became common.

Modern Era
Integrated Vector Management (IVM) is widely used.

Long-lasting insecticide-treated nets (LLINs), environmental management, biological control, and

community participation are emphasized.

Monitoring insecticide resistance has become an important part of vector control.

Principles of Vector Control

1. Environmental management
 2. Biological control
3. Chemical control
4. Physical and mechanical control
5. Personal protection
6. Community participation
7. Surveillance and monitoring

Public Health Importance

Vector control helps reduce diseases such as:

 Malaria
 Dengue fever
 Yellow fever
 Chikungunya
 Zika virus disease
 Lymphatic filariasis
 Onchocerciasis
 Leishmaniasis
 Plague
 Sleeping sickness

Challenges of Vector Control

1. Insecticide resistance
2. Climate change
3. Poor sanitation
4. Rapid urbanization
5. Lack of community participation
6. Limited financial resources
7. Weak surveillance systems

Summary
Vector control is an essential component of public health. It aims to reduce or eliminate vectors that
spread diseases through environmental, biological, chemical, and physical methods. Modern vector
control focuses on integrated approaches that are safe, effective, and sustainable.

Review Questions
1. What is a vector?
2. Define vector control.
3. Mention eight common disease vectors.
4. Explain the importance of vector control.
 5. Describe the history of vector control.
6. List the principles of vector control.
7. Mention five vector-borne diseases.
8. State five challenges of vector control.

Lecture 2: Classification of Insecticides and Introduction

Learning Objectives

By the end of this lecture, students should be able to:

1. Define an insecticide.
2. Explain the importance of insecticides in vector control.
3. Classify insecticides based on their chemical groups.
4. Classify insecticides based on their mode of entry.
5. Classify insecticides based on their mode of action.
6. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of insecticides.
7. Explain the public health importance of insecticides.

Introduction
Insecticides are one of the most important tools used in vector control. They help reduce or eliminate
insects that transmit diseases such as malaria, dengue, yellow fever, sleeping sickness, and plague.
When used correctly, insecticides save millions of lives by reducing the spread of vector-borne diseases.

Definition of Insecticide
An insecticide is a chemical or biological substance used to kill, repel, or control insects that are
harmful to humans, animals, crops, or the environment.

Importance of Insecticides
1. Control disease vectors.
2. Reduce transmission of vector-borne diseases.
3. Protect human and animal health.
4. Improve agricultural production.
 5. Reduce economic losses.
6. Support public health programs.
7. Improve environmental sanitation.

Classification of Insecticides
A. Classification by Chemical Group

 Organochlorines

Example: DDT, Lindane.

Long-lasting but many are now restricted because of environmental persistence.

 Organophosphates

Example: Malathion, Fenitrothion, Temephos.

Effective but generally more toxic than pyrethroids.

 Carbamates

Example: Propoxur, Bendiocarb.

Used for mosquito and other vector control.

 Pyrethroids

Example: Permethrin, Deltamethrin, Lambda-cyhalothrin.

Widely used in insecticide-treated nets and indoor residual spraying due to their effectiveness and
relatively low toxicity to humans.

 Insect Growth Regulators (IGRs)

Example: Methoprene, Pyriproxyfen.

Prevent immature insects from developing into adults.

 Biological Insecticides

Example: Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (Bti).

Derived from natural organisms and mainly target insect larvae.

B. Classification by Mode of Entry

1. Contact Insecticides
Kill insects when they touch the treated surface.

2. Stomach Insecticides

Kill insects after they eat treated food.

3. Fumigants

Kill insects through poisonous gases that enter the respiratory system.

4. Systemic Insecticides

Absorbed by plants or animals and kill insects that feed on them.

C. Classification by Mode of Action

1. Nerve poisons
2. Respiratory poisons
3. Growth regulators
4. Physical poisons (e.g., oils and dusts that interfere with normal insect function)

Mechanisms of Action of Insecticides (Short and Brief)

 Nervous System Action

Insecticides disrupt nerve transmission, causing paralysis and death.

Examples: Organophosphates, Carbamates, Pyrethroids.

 Growth Regulation Action

Prevents normal growth, moulting, and development of insects.

Examples: Methoprene, Pyriproxyfen.

 Respiration Inhibition

Blocks energy production in insect cells, causing death.

Example: Rotenone.

 Physical Action

Blocks breathing openings or damages the insect body surface.

Example: Mineral oils.

  Digestive Action

Damages the insect gut after ingestion, causing death.

Example: Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt).

Characteristics of an Ideal Insecticide

An ideal insecticide should:

 Be highly effective against target insects.

 Be safe for humans and animals when used properly.
 Have low environmental impact.
 Be affordable.
 Be easy to apply.
 Remain effective for an appropriate period.
 Not easily cause insect resistance.

Advantages of Insecticides
1. Rapid reduction of insect populations.
2. Prevention of disease outbreaks.
3. Protection of crops and livestock.
4. Improved public health.
5. Cost-effective disease control.
6. Easy to apply in many settings.

Disadvantages of Insecticides
1. Development of insecticide resistance.
2. Environmental pollution.
3. Harm to beneficial insects.
4. Possible poisoning of humans and animals if misused.
5. Residues may contaminate food and water.
6. Some insecticides persist in the environment for long periods.

Safety Measures When Using Insecticides

1. Wear personal protective equipment (PPE).
2. Read and follow label instructions.
3. Avoid inhaling sprays or dust.
4. Store insecticides safely away from children and food.
5. Dispose of empty containers properly.
6. Wash hands and exposed skin after use.
 7. Do not eat, drink, or smoke while handling insecticides.

Public Health Importance

Insecticides help control vectors responsible for diseases such as:

 Malaria
 Dengue fever
 Yellow fever
 Chikungunya
 Lymphatic filariasis
 Onchocerciasis
 Leishmaniasis
 Plague

Review Questions
1. Define an insecticide.
2. State five importance of insecticides.
3. Classify insecticides according to their chemical groups.
4. Classify insecticides according to their mode of entry.
5. Classify insecticides according to their mode of action.
6. Mention seven characteristics of an ideal insecticide.
7. State six advantages of insecticides.
8. Mention six disadvantages of insecticides.
9. List seven safety precautions when using insecticides.
10. Explain the role of insecticides in public health.
Lecture 3: Organochlorines and Pyrethroids
Learning Objectives

By the end of this lecture, students should be able to:

1. Define organochlorine and pyrethroid insecticides.

2. Describe the characteristics of organochlorines and pyrethroids.
3. Explain their mode of action.
4. Identify common examples.
5. State their uses in vector control.
6. Discuss their advantages and disadvantages.
7. Explain their public health importance and safety precautions.

Introduction
Organochlorines and pyrethroids are two important groups of insecticides used in vector control. They
have played a major role in reducing diseases such as malaria, dengue fever, and other vector-borne
diseases. Although organochlorines were widely used in the past, many have been restricted because of
their environmental effects. Today, pyrethroids are among the most commonly used insecticides in
public health.

A. Organochlorines
Definition

Organochlorines are synthetic insecticides containing chlorine compounds. They are highly persistent in
the environment and remain active for a long time.

Characteristics
1. Long residual effect.
2. Effective against many insects.
3. Persistent in soil and water.
4. Accumulate in animal and human tissues.

Many have been banned or restricted due to environmental concerns.

Examples
  DDT (Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane)
 Lindane
 Dieldrin
 Aldrin
 Chlordane
 Endrin

Mode of Action
Organochlorines act on the insect's nervous system by disrupting the normal movement of sodium ions
in nerve cells. This causes continuous nerve stimulation, paralysis, and eventually death.

Uses
 Indoor residual spraying (IRS) in some settings.
 Mosquito control.
 Agricultural pest control (historically).
 Control of lice and fleas (historically).

Advantages
1. Long-lasting residual effect.
2. Highly effective against many vectors.
3. Inexpensive.
4. Reduced malaria transmission in many countries.

Disadvantages
1. Environmental pollution.
2. Bioaccumulation in food chains.
3. Toxic to wildlife, especially birds and fish.
4. Development of insecticide resistance.
5. Many products are now banned or severely restricted.

B. Pyrethroids
Definition

Pyrethroids are synthetic insecticides developed from natural pyrethrins found in chrysanthemum
flowers. They are widely used because they are effective at low doses and generally have lower toxicity
to humans than many older insecticides.

Characteristics
1. Fast-acting.
 2. Effective at low concentrations.
3. Low toxicity to humans when used correctly.
4. Highly toxic to insects.
5. Suitable for indoor and outdoor use.

Examples

 Permethrin
 Deltamethrin
 Lambda-cyhalothrin
 Cypermethrin
 Alpha-cypermethrin
 Bifenthrin

Mode of Action
Pyrethroids affect the insect nervous system by prolonging the opening of sodium channels in nerve
cells. This causes paralysis (known as the knockdown effect) followed by death.

Uses
1. Long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs).
2. Indoor residual spraying (IRS).
3. Mosquito control.
4. Household insect sprays.
5. Control of flies, cockroaches, fleas, and bed bugs.

Advantages
1. Highly effective against vectors.
2. Rapid knockdown effect.
3. Lower toxicity to mammals than many other insecticides.
4. Widely recommended for malaria control.
5. Easy to apply.

Disadvantages

1. Resistance can develop with repeated use.

2. Toxic to fish and aquatic organisms.
3. May cause skin or eye irritation during handling.
4. Require proper application for maximum effectiveness.

Comparison of Organochlorines and Pyrethroids

Organochlorines: Long-lasting insecticides with high environmental persistence;
mostly banned or restricted.

Pyrethroids: Fast-acting insecticides with low environmental persistence; widely

used because they are generally safer and effective.

Public Health Importance

Both groups have contributed significantly to controlling:

Malaria

Dengue fever

Yellow fever

Chikungunya

Lymphatic filariasis

Other vector-borne diseases

Pyrethroids remain one of the main insecticide classes used in public health because of their
effectiveness and relative safety.

Safety Precautions
1. Wear gloves, masks, and protective clothing.
2. Avoid inhaling sprays.
3. Prevent contamination of food and drinking water.
4. Store insecticides in clearly labeled containers.
5. Keep away from children and animals.
6. Dispose of containers safely.
7. Follow manufacturer and public health guidelines.

Review Questions
1. Define organochlorines.
2. Define pyrethroids.
3. Mention six examples of organochlorines.
4. Mention six examples of pyrethroids.
5. Explain the mode of action of organochlorines.
6. Explain the mode of action of pyrethroids.
 7. State five advantages of organochlorines.
8. State five disadvantages of organochlorines.
9. Mention five uses of pyrethroids.
10. Compare organochlorines and pyrethroids.

Lecture 4: Organophosphates and Carbamates

Learning Objectives

By the end of this lecture, students should be able to:

1. Define organophosphate and carbamate insecticides.

2. Describe their characteristics.
3. Explain their mechanisms of action.
4. Identify common examples.
5. Describe their uses in vector control.
6. State their advantages and disadvantages.
7. Explain safety precautions when handling these insecticides.

Introduction
Organophosphates and carbamates are important insecticide groups used in public health and
agriculture. They are effective against mosquitoes, flies, cockroaches, fleas, and other disease vectors.
They are commonly used in vector control programs, especially where insects have developed resistance
to other insecticides.

A. Organophosphates
Definition

Organophosphates are synthetic insecticides containing phosphorus. They act on the insect nervous
system and are widely used because they are effective and degrade more rapidly in the environment
than organochlorines.

Characteristics
1. Broad-spectrum insecticides.
2. Effective against many insect species.
3. Short to moderate residual effect.
4. Less persistent in the environment than organochlorines.
5. More toxic to humans than pyrethroids if improperly handled.

Examples

 Malathion
 Fenitrothion
 Temephos
 Pirimiphos-methyl
 Chlorpyrifos
 Diazinon

Mechanism of Action
Organophosphates inhibit the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE).

This causes:

 Accumulation of acetylcholine at nerve endings.

 Continuous stimulation of nerves.
 Muscle paralysis.
 Death of the insect.

Uses
1. Indoor Residual Spraying (IRS).
2. Mosquito larval control.
3. Space spraying during disease outbreaks.
4. Agricultural pest control.
 5. Control of flies and cockroaches.

Advantages
1. Highly effective.
2. Fast-acting.
3. Less persistent in the environment.
4. Useful against resistant mosquito populations.
5. Suitable for emergency vector control.

Disadvantages
1. Higher toxicity to humans and animals.
2. Protective equipment is required during application.
3. Can contaminate water if misused.
4. Insects may develop resistance.
5. Requires careful storage and disposal.

B. Carbamates
Definition

Carbamates are insecticides derived from carbamic acid. Like organophosphates, they inhibit
acetylcholinesterase but usually bind reversibly, making their effects shorter-lasting.

Characteristics
1. Broad-spectrum insecticides.
2. Effective against many disease vectors.
3. Moderate residual effect.
4. Less persistent than organochlorines.
5. Useful in insecticide resistance management.

Examples

 Bendiocarb
 Propoxur
 Carbaryl
 Methomyl
 Aldicarb

Mechanism of Action
Carbamates also inhibit acetylcholinesterase (AChE).
This results in:

 Continuous nerve stimulation.

 Paralysis.
 Death of the insect.
 Unlike organophosphates, carbamate inhibition is generally reversible.

Uses
1. Indoor residual spraying.
2. Mosquito control.
3. Control of flies.
4. Cockroach control.
5. Household and agricultural pest control.

Advantages
1. Effective against many vectors.
2. Lower environmental persistence.
3. Useful in resistance management.
4. Good residual activity on treated surfaces.
5. Effective for public health programs.

Disadvantages
Toxic if swallowed, inhaled, or absorbed through the skin.

Can harm beneficial insects.

Resistance may develop.

Requires proper handling and protective equipment.

Comparison of Organophosphates and Carbamates

Organophosphates

 They are insecticides containing phosphorus compounds.

 They act by irreversibly inhibiting acetylcholinesterase.
 They cause excessive accumulation of acetylcholine, leading to nerve overstimulation, paralysis,
and death of insects.
 They are generally more toxic to humans and animals.
 They usually have longer-lasting effects in the environment.
 Examples: Diazinon, Malathion, Fenthion, Dichlorvos.
Carbamates

 They are insecticides derived from carbamic acid compounds.

 They act by reversibly inhibiting acetylcholinesterase.
 They also cause acetylcholine accumulation, resulting in insect paralysis and death.
 They are generally less toxic than organophosphates.
 They usually have shorter residual effects.
 Examples: Propoxur, Carbaryl, Carbofuran.

Main Difference:

Organophosphates produce irreversible enzyme inhibition and are more toxic, while Carbamates
produce reversible enzyme inhibition and are usually less toxic.

Public Health Importance

Organophosphates and carbamates are important in controlling vectors responsible for:

 Malaria
 Dengue fever
 Yellow fever
 Chikungunya
 Lymphatic filariasis
 Plague
 Other vector-borne diseases

These insecticides are especially valuable when used as part of Integrated Vector Management (IVM) to
delay insecticide resistance.

Safety Precautions
1. Wear gloves, masks, goggles, and protective clothing.
2. Avoid inhalation and skin contact.
3. Never eat, drink, or smoke while handling insecticides.
4. Wash hands and body after spraying.
5. Store insecticides away from food, children, and animals.
6. Dispose of empty containers safely.
7. Seek immediate medical attention if poisoning is suspected.

Review Questions
1. Define organophosphates.
2. Define carbamates.
 3. Mention six examples of organophosphates.
4. Mention five examples of carbamates.
5. Explain the mechanism of action of organophosphates.
6. Explain the mechanism of action of carbamates.
7. State five advantages of organophosphates.
8. State five disadvantages of carbamates.
9. Compare organophosphates and carbamates.
10. Explain the public health importance of these insecticides.

Lecture 5: Insect Growth Regulators (IGRs)

Learning Objectives

By the end of this lecture, students should be able to:

1. Define Insect Growth Regulators (IGRs).

2. Explain how IGRs work.
3. Classify the different types of IGRs.
4. Identify common examples of IGRs.
5. Describe the uses of IGRs in vector control.
6. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of IGRs.
7. Explain the public health importance of IGRs.

Introduction
Insect Growth Regulators (IGRs) are a special class of insecticides that do not immediately kill insects.
Instead, they interfere with the normal growth and development of immature insects, preventing them
from becoming adults capable of reproducing or transmitting diseases. They are widely used in mosquito
control because they are effective, environmentally friendly, and have low toxicity to humans and other
mammals.

Definition

Insect Growth Regulators (IGRs) are chemicals that disrupt the normal growth, development, or
reproduction of insects by interfering with their hormones or the formation of their outer body covering
(cuticle).

Characteristics of IGRs

1. Target immature stages (eggs, larvae, and pupae).

2. Prevent insects from developing into adults.
3. Do not usually kill adult insects immediately.
4. Highly specific to insects.
 5. Low toxicity to humans and domestic animals.
6. Environmentally friendly when used correctly.
7. Effective at very low concentrations.

Classification of Insect Growth Regulators

1. Juvenile Hormone Analogues (JHAs)

These chemicals mimic the natural juvenile hormone in insects, preventing larvae from developing into
adults.

Examples

 Methoprene
 Pyriproxyfen

Uses
 Mosquito larval control.
 Fly control.
 Flea control.

2. Chitin Synthesis Inhibitors (CSIs)

These prevent insects from producing chitin, an essential component of the insect exoskeleton (outer
covering). Without chitin, insects cannot molt successfully and die before reaching adulthood.

Examples

 Diflubenzuron
 Novaluron
 Lufenuron
 Uses
 Mosquito control.
 Agricultural pest control.
 Cockroach control.

3. Ecdysone Agonists (Molting Hormone Regulators)

These interfere with the molting process, causing abnormal development and death.

Examples

 Tebufenozide
 Methoxyfenozide
 Mechanism of Action
  IGRs work by disrupting one or more of the following processes:
 Prevent egg hatching.
 Stop larvae from molting properly.
 Prevent pupae from developing into adults.
 Reduce the reproductive ability of adult insects.
 As a result, insect populations gradually decline over time.

Uses of IGRs in Vector Control

1. Mosquito larval control.
2. Control of houseflies.
3. Flea control.
4. Cockroach control.
5. Integrated Vector Management (IVM) programs.
6. Public health mosquito breeding-site treatment.

Advantages of IGRs
1. Low toxicity to humans and animals.
2. Environmentally friendly.
3. Highly specific to target insects.
4. Reduce insect populations over time.
5. Help delay insecticide resistance when used in combination with other control methods.
6. Safe for use in many public health settings.

Disadvantages of IGRs
1. Slow action compared with conventional insecticides.
2. Limited effect on adult insects.
3. Require repeated monitoring and proper timing.
4. Can be more expensive than some traditional insecticides.
5. Incorrect application reduces effectiveness.

Main Difference Between Formulations of Insecticides

Emulsion

 Liquid insecticide formulation mixed with water before application.

 Produces a uniform spray solution.
 Commonly used for surface spraying and space spraying.

Water Dispersible Powder (WDP)

 Powder formulation that mixes with water to form a suspension.

  Easy to transport and store.
 Provides longer residual effects on treated surfaces.

Solid Formulation

 Insecticides prepared as solid materials such as dusts, granules, or baits.

 Used directly without mixing with water.
 Suitable for soil treatment, cracks, and specific target areas.

Main difference:

Emulsion = liquid mixed with water.

Water dispersible powder = powder mixed with water.

Solid formulations = ready-to-use solid insecticides.

Public Health Importance

IGRs help control vectors responsible for:

 Malaria
 Dengue fever
 Yellow fever
 Chikungunya
 Lymphatic filariasis
 Zika virus disease

They reduce mosquito populations by preventing larvae from developing into biting adults, thereby
lowering disease transmission.

Safety Precautions
1. Read and follow the manufacturer's instructions.
2. Wear appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE).
3. Avoid contaminating food and drinking water.
4. Store in a cool, dry, and secure place.
5. Keep out of reach of children.
6. Dispose of containers safely according to local regulations.

Review Questions
1. Define Insect Growth Regulators (IGRs).
2. State six characteristics of IGRs.
 3. Classify the different types of IGRs.
4. Mention four examples of IGRs.
5. Explain the mechanism of action of IGRs.
6. List six uses of IGRs in vector control.
7. State six advantages of IGRs.
8. Mention five disadvantages of IGRs.
9. Explain the public health importance of IGRs.
10. Describe the safety precautions when using IGRs.

What are growth regulation hormones?

Hormones that control insect growth and development.

Which hormone maintains the larval stage?

Juvenile hormone (JH).

Which hormone controls moulting?

Ecdysone.

Function of juvenile hormone?

Keeps the insect in the larval stage.

Function of ecdysone?

Causes moulting and development.

How do IGRs work?

They disrupt insect growth hormones.

Name the two main growth hormones.

Juvenile hormone and ecdysone.

Why are they important?

They control insect growth and development.

Lecture 6: Formulation of Insecticides

Learning Objectives

By the end of this lecture, students should be able to:

 1. Define insecticide formulation.
2. Explain the importance of insecticide formulations.
3. Identify the different types of insecticide formulations.
4. Describe the characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages of each formulation.
5. Select the appropriate formulation for vector control.
6. Explain the safe handling and storage of insecticide formulations.

Introduction
An insecticide is rarely used in its pure chemical form because it is usually too concentrated, difficult to
apply, or unsafe. Therefore, it is mixed with other substances called carriers, solvents, or adjuvants to
produce an insecticide formulation. Proper formulation improves the effectiveness, safety, storage, and
application of insecticides in vector control programs.

Definition of Insecticide Formulation

Insecticide formulation is the process of mixing the active ingredient with other substances (such as
solvents, carriers, emulsifiers, or wetting agents) to make the insecticide safe, effective, and convenient
to use.

Formulations of Insecticides
1. Solution (S): An insecticide in which the active ingredient is completely dissolved in a liquid
(usually water or oil), forming a clear mixture.
2. Emulsion (EC): An insecticide formulation where oil and water are mixed with an emulsifier to
form a milky liquid when diluted with water.
3. Water-Dispersible Powder (WP): A dry powder that does not dissolve but forms a suspension
when mixed with water. It must be stirred before spraying.
4. Solid Formulations: Dry insecticide forms such as dusts, granules, pellets, or baits that are
applied directly without mixing with water.

Components of an Insecticide Formulation

An insecticide formulation usually contains:

 Active ingredient (AI) – The chemical that kills or controls insects.

 Carrier – A material that dilutes the insecticide.
 Solvent – Dissolves the active ingredient.
 Emulsifier – Helps oil-based insecticides mix with water.
 Wetting agent – Improves spreading on surfaces.
 Stabilizer – Increases shelf life.
 Coloring or odor agents – Improve identification or user safety.

Importance of Insecticide Formulations

 1. Improve insecticide effectiveness.
2. Ensure even distribution on treated surfaces.
3. Increase safety during handling and application.
4. Reduce wastage.
5. Improve storage stability.
6. Make transportation easier.
7. Enhance penetration into insect habitats.

Types of Insecticide Formulations

1. Dusts (D)

Definition

Dry powders containing a small amount of insecticide mixed with fine particles such as talc or clay.

Uses
1. Flea control.
2. Louse control.
3. Ant control.

Advantages
1. Easy to apply.
2. Ready for use.
3. No mixing required.

Disadvantages
1. Easily blown away by wind.
2. Can be inhaled.
3. Less effective during rain.

2. Wettable Powders (WP)

Definition

Fine powders mixed with water before spraying.

Uses
1. Indoor residual spraying (IRS).
2. Mosquito control.
Advantages
1. Long residual effect.
2. Easy to store.
3. Effective on many surfaces.

Disadvantages
1. Requires constant stirring.
2. May clog spray nozzles.

3. Emulsifiable Concentrates (EC)

Definition

Liquid insecticides mixed with water to form an emulsion.

Uses
1. Mosquito control.
2. Agricultural pest control.
3. Space spraying.

Advantages
1. Easy to mix.
2. Highly effective.
3. Good surface coverage.

Disadvantages
1. Can irritate skin.
2. Flammable.
3. Requires careful handling.

4. Suspension Concentrates (SC)

Definition

Finely ground solid insecticide particles suspended in liquid.

Advantages
 1. Easy to dilute.
2. Less flammable than EC.
3. Reduced odor.

Uses
1. Indoor spraying.
2. Mosquito control.

5. Granules (G)
Definition

Large particles containing insecticides.

Uses
1. Mosquito larval breeding sites.
2. Soil treatment.

Advantages
1. Easy application.
2. Reduced spray drift.
3. Long-lasting.

Disadvantages
1. Higher cost.
2. Limited use on hard surfaces.

6. Baits (B)

Definition

Food mixed with insecticides to attract insects.

Uses
1. Cockroach control.
2. Ant control.
3. Fly control.

Advantages
 1. Highly targeted.
2. Requires small quantities.

Disadvantages
1. May lose effectiveness if contaminated.
2. Must be placed correctly.

7. Aerosols (A)
Definition

Pressurized insecticide sprays.

Uses
1. Household mosquito control.
2. Fly control.
3. Cockroach control.

Advantages
1. Quick action.
2. Easy to use.

Disadvantages
1. Short residual effect.
2. Expensive for large-scale programs.

8. Ultra-Low Volume (ULV)

Definition

Highly concentrated insecticides applied in very small quantities using special equipment.

Uses
1. Emergency mosquito control.
2. Disease outbreak response.

Advantages
1. Covers large areas quickly.
 2. Uses small amounts of insecticide.

Disadvantages
1. Requires trained personnel.
2. Specialized equipment needed.

Factors Affecting Choice of Formulation

1. Target vector species.
2. Stage of the insect (egg, larva, pupa, adult).
3. Environmental conditions.
4. Type of surface to be treated.
5. Cost.
6. Safety requirements.
7. Availability of equipment.

Safe Handling of Formulations

1. Read the product label carefully.
2. Wear appropriate PPE.
3. Mix insecticides according to instructions.
4. Avoid contamination of food and water.
5. Wash equipment after use.
6. Store in original containers.
7. Dispose of empty containers safely.

Public Health Importance

1. Proper insecticide formulations help:
2. Control malaria vectors.
3. Reduce dengue transmission.
4. Prevent yellow fever.
5. Control flies and cockroaches.
6. Improve environmental sanitation.
7. Support Integrated Vector Management (IVM).

Review Questions
1. Define insecticide formulation.
2. State the importance of insecticide formulations.
3. List the components of an insecticide formulation.
4. Mention eight types of insecticide formulations.
5. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of wettable powders.
 6. Differentiate between emulsifiable concentrates and suspension concentrates.
7. What factors determine the choice of insecticide formulation?
8. Describe the safety precautions when handling insecticide formulations.
9. Explain the public health importance of insecticide formulations.
10. Which formulation is commonly used for mosquito larval control?

Mechanisms of Action of Insecticides

Mechanism of action is how an insecticide kills or affects an insect.

Common mechanisms include:

1. Nerve action – Disrupts the insect's nervous system, causing paralysis and death.
2. Respiratory action – Interferes with respiration, leading to suffocation.
3. Growth regulation – Prevents normal growth and development, stopping insects from
becoming adults.
4. Muscle action – Causes continuous muscle contraction or paralysis, resulting in death.
5. Metabolic action – Disrupts essential body processes such as energy production, leading to
death.

View Questions
What is the mechanism of action of an insecticide?

 It is the way an insecticide kills or affects an insect.

Which mechanism affects the insect's nervous system?

 Nerve action.

How do respiratory insecticides kill insects?

 They interfere with respiration, causing suffocation.

What are insect growth regulators (IGRs)?

 They are insecticides that prevent insects from growing and developing into adults.

Which mechanism prevents insects from developing into adults?

 Growth regulation.

How do insecticides affect insect muscles?

 They cause muscle paralysis or continuous contraction, leading to death.

What is the difference between nerve-action insecticides and growth regulators?

  Nerve-action insecticides kill by affecting the nervous system, while growth regulators stop
insect development.

Why is it important to understand the mechanism of action of insecticides?

 To select the right insecticide and help prevent insecticide resistance.

Give one example of an insecticide that acts on the nervous system.

 Deltamethrin (or Permethrin).

List five mechanisms of action of insecticides.

 Nerve action
 Respiratory action
 Growth regulation
 Muscle action
 Metabolic action

Lecture 8: Toxicity and Susceptibility of Insecticides

Learning Objectives

By the end of this lecture, students should be able to:

1. Define insecticide toxicity.

2. Define insecticide susceptibility.
3. Explain the factors affecting toxicity.
4. Describe the factors affecting susceptibility.
5. Differentiate between toxicity and susceptibility.
6. Explain methods used to assess insecticide toxicity and susceptibility.
7. Discuss the public health importance of toxicity and susceptibility.

Introduction
Insecticides are effective tools for controlling vectors, but they can also pose risks to humans, animals,
and the environment if not used properly. Understanding toxicity and susceptibility helps public health
professionals select the most effective insecticides while ensuring the safety of people and the
environment.

Definition of Toxicity
Toxicity is the ability of an insecticide to cause harmful effects or death in insects, humans, animals, or
other living organisms.
In simple terms, toxicity refers to how poisonous an insecticide is.

Types of Toxicity
1. Acute Toxicity

Occurs after a single exposure or short-term exposure.

Symptoms appear rapidly.

Examples:

 Skin irritation
 Nausea
 Vomiting
 Difficulty breathing
 Poisoning

2. Chronic Toxicity

Develops after repeated exposure over a long period.

Effects appear gradually.

Examples:

 Liver damage
 Kidney damage
 Nervous system disorders
 Cancer (for some chemicals)
 Reproductive problems

Factors Affecting Toxicity

1. Type of insecticide used.
2. Dose or concentration.
3. Duration of exposure.
4. Route of exposure (skin, inhalation, swallowing).
 5. Age and health status of the exposed person.
6. Use of personal protective equipment (PPE).
7. Environmental conditions.

Routes of Exposure
Humans may be exposed through:

 Skin contact (Dermal exposure)

 Inhalation of sprays or dust
 Swallowing contaminated food or water
 Eye contact

Symptoms of Insecticide Poisoning

Mild Symptoms
 Headache
 Dizziness
 Nausea
 Skin irritation
 Eye irritation

Severe Symptoms
 Difficulty breathing
 Muscle weakness
 Convulsions
 Loss of consciousness
 Death (in severe poisoning)

First Aid for Insecticide Poisoning

1. Remove the victim from the contaminated area.
2. Remove contaminated clothing.
3. Wash exposed skin with plenty of soap and water.
4. Flush eyes with clean water if contaminated.
5. Do not induce vomiting unless instructed by medical personnel.
 6. Seek immediate medical attention.
7. Take the insecticide container or label to the health facility if possible.

Definition of Susceptibility
Susceptibility is the degree to which a vector is affected or killed by a recommended dose of an
insecticide.

A susceptible insect dies when exposed to the recommended concentration of an insecticide.

Factors Affecting Susceptibility

 Species of insect.
 Age of the insect.
 Genetic characteristics.
 Previous exposure to insecticides.
 Environmental conditions.
 Type and concentration of insecticide.
 Proper application of the insecticide.

Susceptibility Testing
Susceptibility tests determine whether vectors are still sensitive to insecticides.

Common Methods
1. WHO Tube Test.
2. CDC Bottle Bioassay.
3. Larval susceptibility tests.
4. Field monitoring and surveillance.

Importance of Susceptibility Testing

1. Detect insecticide resistance early.
2. Select effective insecticides.
3. Improve vector control programs.
4. Reduce unnecessary insecticide use.
5. Protect public health.
Difference Between Toxicity and Susceptibility
Toxicity

Susceptibility

Measures how poisonous an insecticide is.

Measures how sensitive insects are to an insecticide.

Concerned with effects on humans, animals, and insects.

Concerned mainly with target insects.

Evaluates safety.

Evaluates effectiveness.

Higher toxicity increases poisoning risk.

Higher susceptibility increases insect control.

Public Health Importance

1. Understanding toxicity and susceptibility helps to:
2. Protect spray operators.
3. Prevent accidental poisoning.
4. Select safe insecticides.
5. Improve disease control.
6. Delay insecticide resistance.
7. Protect the environment.
8. Improve Integrated Vector Management (IVM).

Safety Precautions
1. Wear appropriate PPE during mixing and spraying.
2. Read and follow label instructions.
3. Do not eat, drink, or smoke while handling insecticides.
4. Store insecticides in labeled containers away from children and food.
5. Dispose of insecticide waste safely.
6. Wash hands, equipment, and clothing after use.
7. Report suspected poisoning immediately.
Review Questions
1. Define toxicity.
2. Define susceptibility.
3. Differentiate between acute and chronic toxicity.
4. List seven factors affecting toxicity.
5. Mention four routes of insecticide exposure.
6. State five symptoms of insecticide poisoning.
7. Describe the first aid for insecticide poisoning.
8. Define susceptibility testing.
9. Mention four methods used to test insecticide susceptibility.
10. Differentiate between toxicity and susceptibility.
11. Explain the public health importance of toxicity and susceptibility.

Lecture 9: Application of Insecticides and Equipment

Learning Objectives

By the end of this lecture, students should be able to:

1. Define insecticide application.

2. Explain the objectives of insecticide application.
3. Describe the methods of insecticide application.
4. Identify equipment used in insecticide application.
5. Explain the correct procedures for insecticide application.
6. Discuss safety precautions during insecticide application.
7. Explain the public health importance of proper insecticide application.

Introduction
The success of vector control depends not only on selecting the correct insecticide but also on applying
it properly. Incorrect application may fail to control vectors, increase costs, cause environmental
pollution, and accelerate insecticide resistance. Therefore, trained personnel must use the correct
equipment and follow recommended procedures.

Definition of Insecticide Application

Insecticide application is the process of applying insecticides to target vectors or their breeding sites
using appropriate methods and equipment to control or eliminate them.
Objectives of Insecticide Application
1. Kill disease vectors effectively.
2. Prevent transmission of vector-borne diseases.
3. Reduce insect populations.
4. Protect human and animal health.
5. Minimize environmental contamination.
6. Delay insecticide resistance through proper application.

Methods of Insecticide Application

1. Indoor Residual Spraying (IRS)

Definition

Spraying insecticides on the inside walls, ceilings, and other surfaces where mosquitoes rest.

Uses
1. Malaria control.
2. Control of other indoor-resting mosquitoes.
3. Advantages
4. Long-lasting protection.
5. Reduces indoor mosquito populations.
6. Effective in malaria-endemic areas.

2. Space Spraying

Definition

Spraying fine droplets of insecticide into the air to kill flying insects.

Types

1. Thermal fogging.
2. Cold fogging (ULV spraying).

Uses
1. Mosquito outbreaks.
2. Dengue control.
3. Emergency vector control.

3. Larviciding
Definition

Applying insecticides directly to mosquito breeding sites to kill larvae before they become adults.

Common Breeding Sites

 Ponds
 Swamps
 Drainage channels
 Water containers
 Rice fields

4. Residual Surface Spraying

Insecticides are sprayed on walls, animal shelters, and other surfaces where insects rest.

5. Bait Application

Poisoned bait is used to attract and kill insects such as:

 Cockroaches
 Ants
 Flies

6. Dusting

Applying insecticide dust directly to surfaces or insect hiding places.

Equipment Used in Insecticide Application

1. Hand Compression Sprayer

Uses
1. Indoor spraying.
2. Household vector control.

Advantages
1. Portable.
2. Easy to operate.
3. Low cost.

2. Knapsack Sprayer

Uses
 1. Large-scale spraying.
2. Outdoor vector control.

Advantages
1. Covers larger areas.
2. Easy to carry.
3. Suitable for field operations.

3. Ultra-Low Volume (ULV) Sprayer

Uses
1. Space spraying.
2. Mosquito outbreak control.

Advantages
1. Uses very small quantities of insecticide.
2. Covers large areas quickly.

4. Thermal Fogger

Uses
1. Mosquito control.
2. Dengue outbreak response.

Advantages
1. Produces dense insecticide fog.
2. Reaches difficult areas.

5. Power Sprayer

Uses
1. Large public health programs.
2. Agricultural pest control.

Advantages
 1. High spraying capacity.
2. Efficient for extensive areas.

6. Duster

Uses
1. Application of insecticide dust formulations.
2. Steps in Proper Insecticide Application
3. Inspect the target area.
4. Identify the target vector.
5. Select the correct insecticide.
6. Choose the appropriate equipment.
7. Wear personal protective equipment (PPE).
8. Prepare and mix insecticide according to instructions.
9. Apply evenly at the recommended dosage.
10. Clean equipment after use.
11. Dispose of leftover insecticide and containers safely.
12. Record the spraying activity and monitor results.

Maintenance of Spray Equipment

1. Clean equipment after every use.
2. Check for leaks.
3. Calibrate sprayers regularly.
4. Replace worn-out nozzles and seals.
5. Store equipment in a clean, dry place.
6. Repair damaged parts immediately.

Safety Precautions
1. Wear gloves, masks, goggles, boots, and protective clothing.
2. Read the insecticide label before use.
3. Do not eat, drink, or smoke during spraying.
4. Avoid spraying near food and drinking water.
5. Prevent exposure of children and animals.
6. Wash hands and body after spraying.
7. Store insecticides securely.

Public Health Importance

Proper insecticide application:

1. Reduces malaria transmission.

 2. Controls dengue outbreaks.
3. Prevents yellow fever.
4. Reduces fly and cockroach infestations.
5. Improves environmental sanitation.
6. Protects spray operators and communities.
7. Enhances the success of Integrated Vector Management (IVM).

Advantages of Proper Insecticide Application

1. High effectiveness.
2. Reduced insecticide wastage.
3. Lower operational costs.
4. Improved public health.
5. Reduced environmental pollution.
6. Delayed development of insecticide resistance.

Challenges
1. High cost of equipment.
2. Lack of trained personnel.
3. Poor maintenance of equipment.
4. Insecticide resistance.
5. Community refusal of spraying.
6. Equipment breakdown.
7. Limited financial resources.

Review Questions
1. Define insecticide application.
2. State six objectives of insecticide application.
3. Describe six methods of insecticide application.
4. List six types of equipment used in insecticide application.
5. Explain the procedure for proper insecticide application.
6. Describe the maintenance of spray equipment.
7. State seven safety precautions during insecticide application.
8. Mention six advantages of proper insecticide application.
9. Discuss the challenges of insecticide application.
10. Explain the public health importance of proper insecticide application.

Lecture 10: Insecticide Resistance

Learning Objectives

By the end of this lecture, students should be able to:

1. Define insecticide resistance.

2. Explain how insecticide resistance develops.
3. Identify the different types of insecticide resistance.
4. Describe the mechanisms of insecticide resistance.
5. Explain the factors contributing to resistance.
6. Discuss methods of monitoring and managing insecticide resistance.
7. Explain the public health importance of insecticide resistance.

Introduction
Insecticides have greatly reduced vector-borne diseases such as malaria, dengue, and yellow fever.
However, repeated and improper use of the same insecticides has led to insecticide resistance, where
vectors survive doses that would normally kill them. Resistance is one of the greatest challenges facing
modern vector control programs.

Definition of Insecticide Resistance

Insecticide resistance is the inherited ability of a population of insects to survive exposure to an
insecticide that would normally kill members of the same species.

How Insecticide Resistance Develops

1. A small number of insects naturally possess resistance genes.
2. An insecticide is applied repeatedly.
3. Susceptible insects die.
4. Resistant insects survive and reproduce.
5. Their offspring inherit the resistance genes.
6. Over time, the resistant population becomes dominant.

Types of Insecticide Resistance

1. Behavioral Resistance

Insects change their behavior to avoid contact with insecticides.

Examples:

 Mosquitoes rest outdoors instead of indoors after IRS.

 Mosquitoes bite earlier in the evening before people use bed nets.

2. Metabolic Resistance
Insects produce enzymes that break down or detoxify insecticides before they can act.

Common detoxification enzymes include:

 Esterases
 Oxidases (Cytochrome P450)
 Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs)

3. Target-Site Resistance

Changes occur at the insecticide's target site, reducing its effectiveness.

Examples:

 Mutations in sodium channels reduce the effectiveness of pyrethroids and DDT.

 Changes in acetylcholinesterase reduce the effectiveness of organophosphates and carbamates.

4. Cuticular Resistance

The insect's outer covering (cuticle) becomes thicker or changes, reducing insecticide absorption.

Factors Contributing to Resistance

1. Repeated use of the same insecticide.
2. Incorrect insecticide dosage.
3. Frequent spraying without rotation.
4. Poor insecticide quality.
5. Incomplete coverage during spraying.
6. Large-scale agricultural use of similar insecticides.
7. High reproductive rate of insects.

Detection and Monitoring of Resistance

Resistance can be monitored using:

1. WHO Tube Test

Determines whether mosquitoes are susceptible or resistant to standard insecticides.

2. CDC Bottle Bioassay

Measures how quickly insects die after exposure to insecticide-coated bottles.

3. Molecular Tests

Detect resistance genes and mutations in insect populations.

4. Biochemical Tests
Measure detoxification enzymes associated with metabolic resistance.

Methods of Managing Insecticide Resistance

1. Rotation of Insecticides

Alternate insecticides with different mechanisms of action to reduce selection pressure.

2. Combination of Insecticides

Use two or more insecticides with different modes of action where appropriate.

3. Integrated Vector Management (IVM)

Combine multiple vector control methods, including:

 Environmental management
 Biological control
 Chemical control
 Personal protection
 Community participation

4. Proper Insecticide Use

 Apply the correct dose.

 Follow recommended spraying schedules.
 Use quality-assured insecticides.

5. Continuous Surveillance

1. Regularly monitor vector populations for resistance and adapt control strategies accordingly.
2. Effects of Insecticide Resistance
3. Reduced effectiveness of vector control programs.
4. Increased transmission of vector-borne diseases.
5. Higher operational costs.
6. Increased insecticide use.
7. More disease outbreaks.
8. Greater burden on health systems.

Public Health Importance

Managing insecticide resistance helps to:

1. Maintain effective malaria control.

2. Reduce dengue and yellow fever transmission.
3. Protect investments in public health.
4. Improve the success of vector control programs.
5. Support sustainable disease prevention.
6. Reduce illness and deaths caused by vector-borne diseases.

Prevention of Insecticide Resistance

1. Rotate insecticides with different modes of action.
2. Avoid unnecessary insecticide use.
3. Follow WHO recommendations.
4. Monitor resistance regularly.

Use Integrated Vector Management (IVM).

1. Train spray personnel.
2. Educate communities on proper vector control.

Review Questions
1. Define insecticide resistance.
2. Explain how insecticide resistance develops.
3. Describe the four types of insecticide resistance.
4. What is metabolic resistance?
5. Explain target-site resistance with examples.
6. State seven factors contributing to insecticide resistance.
7. Mention four methods used to detect resistance.
8. Describe five methods of managing insecticide resistance.
9. Explain the effects of insecticide resistance on public health.
10. Discuss the importance of Integrated Vector Management (IVM) in preventing insecticide
resistance.

Lecture 11: Vector Control Tutorials (Practical Sessions)

Learning Objectives

By the end of this practical session, students should be able to:

1. Identify common disease vectors.

2. Demonstrate the correct use of vector control equipment.
 3. Prepare insecticides according to recommended procedures.
4. Perform indoor residual spraying (IRS).
5. Demonstrate mosquito larval control methods.
6. Conduct simple vector surveillance.
7. Practice safe handling and disposal of insecticides.

Introduction
Practical training is an essential part of vector control because it enables students to apply the
knowledge gained in lectures. Through practical exercises, students develop the skills needed to identify
vectors, use equipment correctly, apply insecticides safely, and evaluate the effectiveness of vector
control interventions.

Practical 1: Identification of Disease Vectors

Objective

1. To identify common vectors of public health importance.

2. Materials
3. Preserved insect specimens or pictures
4. Hand lens or microscope
5. Identification guide
6. Forceps
7. Labels
8. Procedure
9. Observe each specimen carefully.
10. Identify its body parts (head, thorax, abdomen, wings, legs, antennae).
11. Compare with the identification guide.
12. Record the scientific and common names.
13. State the disease transmitted by each vector.

Expected Results
Students should correctly identify:

1. Vector
2. Disease Transmitted
3. Anopheles mosquito
4. Malaria
5. Aedes mosquito
6. Dengue, Yellow fever, Chikungunya, Zika
7. Culex mosquito
8. Lymphatic filariasis
9. Housefly
 10. Cholera, Typhoid, Dysentery
11. Tsetse fly
12. African sleeping sickness
13. Sandfly
14. Leishmaniasis
15. Flea
16. Plague
17. Tick
18. Lyme disease and other tick-borne diseases

Practical 2: Identification of Mosquito Breeding Sites

Objective

1. To identify mosquito breeding habitats.

2. Procedure
3. Visit nearby areas and inspect:
4. Ponds
5. Swamps
6. Drainage channels
7. Water tanks
8. Used tyres
9. Flower pots
10. Open containers
11. Blocked gutters
12. Observation
13. Record:
14. Presence of mosquito larvae.
15. Water condition (clean or polluted).
16. Type of breeding site.
17. Recommended control measures.

Practical 3: Preparation of Insecticide Solution

Objective

1. To prepare insecticide according to the manufacturer's instructions.

2. Materials
3. Insecticide
4. Clean water
5. Measuring cylinder
6. Mixing bucket
7. Stirring rod
 8. PPE
9. Procedure
10. Wear PPE.
11. Read the product label.
12. Measure the correct amount of insecticide.
13. Add water as recommended.
14. Mix thoroughly.
15. Pour into the sprayer.

Practical 4: Indoor Residual Spraying (IRS)

Objective

1. To demonstrate proper indoor spraying techniques.

2. Equipment
3. Compression sprayer
4. PPE
5. Insecticide
6. Measuring cylinder
7. Procedure
8. Inspect the room.
9. Wear PPE.
10. Prepare insecticide.
11. Calibrate the sprayer.
12. Spray walls and ceilings evenly.
13. Avoid food, drinking water, and cooking utensils.
14. Clean equipment after spraying.

Practical 5: Larval Survey

Objective

1. To collect and identify mosquito larvae.

2. Materials
3. Dipper
4. White tray
5. Pipette
6. Sample bottles
7. Labels
8. Procedure
9. Collect water from breeding sites.
10. Transfer larvae to a tray.
11. Observe larval movement.
 12. Identify larvae.
13. Record findings.
14. Practical 6: Demonstration of Spray Equipment
15. Students should demonstrate the use of:
16. Hand compression sprayer.
17. Knapsack sprayer.
18. ULV sprayer.
19. Thermal fogger.
20. Duster.
21. Assessment
22. Students should identify:
23. Parts of each sprayer.
24. Calibration procedure.
25. Maintenance methods.
26. Safety precautions.

Practical 7: Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

Students should correctly wear:

1. Gloves
2. Face mask or respirator
3. Goggles
4. Protective overalls
5. Boots
6. Hat or helmet (where applicable)

Importance of PPE
 Prevents poisoning.
 Protects skin and eyes.
 Reduces inhalation of insecticides.
 Improves worker safety.

Practical 8: Vector Surveillance

Students should:

1. Collect mosquito larvae.

2. Set mosquito traps where available.
3. Record mosquito density.
4. Identify breeding sites.
5. Prepare a surveillance report.
Practical 9: Safe Disposal of Insecticide Containers

Procedure
1. Never reuse empty insecticide containers.
2. Triple-rinse containers if recommended by the label.
3. Dispose of containers according to local regulations.
4. Avoid contaminating rivers, lakes, and drinking water sources.
5. Safety Precautions During Practical Sessions
6. Always wear PPE.
7. Follow instructor's instructions.
8. Read insecticide labels carefully.
9. Do not eat or drink during practical work.
10. Wash hands after handling insecticides.
11. Report accidents immediately.
12. Store chemicals safely after use.

Practical Competencies
After completing this practical course, students should be able to:

1. Identify major disease vectors.

2. Recognize mosquito breeding sites.
3. Prepare insecticides correctly.
4. Operate spray equipment safely.
5. Apply insecticides correctly.
6. Conduct vector surveillance.
7. Practice safe handling and disposal of insecticides.
8. Educate communities on vector control.

Summary

Practical training enables students to apply theoretical knowledge in real-life vector control activities.
Skills such as vector identification, insecticide preparation, spraying techniques, surveillance, and safety
are essential for effective public health practice.

Practical Assessment Questions

1. Identify four mosquito genera of public health importance.
2. Name five mosquito breeding sites.
3. Demonstrate the correct preparation of an insecticide solution.
4. Describe the steps of Indoor Residual Spraying (IRS).
5. Identify five pieces of PPE used during spraying.
6. Explain how to collect mosquito larvae.
7. State five safety precautions during insecticide application.
8. Explain how to maintain a hand compression sprayer.
9. Describe the proper disposal of insecticide containers.
10. Explain the importance of vector surveillance.