WHITE PAPER

Spectrum Analyzer Basics

Fundamentals of Swept-Tuned, Superheterodyne
Spectrum Analyzers
Table of Contents

Introducing the Spectrum Analyzer ...................................................................................................... 3

What is a Spectrum Analyzer? ..............................................................................................................4

Frequency Domain vs. Time Domain .................................................................................................... 5

Types of Spectrum / Signal Analyzers .................................................................................................. 7

How Does a Spectrum Analyzer Work? ................................................................................................ 7

Spectrum Analyzer Block Diagram / Components and Their Functions ............................................ 27

Summary ..............................................................................................................................................29

Learn More ...........................................................................................................................................29

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Introducing the Spectrum Analyzer
A simple way to describe a spectrum analyzer is a frequency-selective, peak-responding
voltmeter calibrated to display the RMS value of a sine wave. Although a spectrum analyzer is a
volt meter, it displays power. A signal analyzer can calculate power when a sine wave's peak or
average value is known and the resistance across the value measured is known. This white paper
describes the basic signal analyzer and how it has evolved considering today's digital technology
and digital signal processing that provides many more capabilities.

Keysight X-Series signal analyzers are now offered in five capability classes across three
performance grades (Essential, Expert, and Pro).

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What is a Spectrum Analyzer?
As you analyze various signals with a voltmeter, oscilloscope, or other instrument, have you ever
wondered if a spectrum analyzer can provide additional valuable information that may help with
your application? Perhaps you are not sure what a spectrum analyzer does or the signal analysis
advantages it offers. This white paper describes the spectrum analyzer, providing helpful advice
and recommendations for fundamental spectrum analyzer capabilities and settings.

Let's start with what a spectrum analyzer is. A spectrum analyzer decomposes time-varying
signals into a collection of sinewaves displaying a frequency spectrum (power versus frequency).
Technical experts use individual sinewave components and measurements to troubleshoot, assess
quality, or deepen their understanding of complex signals. A spectrum analyzer is an essential test
instrument for RF, wireless communication, radar, and related applications.

Applications that Use Spectrum Analyzers

We can look at various spectrum analyzer applications to better understand what a spectrum
analyzer is. Spectrum analyzers measure frequency information for signals in applications like
spectrum monitoring, noise and distortion, radiofrequency devices, EMI testing for device
compliance, and telecommunications analysis of occupied bandwidth and sources of interference.

Spectrum monitoring is a critical spectrum analyzer application. Government regulatory agencies

allocate different frequencies for various radio services like television, radio, mobile phones,
police, emergency communications, and many more. It is critical that each of these services
operates in its assigned frequency and stays within the allocated channel bandwidth. Transmitters
must operate at closely spaced adjacent frequencies. Other components in these communications
systems, such as power amplifiers, require performance checks to ensure their energy does not
affect adjacent signals or cause interference. Wireless communications are keenly interested in
finding and resolving out-of-band and spurious emissions. One example is analyzing a cellular
radio system, looking for harmonics of the carrier signal to ensure it does not interfere with other
systems operating at the same frequencies as the harmonics. Additionally, spectrum analysis can
look for distortion of a message modulated onto a carrier signal.

Electromagnetic interference (EMI) is unwanted radiated emissions that can impair other systems
and cause adverse effects on performance. Designers and manufacturers of electrical and
electronic products must test emissions levels versus frequency according to regulations set by
various government agencies and industry standards.

Engineers often test their active circuits and devices for excess noise. Engineers use noise figure
and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) measurements to characterize a device's performance to ensure
no excessive noise generation.

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Frequency Domain vs. Time Domain
It may be more familiar to think of signal events as they occur in time or within the time domain. An
oscilloscope measures signal information and electrical events in the time domain.

We can refer to the Fourier theory when comparing the time domain to the frequency domain. The
Fourier theory explains that any time-domain electrical phenomenon includes one or more sine
waves of appropriate frequency, amplitude, and phase. In other words, the Fourier transform is a
mathematical function that separates a waveform (function of time) into the frequencies that
comprise it, resulting in a function of frequency. Now, we use a spectrum analyzer to visualize
electronic signals in the frequency domain. The frequency domain measurements indicate how
much energy is present at each frequency.

Figure 1. Relationship between the time and frequency domains

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Stepping through a Fourier transform example, we can begin with the waveform signal that
appears below:

Figure 2. A complex time-domain signal

We can use filtering to separate the waveform into sinusoidal signals or spectral components for
independent analysis. Amplitude and phase measurements help to characterize each sine wave.
But suppose the signal we intend to analyze is periodic. In that case, Fourier says the essential
sine waves appear individually in the frequency domain represented by 1/T, where T is the period
of the signal 1.

According to Fourier's theory, when we shift from the time domain to the frequency domain or
from the frequency domain to the time domain, the signal evaluation should be overall time over
infinity. However, in practice, we always use a finite time period when making a measurement.
Making measurements in a finite bandwidth produces acceptable results, capturing most of the
signal energy. When you perform a Fourier transformation on frequency domain data, the phase of
the individual components is critical. For example, if you do not preserve the phase, a square wave
that transforms to the frequency domain and back again, could turn into a sawtooth wave.

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If the time signal occurs only once, then T is infinite, and the frequency representation is a continuum of sine waves.

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Types of Spectrum / Signal Analyzers
Initial swept-tuned, superheterodyne analyzers measure only amplitude but gradual technology
advances required additional measurements. For example, more complex communication systems
made phase measurements more critical, and newer spectrum analyzers preserved the signal's
phase and amplitude information. Additionally, smaller circuitry has enabled rugged, portable
spectrum analyzers. Today's spectrum analyzers digitize the signal after one or more stages of
frequency conversion. As a result of more technological advances and new measurement needs,
there are various types of analyzers:

• Analog analyzers (see Basic Spectrum Analyzers)

• Vector analyzers (see Vector Signal Analysis Basics application note)
• Fast Fourier transform (FFT) analyzers (see Keysight 35670A FFT Dynamic Signal Analyzer)
• Analyzers that combine these capabilities (see Keysight X-Series Signal Analyzers)
• Ruggedized and portable analyzers (see FieldFox Handheld Spectrum Analyzers)
• Modular analyzers (see Modular PXI Signal Analyzers)

How Does a Spectrum Analyzer Work?

While today's technology makes it possible to replace many analog circuits with modern digital
implementations, it is helpful to understand classic spectrum analyzer architecture and how it
works. Using examples in this section, we will describe and demonstrate spectrum analyzer
fundamentals and their simplest, most important configuration elements and measurements.

Figure 3. Block diagram of a classic superheterodyne spectrum analyzer

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Spectrum Analyzer Display and Settings
The output of a spectrum analyzer is an X-Y trace on a display. The display appears on a grid
(graticule) with 10 main horizontal divisions and 10 main vertical divisions.

Horizontal Axis
The horizontal axis is linearly calibrated in frequency that increases from left to right. By setting
the frequency, you can determine the absolute frequency of any signal displayed and the relative
frequency difference between two signals. There are two ways you can set the frequency:

1. Set the center frequency and span. The controls are independent, so changing the center
frequency does not alter the frequency span.

a. First, adjust the frequency at the centerline of the graticule with the center frequency
control.

b. Then, adjust the frequency range (span) across the full 10 divisions with the frequency
span control.

2. Set the start and stop frequencies.

Vertical Axis
You can calibrate the vertical axis in amplitude. Choose a linear scale calibrated in volts or a
logarithmic scale calibrated in dB. A log scale is used more often because it has a much wider usable
range. Additionally, the log scale allows signals as far apart in amplitude as 70 to 100 dB (voltage ratios
of 3,200 to 100,000 and power ratios of 10,000,000 to 10,000,000,000) to display simultaneously.

Figure 4. Typical spectrum analyzer display with control settings

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Alternatively, the linear scale is usable for signals that differ by no more than 20 to 30 dB (voltage
ratios of 10 to 32). In either case, the top line of the graticule, the reference level, is set to an
absolute value using calibration techniques and uses the scaling per division to assign values to
other locations on the graticule. This enables us to measure either the signal's absolute value or
the relative amplitude difference between any two signals. The display includes the scale
calibration, frequency, and amplitude, as pictured in Figure 4.

Tuning the Analyzer

Knowing how to tune a spectrum analyzer to a desired frequency range is essential. Tuning relates
to the intermediate frequency (IF) filter's center frequency, the local oscillator's (LO) frequency
range, and the frequency range that passes through the low-pass filter to reach the mixer. We
must select the best LO frequency and an IF to achieve an optimal tuning range for our analyzer.

Example 1: Let's say we want a tuning range from 0 to 3.6 GHz. First, we need to select the IF. We
can try 1 GHz since it is within our designated tuning range. The mixer output also includes the
original input signals, so an input signal at 1 GHz would give us a constant mixer output at the IF.
The 1 GHz signal would pass through the system and give us a constant amplitude response on the
display regardless of the LO tuning. Unfortunately, the result would be a hole in the frequency
range where we could not analyze signals because the amplitude response would be independent
of the LO frequency. A 1 GHz IF will not work.

Example 2: Let's choose an IF that is above the highest frequency in our tuning range — 0 Hz to
3.6 GHz. Using the Keysight X-Series signal analyzer, we can tune to 3.6 GHz. The first LO
frequency range is 3.8 to 8.7 GHz; for this example, the IF is 5.1 GHz. If we start the LO frequency
at the IF filter frequency (LO minus IF = 0 Hz) and tune it upward from that point to 3.6 GHz above
the IF, we can cover the tuning range with the LO minus the IF mixing product. Using this
information, we can generate a tuning equation:

Fsig = fLO-fIF

Where fsig = signal frequency

fLO = local oscillator frequency

fIF = intermediate frequency

To determine the LO frequency needed to tune the analyzer to a low-, mid-, or high-frequency
signal (let's use 1 kHz, 1.5 GHz, and 3 GHz), restate the tuning equation in terms of fLO:

fLO = fsig + fIF

Then, apply the numbers for the signal and IF in the tuning equation:

fLO = 1 kHz + 5.1 GHz = 5.100001 GHz

fLO = 1.5 GHz + 5.1 GHz = 6.6 GHz

fLO = 3 GHz + 5.1 GHz = 8.1 GHz

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Figure 6 demonstrates a spectrum analyzer's tuning and shows that fLO is not high enough to
cause the FLO-Fsig mixing product to fall in the IF passband, so there is no response. By adjusting
the ramp generator to tune the LO higher, the mixing product will be in the IF passband at some
point on the ramp (sweep), and you will see a response.

Figure 6. Tune the LO to fIF+fsig to produce a displayed response

The ramp generator controls both the horizontal position of the trace on the display and the LO
frequency so we can calibrate the display's horizontal axis in terms of the input signal frequency.

For the tuning example in Figure 6., let's adjust the input frequency to 9.0GHz. As the LO tunes
through its 3.8 to 8.7 GHz range, it reaches 3.9 GHz, which is IF away from the 9.0 GHz input
signal. At this frequency, we have a mixing product that is equal to the IF creating a response on
the display, or:

Fsig = fLO + fIF

The equation indicates that the spectrum analyzer's architecture could also support a tuning range
of 8.9 to 13.8 GHz for in-range signals that reach the mixer.

Follow these guidelines for tuning a single-band RF spectrum analyzer:

• Choose an IF above the highest frequency of the tuning range.

• Make the LO tunable from the IF to the IF and the upper limit of the tuning range.
• Include a low-pass filter in front of the mixer that cuts off below the IF.

Tuning for more closely spaced signals may require a spectrum analyzer with IF bandwidths as
narrow as 1 kHz, 10 Hz, or even 1 Hz. Filters this narrow are challenging to achieve at 5.1 GHz, so
we must add two to four mixing stages to down-convert from the first IF. Figure 7 shows an IF chain
in a typical spectrum analyzer. The figure only shows passive filters, although the implementation
includes amplification in the narrower IF stages. Depending on the analyzer's design, the final IF
may contain other components like logarithmic amplifiers or analog-to-digital converters.

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Most RF spectrum analyzers permit an LO frequency as low as, and even below the first IF. In this
case, the LO appears at the mixer output because there is finite isolation between the LO and IF
ports of the mixer. When the LO equals the IF, the system processes the LO signal that appears as
a response on the display as if it were a 0 Hz input signal. The LO feedthrough response can mask
very low-frequency signals, so not all analyzers allow the display range to include 0 Hz.

Figure 7. Most spectrum analyzers use two to four mixing stages to reach the final IF

For tuning this spectrum analyzer, use the following formula:

Fsig = fLO1- (fLO2+fLO3+fLOfinalIF)

In addition, make note to simplify the tuning equation by using just the first IF results in the same
answer:

fLO2+fLO3+fLOfinalIF = 4.8 GHz +300 MHz + 22.5 MHz

= 5.1225 GHz, the first IF

Analog Filters
Frequency resolution is a spectrum analyzer's ability to separate two input sinusoidal signals into
distinct responses. Fourier says a sinewave signal only has energy at one frequency, so there
should be no resolution issues. Two signals, regardless of how close they are in frequency, should
appear as two lines on the spectrum analyzer's display. These signals must be far enough apart on
the display, or the signal traces may fall on top of each other and appear as a single response. Use
the spectrum analyzer's selectable resolution IF filters and select one narrow enough to resolve
closely spaced signals. A closer look at a superheterodyne receiver demonstrates why displayed
signal responses have definite widths.

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A mixer's output includes the two original signals (input and LO) and the sum and difference
products. A bandpass filter determines the intermediate frequency, selects the desired mixing
product, and rejects other signals. We know that the input signal remains fixed, and since the LO is
swept, the products from the mixer are also swept. During a sweep, if a mixing product sweeps
past the IF, the bandpass filter's characteristic shape is traced on the display, as shown in Figure 8.
The narrowest filter in the chain determines the overall displayed bandwidth. In Figure 7, the
narrowest filter and resulting bandwidth is 22.5 MHz IF.

Figure 8. As a mixing product sweeps past the IF, the filter shape traces appear on the display

It is possible to resolve two very close signals by separating them using the 3-dB bandwidth of a
selected IF filter. The IF filter's 3-dB bandwidth value determines how close together equal-
amplitude sinusoids can be and still resolve. In the case of the example in Figure 9, you see an
approximate 3-dB dip in the trace between the two signal peaks. Although the signals could be
even closer before merging completely, using the IF filter's 3-dB bandwidth rule-of-thumb is a
suitable method for resolving equal amplitude signals.

Figure 9. It is possible to resolve two equal-amplitude sinusoids separated by a selected IF filter's 3-dB
bandwidth

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It is more common to have sinusoidal signals that are not equal in amplitude and where the lower-
amplitude signal hides in the skirt of the higher-amplitude signal's trace. In the Figure 10 example, the
top trace looks like a single signal but consists of a 300 MHz (0 dBm) and 300.005 MHz (-30 dBm)
signal. The lower trace demonstrates the resulting trace after removing the 300 MHz signal.

Figure 10. A low-amplitude signal may hide under the skirt of a higher-amplitude signal

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Resolution filters also include a bandwidth selectivity specification, referred to as "selectivity" or
"shape factor." A filter's bandwidth selectivity helps to determine the resolving power for unequal
sinusoidal signals. For Keysight analyzers, bandwidth selectivity is the ratio of the 60 dB
bandwidth to the 3 dB bandwidth, as shown in Figure 11. For this example, the analyzer is a four-
pole, synchronously tuned design with a nearly Gaussian shape and a bandwidth selectivity of
approximately 12.7:1. Analyzers with digital filters can achieve even better bandwidth selectivity.

Figure 11. Bandwidth selectivity ratio of 60 dB to 3 dB bandwidths

For example, what resolution filter's bandwidth should we choose to resolve signals that differ by
4 kHz and 30 dB, assuming 12.7:1 bandwidth selectivity?

We need to consider the frequency difference from the filter center frequency to the skirt rather
than the full bandwidth because the larger signal may be rejected when the analyzer is tuned to
the smaller signal. To determine how far down the filter skirt is at a given offset, we use the
following equation:

H(Δf) = –10(N) log10 [(Δf/f0)2 + 1]

Where H(Δf) is the filter skirt rejection in dB, N is the number of filter poles, Δf is the frequency
offset from the center in Hz, and f0 is:

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For our example, N = 4 and Δf = 4000. Let's begin by trying the 3-kHz RBW filter. First, we
compute f0:

f0 = = 3448.44

Now, we can determine the filter rejection at a 4-kHz offset:

H(4000) = –10(4) log10 [(4000/3448.44)2 + 1] = −14.8 dB

This is not enough to enable us to see the smaller signal. Let’s determine H(Δf) again using a 1-kHz
filter:

f0 = = 1149.48

This allows us to calculate the filter rejection:

H(4000) = –10(4) log10[(4000/1149.48)2 + 1] = −44.7 dB

The 1 kHz resolution bandwidth filter successfully resolved the smaller signal, as shown in Figure 12.

Figure 12. A 3 kHz filter (top trace) does not resolve the smaller signal. However, a 1 kHz filter (bottom trace)
resolves the smaller signal.

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Digital Filters
An advantage of digital filters in spectrum analyzers is that they dramatically improve bandwidth
selectivity. Keysight's PSA and X-Series signal analyzers implement the resolution bandwidths
digitally. Other analyzers, like the Keysight ESA-E Series, use analog filters for wider bandwidths
and digital filters for bandwidths of 300 Hz and below.

Residual FM
Determine the minimum usable resolution bandwidth from the instability and residual FM of the
analyzer's LOs, especially the first LO. Today's analyzers dramatically improve residual FM
compared to earlier models, which were unable to resolve bandwidths narrower than 1 kHz due to
an undetermined cause of display instability. Keysight analyzers include:

• High-performance X-Series signal analyzers with a residual FM of nominally 0.25 Hz

• PSA Series analyzers' residual FM is 1 to 4 Hz
• ESA Series analyzers' residual FM is 2 to 8 Hz

These residual FM signal analyzer examples enable bandwidths as low as 1 Hz. Any observed
instability is due to the incoming signal.

Phase Noise
Phase noise, or sideband noise, is ultimately due to the LOs in the spectrum analyzer. While we
may not be able to see frequency jitter of a spectrum analyzer LO system, we can observe a
manifestation of the LO frequency or phase instability. The initial LO instability transfers to the
spectrum analyzer's mixing products due to the LO and input signals. This means the LO phase
noise modulation sidebands appear around any spectral component on the display that is far
enough above the broadband noise floor of the system, as shown in Figure 13. The amplitude
difference between a displayed spectral component and the phase noise is a function of the LO
stability. A stable LO will result in lower phase noise. The amplitude difference is also a function of
the resolution bandwidth. Reducing the resolution bandwidth by a factor of 10 causes the
displayed phase noise lever to decrease by 10 dB.

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Figure 13. Phase noise displays only when a signal appears far enough above the system noise floor

The shape of the phase noise spectrum relates directly to the analyzer design, specifically the
complexity of the phase-lock loops used to stabilize the LO. Phase noise is specified in terms of
dBc, dB relative to a carrier, and normalized to a 1 Hz noise power bandwidth. Additionally, we can
represent phase noise at a specific frequency offset or present a curve that shows the phase
noise characteristics over a range of offsets.

You will typically see a spectrum analyzer's inherent phase noise just in narrower resolution filters
when it obscures the lower skirts of the filters. Unfortunately, digital filters do not change this
inherent phase noise. The phase noise can hide under the filter skirt for wider filters, as in the case
of the two unequal sinusoids discussed earlier.

Spectrum analyzers enable you to select different LO stabilization modes to optimize the phase
noise for different measurement conditions. For example, the high-performance X-Series signal
analyzers offer three LO stabilization modes:

• Optimize phase noise for frequency offsets < 140 kHz from the carrier.
o Optimizes LO phase noise for the area close to the carrier at the expense of phase noise
beyond 140-kHz offset.
• Optimize phase noise for frequency offsets > 160 kHz from the carrier.
o Optimizes phase noise for offsets above 160 kHz away from the carrier.
• Optimize LO for fast tuning.
o LO behavior compromises phase noise at all offsets from the carrier below approximately
2 MHz, minimizes measurement time, and allows the maximum measurement throughput
when changing the center frequency or span.

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Figure 14a. Optimization of phase noise performance Figure 14b. Detail of a 140 kHz carrier offset region
for different measurement conditions

Spectrum analyzers, such as the high-performance X-Series signal analyzer, have an auto mode
for phase noise optimization that automatically sets the instrument to optimize speed or dynamic
range for various operating conditions.

For example:

• Fast tuning mode

o when the span is >44.44 MHz or the RBW is >1.9 MHz
• Best close-in phase noise
o when center frequency < 195 kHz
o or when center frequency ≥ 1 MHz and span ≤ 1.3 MHz and RBW ≤ 75 kHz
• Best wide-offset phase noise
o if the previous conditions are unmet

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In any case, phase noise is the main limitation of a spectrum analyzer's ability to resolve signals of
unequal amplitude. Figure 15 shows two resolved signals based on the 3 dB bandwidth and
selectivity. Unfortunately, the phase noise covers the smaller signal.

Figure 15. Phase noise prevents the resolution of unequal signals

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Sweep Time
Analog Resolution Filters
If a spectrum analyzer's resolution stood on its own, the narrowest possible resolution IF filter
would be the best choice. However, resolution impacts sweep time, which affects how long
measurement completion takes.

Resolution is a concern because the IF filters are band-limited circuits that require finite times to
charge and discharge. If the mixing products sweep through the IF filters too quickly, the
displayed amplitude will be less than it should be, as shown in Figure 16. The length of time a
mixing product stays in the IF filter pass band is directly proportional to bandwidth and inversely
proportional to the sweep in Hz per unit time, or:

Time in pass band = RBW/(Span/ST) = (RBW)(ST)/Span

Where RBW = resolution bandwidth and ST = sweep time

Alternatively, the filter's rise time is inversely proportional to its bandwidth. If we include a
constant of proportionality, k, then:

Rise time = k/RBW

If we make the terms equal and solve for sweep time:

k/RBW = (RBW)(ST)/Span

or ST = k(Span)/RBW 2

The k value is between two and three for the synchronously timed, near-Gaussian filters used in
many analog analyzers.

It is most important to remember that a change in resolution dramatically affects sweep time. The
sweep time of older analog analyzers was affected by a factor of about 10 with each step in
resolution. Keysight X-Series signal analyzers provide a bandwidth step of 10% for a better
compromise between span, resolution, and sweep time.

Spectrum analyzers automatically couple sweep time to the span and resolution bandwidth
settings. Sweep time adjusts automatically to maintain a calibrated display. However, manual
override of the automated settings is possible. Additionally, if you select a sweep time outside the
available range, the analyzer indicates the display is uncalibrated with a "Meas Uncal" message in
the upper right of the graticule.

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Figure 16. When a spectrum analyzer's sweep time is too fast, there can be a drop in displayed amplitude and
a shift in the indicated frequency

Digital Resolution Filters

Digital resolution filters have a different effect on sweep time than analog filters. For swept
analysis, the speed of digitally implemented filters and no additional processing can provide a 2X
to 4X improvement.

Keysight X-Series signal analyzers with Option FS1 correct effects of sweeping too fast for
resolution bandwidths between about 3 kHz and 100 kHz. The correction enables sweep times to
be milliseconds rather than many seconds based on the settings. Referring to Figure 17, the sweep
time without correction would be 79.8 seconds. Option FS1 enables a sweep time of just 1.506
seconds. Sweep times are very short for the widest resolution bandwidths, as demonstrated using
the formula with k=2 on a span of 1 GHz and an RBW of 1 MHz where the sweep time is 2 ms.

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Keysight's X-Series use fast Fourier transforms (FFTs) to process the data and achieve shorter
sweep times for narrower resolution bandwidths. This is possible by using frequency blocks to
analyze signals. For example, if a frequency block is 1 kHz, and we select a 10 Hz resolution
bandwidth, the analyzer simultaneously processes the data in each 1 kHz block through 100
contiguous 10 Hz filters. The fast sweep times make it easy to see the benefits of digital filters.

Figure 17a. Full span sweep speed, RBW of 20 kHz Figure 17b. Full span sweep speed, RBW of 20 kHz
without Option FS1 with Option FS1

Display Detector Types

Each data point of a displayed signal must represent what occurs over some frequency range and
time interval. The calculation of each data interval extracts the desired information from the input
signal, stores it in memory, and writes it to the display. This process enables great flexibility,
resulting in six different detector types: sample, positive peak (peak), negative peak, normal,
average, and quasi-peak.

When gathering data, detectors save data in a bucket, as shown in Figure 18. The bucket contains
data from a frequency span and time frame.

Figure 18. The trace point saved in memory is based on the detector type of algorithm

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Equations define the type of applied detector:

Frequency: bucket width = span/(trace points – 1)

Time: bucket width = sweep time/(trace points – 1)

Spectrum analyzer sampling rates are different for various instruments. However, decreasing the
span or increasing the sweep time will result in better accuracy because the number of samples
per bucket is greater.

Refer to Figure 18, which demonstrates sample, peak, and negative peak detection.

Sample Detection
Sample is a data point's instantaneous level at the center of each bucket. Drawing vectors
between the sample points of each bucket results in a continuous signal display, as shown in
Figure 19. Comparing the displays in Figure 19 shows that more trace points provide a better
analog signal replication. The number of display points can vary for different analyzers. For
example, the number of frequency domain traces of a Keysight X-Series analyzer is selectable
from 1 point to 40,001 points.

The sample detection mode is good at indicating random noise but not very good for analyzing
sinusoidal signals. Take the example of looking at a 100 MHz comb using an X-Series signal
analyzer with a span from 0 to 26.5 GHz. Even with 1,001 display points, each display point
represents a span (bucket) of 26.5 MHz, which is much wider than the maximum 8 MHz resolution
bandwidth. Display of the signal's true amplitude would only occur if the mixing product happened
to be at the IF center. Therefore, sample detection does not capture all the signals or reflect the
signal's true peak values. From this example, we learn that the sample detection mode can
produce erroneous results when the resolution bandwidth is narrower than the sample interval
(bucket width).

Figure 19. A sample display mode with fewer points (left) and more points (right) produces a better replication
of the analog signal

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Peak Detection
Peak detection helps to ensure the representation of a signal's true amplitude by displaying the
maximum value for each bucket. Peak is the default mode for many spectrum analyzers because it
prevents missed signals regardless of the resolution bandwidth and bucket width ratio. However,
unlike sample mode, peak detection does not provide a good indication of random noise because
it only displays the maximum value in each bucket. Most spectrum analyzers with a primary peak
detection, generally offer sample detection as an alternative.

Negative Peak Detection

Negative peak detection displays a signal created by the minimum value of each bucket and is
available in most spectrum analyzers. Negative peak detection is not as common as other
detection modes but is helpful when differentiating continuous waveform (CW) signals from
impulsive signals in EMC testing.

Normal Detection
Normal detection provides a better visual display of random noise than peak detection and does
not miss signals like the sample mode. When a signal both rises and falls (determined by positive
peak and negative peak detectors), normal detection will classify the signal as noise. When noise
occurs, an odd-numbered data point displays the maximum value encountered within the bucket.
An even-numbered data point displays the minimum value within the bucket. As its mixing product
sweeps past the IF filter, a sinusoidal signal appears only to rise or fall as it approaches the filter's
center frequency. The positive-peak and negative-peak detectors' sense and amplitude change in
one direction, and the maximum value in each bucket gets output to the display, as shown in
Figure 20.

Figure 20. Normal detection displays maximum values in buckets where the signal only rises or falls

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Problems can occur when using normal detection if the resolution bandwidth is narrow relative to
the bucket. For example, if the signal rises and falls within an odd-numbered bucket, the analyzer
will plot the maximum peak value, which is what you want to display. Alternatively, if the signal
rises and falls within an even-numbered bucket, the analyzer only plots the minimum value it
encounters. The minimum value may differ from the true peak value depending on the resolution
bandwidth and the bucket width ratio. In an extreme case where the bucket is much wider than the
resolution bandwidth, the minimum and maximum difference within the bucket is similar to the
difference between the peak signal value and noise, as shown in Figure 21, bucket 6. This example
shows, for an odd-numbered bucket, a comparison of the previous bucket (6) to the current
bucket (7) with a resulting display of the greater of the two values in the current bucket (7).

Figure 21. The normal detection algorithm selects the trace point

Table 1. Normal detection algorithm

Signal within a bucket Even-numbered bucket Odd-numbered bucket

Rises and falls Displays the minimum (negative Displays the maximum (positive peak)
peak) value in the bucket. value determined by comparing the
Remembers the maximum peak. previous bucket peak (remembered)
with the current peak.
Only rises or only falls Displays the peak Displays the peak

The normal detection algorithm in Table 1 may display a maximum value (peak) one data point too
far to the right, but the offset is typically a small percentage of the span. Some spectrum analyzers
compensate for this potential effect by moving the LO start and stop frequencies.

Another normal detection error occurs when one peak appears as two peaks, as seen in Figure 22.
The display outlines the two peaks using peak detection with a wider RBW.

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From the detection error, we learn that peak detection is best for locating CW signals well of the
noise. Sample detection is ideal for looking at noise, while normal detection is best for viewing
signals and noise.

Figure 22. Normal detection can show two peaks when only one peak exists

Average Detection
Average detection uses all the data values that collect within the bucket's time and frequency
interval rather than taking samples and dismissing data that does not represent a positive or
negative peak. In addition, average detection includes different options:

• Power (RMS) averaging: Computes RMS levels by taking the square root of the average of the
squares of the voltage data measured during the bucket interval. The analyzer then squares
this voltage and divides it by the input impedance of the spectrum analyzer, which is usually
50 ohms. This method is best for measuring the power of complex signals.
• Voltage averaging: Averages the linear voltage data of the envelope signal measured during
the bucket interval. Voltage averaging is a good general-purpose average detector often used
in EMI testing for narrowband signal measurement.
• Log-power (video) averaging: Averages the logarithmic amplitude values in dB of the
envelope signal measured during the bucket interval. This method works best for observing
sinusoidal signals near noise.

The advantage of average detection over sample detection relates specifically to power
determination. For example, sample detection requires multiple sweeps to collect enough data
points to provide accurate average power information. Alternatively, average detection captures all
the power information available and has a lower variance result for the same measurement time.

26
Spectrum Analyzer Block Diagram /
Components and Their Functions
Below is a simplified block diagram of a superheterodyne spectrum analyzer. Heterodyne means
to combine two nearly equal high frequencies to produce a lower frequency. "Super" refers to
super audio frequencies or frequencies above the audio range. The block diagram shows an input
signal passing through an attenuator, then through a low-pass filter to a mixer, where it combines
with a signal from the LO.

Figure 23. Block diagram of a classic superheterodyne spectrum analyzer

RF Attenuator
The spectrum analyzer begins with the RF input attenuator that ensures the signal enters the mixer
at the optimal level to prevent overload, gain compression, and distortion. This protective
attenuation is typically set automatically, based on the reference level. However, manual
attenuation is selectable in steps of 10, 5, 2, or 1 dB. The attenuator circuit below in Figure 24 is an
example, providing a maximum attenuation of 70 dB in increments of 2 dB.

Figure 24. RF input attenuator circuitry

27
The blocking capacitor helps to prevent damage to the analyzer from a DC signal or a DC offset of
a viewed signal. Conversely, it also attenuates low-frequency signals and increases the minimum
useable start frequency of the analyzer to 9 kHz, 100 kHz, or 10 MHz, depending on the analyzer.

In some analyzers, an amplitude reference signal input is available to provide a precise frequency
and amplitude signal for the analyzer to use for periodical self-calibration.

Low-Pass Filter or Preselector

The low-pass filter blocks high-frequency signals from reaching the mixer, preventing out-of-band
signals from mixing with the LO and creating unwanted responses on the display. Microwave
spectrum analyzers replace the low-pass filter with a preselector, which is a tunable filter that
rejects all frequencies except those we want to view.

Mixer
Because the mixer is a non-linear device, its output includes the two original signals, plus their
harmonics and the sums and differences of the original frequencies and their harmonics. Any
mixed signals are process when within the IF filter pass band (amplified and compressed on a
logarithmic scale). The envelope detector rectifies the signal, which then filters through the low-
pass filter and displays. A ramp generator creates the horizontal movement across the display
from left to right. The ramp also tunes the LO so its frequency change is in proportion to the ramp
voltage.

Variable Gain Amplifier

The variable gain amplifier follows the mixer in the spectrum analyzer architecture in Figure 37.
The gain amplifier adjusts the signal's vertical position on the display without affecting the signal
level at the input mixer. When we change the IF gain, the reference level value adjusts accordingly
to preserve the correct value for displayed signals. The input attenuator and IF gain couple to keep
the reference level from changing when we change the input attenuator. Changing the input
attenuation will automatically change the IF gain to offset the effect of the change in input
attenuation to keep the signal in a constant display position.

28
Summary
A signal analyzer is the instrument of choice for signal analysis that goes beyond the time domain
and into the frequency domain. The sine waves that spectrum analyzers display as frequency
spectrum can assist technical experts as they troubleshoot, assess a device or system's quality, or
simply help them better understand complex signals. Depending on the types of signals you need
to analyze, there are several specialized analyzers designed for the application. The spectrum
analyzer fundamentals described in this white paper will help get you started making
measurements and analyzing your application's signals.

Learn More
• Keysight Essential Signal Analyzers
• Keysight Expert Signal Analyzers
• Keysight Pro Signal Analyzers

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This information is subject to change without notice. © Keysight Technologies, 20 23 – 2026,

Published in USA, May 12, 2026, [Link]