Structure and function of neuron
Neuron:- A neuron is a nerve cell that processes and transmits
information through electrical and chemical signals in the nervous
system.
Diagram:-
Neurons consist of a cell body, dendrites (which receive signals), and
an axon (which sends signals).
Synaptic connections allow communication between neurons,
facilitating the relay of information throughout the body.
Parts of neuron
Dendrites
Dendrites are the tree-root-shaped part of the neuron which are
usually shorter and more numerous than axons.
Their purpose is to receive information from other neurons and to
transmit electrical signals to the cell body.
Dendrites are covered in synapses, which allow them to receive
signals from other neurons. Some neurons have short dendrites,
whilst others have longer ones.
For instance, cells called Purkinje cells, which are found in the
cerebellum, have highly developed dendrites to receive signals from
thousands of other cells.
Soma (Cell Body)
The soma, or cell body, is essentially the core of the neuron.
The soma’s function is to maintain the cell and to keep the neuron
functioning efficiently (Luengo-Sanchez et al., 2015).
The soma is enclosed by a membrane that protects it and allows it to
interact with its immediate surroundings.
The soma contains a cell nucleus that produces genetic information
and directs the synthesis of proteins.
These proteins are vital for other parts of the neuron to function.
Axon
The axon, also called a nerve fiber, is a tail-like structure of the
neuron that joins the cell body at a junction called the axon hillock.
The function of the axon is to carry signals away from the cell
body to the terminal buttons to transmit electrical signals to other
neurons.
Acting as a conduit, the axon carries these signals to other neurons,
muscles, or glands.
Some axons are covered in a fatty substance called myelin, which
insulates the axon and aids in transmitting signals more quickly.
Myelin Sheath
The myelin sheath is a layer of fatty material that covers the axons of
neurons.
Its purpose is to insulate one nerve cell from another and to prevent
the impulse from one neuron from interfering with the impulse from
another.
The second function of the myelin sheath is to speed up the
conduction of nerve impulses along the axon.
The axons, which are wrapped in cells known as glial cells (also
known as oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells), form the myelin
sheath.
The myelin sheath that surrounds these neurons has the purpose of
insulating and protecting the axon.
Due to this protection, the speed of transmission to other neurons is
a lot faster than the neurons that are unmyelinated.
The myelin sheath is made up of broken-up gaps called nodes of
Ranvier.
Electrical signals are able to jump between the nodes of Ranvier,
which helps in speeding up the transmission of signals.
Axon Terminals
Located at the end of the neuron, the axon terminals (terminal
buttons) are responsible for transmitting signals to other neurons.
At the end of the terminal button is the synapse.
Terminal buttons hold vessels that contain neurotransmitters.
Neurotransmitters are released from the terminal buttons into the
synapse and carry signals across the synapse to other neurons.
The electrical signals convert to chemical signals during this process.
It is then the responsibility of the terminal buttons to reuptake the
excess neurotransmitters that did not get passed onto the next
neuron.
How do neuron works?
Neurons lie adjacent to each other but are not connected.
There is a tiny gap between neurons called a synapse.
The function of a neuron is to transmit nerve impulses along the
length of an individual neuron and across the synapse into the next
neuron.
The electrical signals transmitted by neurons are called action
potentials.
Synaptic Transmission
Synaptic transmission is the process by which one neuron
communicates with another.
Information is passed down the axon of the neuron as an electrical
impulse known as action potential.
The electrical signal needs to cross the synaptic gap to continue on
its journey to or from the CNS.
This is done using chemicals that diffuse across the gap between the
two neurons. These chemicals are called neurotransmitters.
During synaptic transmission, the action potential (an electrical
impulse) triggers the synaptic vesicles of the pre-synaptic neuron to
release neurotransmitters.
These neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic gap and bind to
specialized receptor sites on the post-synaptic neuron.
This will then trigger an electrical impulse in the adjacent cell.
The central nervous system, which comprises the brain and spinal
cord, and the peripheral nervous system, which consists of sensory
and motor nerve cells, all contain these information-processing
neurons.
Types of Neurotransmitters by Function
• Excitatory Neurotransmitters: Increase the likelihood that a neuron
will fire an action potential, continuing the message.
o Glutamate: The most abundant neurotransmitter, crucial for
learning, memory, and brain activity.
o Epinephrine/Adrenaline: Involved in the fight-or-flight response and
alertness.
o Norepinephrine: Increases alertness, attention, and focus.
• Inhibitory Neurotransmitters: Reduce the likelihood of a neuron
firing, typically calming the brain.
o GABA (Gamma-aminobutyric acid): The primary inhibitory
neurotransmitter that reduces anxiety and regulates sleep.
o Serotonin: Regulates mood, appetite, sleep, and digestion.
o Glycine: Primarily acts in the spinal cord to control reflexes and
movements.
• Modulatory Neurotransmitters: These (also known as
neuromodulators) can affect many neurons simultaneously and
regulate the effects of other neurotransmitters.
o Dopamine: Involved in reward, motivation, movement, and pleasure.
o Acetylcholine: Controls muscle contraction, memory, and learning.
o Endorphins: Act as natural painkillers to reduce stress.
Classification by Chemical Structure
• Amino Acids: Glutamate, GABA, Glycine.
• Monoamines: Dopamine, Serotonin, Norepinephrine, Histamine.
• Peptides: Oxytocin, Endorphins.
• Other: Acetylcholine, Purines (Adenosine), Gasotransmitters (Nitric
oxide).
Neurotransmitters are essential for daily functioning, with
deficiencies or imbalances linked to various neurological and mental
health conditions.
Types of neurons
Sensory Neurons
Sensory neurons (sometimes referred to as afferent neurons) are
nerve cells that carry nerve impulses from sensory receptors toward
the central nervous system and brain.
Sensory neurons have long dendrites and short axons.
When these nerve impulses reach the brain, they are translated into
‘sensations’, such as vision, hearing, taste, and touch.
This sensory information can be either physical – through sound,
heat, touch, and light, or it can be chemical – through taste or smell.
An example of this can be when touching an extremely hot surface.
Motor Neurons
Motor neurons (also referred to as efferent neurons) are the nerve
cells responsible for carrying signals away from the central nervous
system towards muscles to cause movement.
They release neurotransmitters to trigger responses leading to
muscle movement.
Motor neurons have short dendrites and long axons.
Motor neurons are located in the brainstem or spinal cord (parts of
the central nervous system) and connect to muscles, glands, and
organs throughout the body.
Relay Neurons
A relay neuron (also known as an interneuron) allows sensory and
motor neurons to communicate with each other. Relay neurons
connect various neurons within the brain and spinal cord.
Relay neurons have short dendrites and short or long axons.