Structure and function of neuron
Neuron:- A neuron is a nerve cell that processes and
transmits information through electrical and
chemical signals in the nervous system.
Diagram:-
Neurons consist of a cell body, dendrites (which receive
signals), and an axon (which sends signals).
Synaptic connections allow communication between
neurons, facilitating the relay of information throughout
the body.
Parts of neuron
Dendrites
Dendrites are the tree-root-shaped part of the neuron
which are usually shorter and more numerous than
axons.
Their purpose is to receive information from other
neurons and to transmit electrical signals to the cell
body.
Dendrites are covered in synapses, which allow
them to receive signals from other neurons. Some
neurons have short dendrites, whilst others have longer
ones.
For instance, cells called Purkinje cells, which are found
in the cerebellum, have highly developed dendrites to
receive signals from thousands of other cells.
Soma (Cell Body)
The soma, or cell body, is essentially the core of the
neuron.
The soma’s function is to maintain the cell and to
keep the neuron functioning efficiently (Luengo-
Sanchez et al., 2015).
The soma is enclosed by a membrane that protects it
and allows it to interact with its immediate
surroundings.
The soma contains a cell nucleus that produces genetic
information and directs the synthesis of proteins.
These proteins are vital for other parts of the neuron to
function.
Axon
The axon, also called a nerve fiber, is a tail-like
structure of the neuron that joins the cell body at a
junction called the axon hillock.
The function of the axon is to carry signals away
from the cell body to the terminal buttons to
transmit electrical signals to other neurons.
Acting as a conduit, the axon carries these signals to
other neurons, muscles, or glands.
Some axons are covered in a fatty substance called
myelin, which insulates the axon and aids in
transmitting signals more quickly.
Myelin Sheath
The myelin sheath is a layer of fatty material that
covers the axons of neurons.
Its purpose is to insulate one nerve cell from another
and to prevent the impulse from one neuron from
interfering with the impulse from another.
The second function of the myelin sheath is to speed up
the conduction of nerve impulses along the axon.
The axons, which are wrapped in cells known as glial
cells (also known as oligodendrocytes and Schwann
cells), form the myelin sheath.
The myelin sheath that surrounds these neurons has
the purpose of insulating and protecting the axon.
Due to this protection, the speed of transmission to
other neurons is a lot faster than the neurons that are
unmyelinated.
The myelin sheath is made up of broken-up gaps called
nodes of Ranvier.
Electrical signals are able to jump between the nodes of
Ranvier, which helps in speeding up the transmission of
signals.
Axon Terminals
Located at the end of the neuron, the axon terminals
(terminal buttons) are responsible for transmitting
signals to other neurons.
At the end of the terminal button is the synapse.
Terminal buttons hold vessels that contain
neurotransmitters.
Neurotransmitters are released from the terminal
buttons into the synapse and carry signals across the
synapse to other neurons.
The electrical signals convert to chemical signals during
this process.
It is then the responsibility of the terminal buttons to
reuptake the excess neurotransmitters that did not get
passed onto the next neuron.
How do neuron works?
Neurons lie adjacent to each other but are not
connected.
There is a tiny gap between neurons called a synapse.
The function of a neuron is to transmit nerve impulses
along the length of an individual neuron and across the
synapse into the next neuron.
The electrical signals transmitted by neurons are called
action potentials.
The 3 phases of an action potential
The transmission of a nerve impulse, known as an action potential,
involves a rapid sequence of electrical changes across the
neuron’s membrane.
Depolarization (Rising Phase)
A neuron at resting potential maintains a negative charge inside,
usually around -70mV, with higher sodium (Na+) ion concentrations
outside and potassium (K+) ions inside.
When sufficiently stimulated, voltage-gated sodium (Na+) channels
open, allowing positively charged Na+ ions to rapidly rush into
the cell. This influx causes the inside of the cell to become more
positive.
If this charge reaches the threshold of excitation (around -55mV), a
massive influx of Na+ occurs, creating a positive spike in the
membrane potential. This operates on an all-or-nothing principle.
Repolarization (Falling Phase)
Immediately following the peak of depolarization, sodium (Na+)
channels close, halting the influx of positive ions.
Simultaneously, potassium (K+) channels open, leading to a rapid
outward flow of positively charged K+ ions from the neuron.
This efflux of positive charge quickly restores the membrane
potential to a negative charge inside the cell.
Hyperpolarization (Undershoot)
This brief phase, also known as the undershoot, occurs because the
potassium (K+) channels close relatively slowly.
This allows a slight excess of K+ ions to leave the cell, causing the
membrane potential to temporarily become even more negative
than its normal resting potential (e.g., dropping to -80mV).
Synaptic Transmission
Synaptic transmission is the process by which one
neuron communicates with another.
Information is passed down the axon of the neuron as
an electrical impulse known as action potential.
The electrical signal needs to cross the synaptic gap to
continue on its journey to or from the CNS.
This is done using chemicals that diffuse across the gap
between the two neurons. These chemicals are called
neurotransmitters.
During synaptic transmission, the action potential (an
electrical impulse) triggers the synaptic vesicles of the
pre-synaptic neuron to release neurotransmitters.
These neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic
gap and bind to specialized receptor sites on the post-
synaptic neuron.
This will then trigger an electrical impulse in the
adjacent cell.
The central nervous system, which comprises the brain
and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system,
which consists of sensory and motor nerve cells, all
contain these information-processing neurons.
Types of Neurotransmitters by Function
Excitatory Neurotransmitters: Increase
the likelihood that a neuron will fire an
action potential, continuing the message.
Glutamate:
Epinephrine/Adrenal
Norepinephrine
Inhibitory Neurotransmitters: Reduce
the likelihood of a neuron firing, typically
calming the brain.
GABA (Gamma-aminobutyric acid) o Serotonin
Glycine
Modulatory Neurotransmitters: These
(also known as neuromodulators) can
affect many neurons simultaneously and
regulate the effects of other
neurotransmitters.
Dopamine Acetylcholine
Endorphins