UNIT II ENGINEERING ETHICS

Senses of „Engineering Ethics‟ – Variety of moral issues – Types of inquiry – Moral dilemmas –
Moral Autonomy – Kohlberg‟s theory – Gilligan‟s theory – Consensus and Controversy –
Models of professional roles - Theories about right action – Self-interest – Customs and Religion
– Uses of Ethical Theories

2.1 Introduction
Engineering Ethics is a Study of the moral issues and decisions confronting individuals
and organizations engaged in engineering / profession.
It is a study of related questions about the moral ideals, character, policies and
relationships of people and corporations involved in technological activity. Moral standards /
values and system of morals.

In general it is a study of
 Study of right or wrong.
 Good and evil.
 Obligations & rights.
 Justice.
 Social & Political deals.
Need to study Ethics
• To responsibly confront moral issues raised by technological activity.
• To recognize and resolve moral dilemma.
• To achieve moral autonomy.
Difference Moral and Ethics
Moral:
• Refers only to personal behaviour.
• Refers to any aspect of human action.
• Social conventions about right or wrong conduct.
Ethics :
• Involves defining, analyzing, evaluating and resolving moral problems and
developing moral criteria to guide human behaviour.
• Critical reflection on what one does and why one does it.
• Refers only to professional behaviour.

2.2 Senses of ‘Engineering Ethics’

The word ethics has different meanings but they are correspondingly related to each
other. In connection with that, engineering ethics has also various senses which are related to
one another.

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 Comparison of the senses of Ethics and Engineering Ethics

Ethics Engineering ethics

1. Ethics is an activity which concerns with 1. Like the ethics, engineering ethics also
investigations and knowing about aims at , making knowing moral values related to
finding solutions to moral engineering and moral values, finding accurate solutions to the
justifying moral issues and moral problems issues justifying moral judgments of
in engineering and justifying moral engineering.
judgments
2. Ethics is a means of contrasting moral 2. Engineering Ethics gives a total view of
questions from non-moral problems. the moral problems and how to solve these
issues specifically related to engineering
field.
3. Ethics is also used as a means of 3. Engineering ethics is also using some
describing the beliefs, attitudes and habits currently accepted codes and standards
related to an individual’s or group’s morality. which are to be followed by group of
Eg. : Ethics given in the Bhagavat Gita or the engineers and engineering societies.
Bible or the Quran.

4. As per the definition of dictionaries – 4. Engineering ethics also concerns with

‘moral principles’ is about the actions and discovering moral principles such as
principles of conduct of the people. i.e. obligation, rights and ideals in engineering
ethical or unethical. and by applying them to take a correct
decision.

From these senses of Engineering ethics, one can realize that it is the study of morality.

2.3 Variety of moral issues

The term ‘morality’ concerns with (a) what ought or ought not to be done in a given
situation, (b) what is right or wrong in handling it, (c) what is good or bad about the persons,
policies and principles involved in it.
If an action is said to be morally right or a principle is said to be morally good, then they
are said to be had some moral reasons in supporting it.
Moral reasons include respecting others and ourselves, respecting the rights of others,
keeping promises, avoiding unnecessary problems to others and avoiding cheating and dishonesty,
showing gratitude to others and encourage them to work.
So, if an engineering decision is said to be a good one, it has to meet out all the
specifications. These specifications must be covered both the technical and the moral specifications
such as safety of the product, reliability, easy maintenance and the product should be user-friendly
with environment.
There are so many engineering disasters which are greater / heavier than the level of
acceptable or tolerable risk.
Therefore, for finding and avoiding such cases such as nuclear plant accident at Chernobyl
(Russia), Chemical plant at Bhopal (India) where a big disaster of gas leakage, occurred in 1980,
which caused many fatal accidents. In the same way, oil spills from some oil extraction plants (the
Exxon Valdez plant), hazardous waste, pollution and other related services, natural disasters like

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 floods, earth quake and danger from using asbestos and plastics are some more cases for
engineering disasters. These fields should be given awareness of engineering ethics.
Hence, it is essential for engineers to get awareness on the above said disasters.
They should also know the importance of the system of engineering.
When malfunction of the system is a rapid one, the disaster will be in greater extent and
can be noticed immediately. When they ate slow and unobserved, the impact is delayed. So, the
engineers should not ignore about the functions of these systems.
These cases also explain and make the engineers to be familiar with the outline of the case
in future and also about their related ethical issues.

Approaches to Engineering Ethics:

i. Micro-Ethics: This approach stresses more about some typical and everyday problems which play
an important role in the field of engineering and in the profession of an engineer.
ii. Macro-Ethics: This approach deals with all the social problems which are unknown and suddenly
burst out on a regional or national level.
So, it is necessary for an engineer to pay attention on both the approaches by having a careful
study of how they affect them professionally and personally. The engineers have to tolerate
themselves with the everyday problems both from personal and societal point of view.
Where and How do Moral Problems arise in Engineering?
Any product or project has to undergo various stages such as planning, idea, design, and
manufacturing which is followed by testing, sales and services. This has to be done by engineers of
various branches like Civil, Mechanical, Electrical, Chemical etc. These engineers may be grouped
together as a team or they may be separated from each other with an interconnection or co-ordination.
Inspite of the engineers’ full attention and care, sometimes the product or project may be
unsafe or less useful. This may be due to some reasons 1) The product or project may be designed for
early obsolescence or 2) due to under pressure because of running out of time, budgetary etc or 3) by
ignorance on the size of the project, or 4) because of the large number of a products sold on the mass
market, people may be affected.
Some cases with which different areas covered by engineering ethics:
1. An inspector finds a faulty part in the manufacture of a machine, which prevents the use of that
machine for a longer period. But his superior, takes this as a minor mistake and orders that the faulty
part to be adjusted so that the delay in the process has to be avoided. But the inspector doesn’t want
this and so he is threatened by the supervisor.
2. An electronic company applies for a permit to start a Nuclear Power Plant. When the licensing
authority comes for visit, they enquire the company authorities on the emergency measures that have
been established for safety of the surroundings. The engineers inform them about the alarm system
and arrangements have been made in local hospitals for the treatment of their employees and they
have no plan for the surrounding people. They also inform that it is the responsibility of the people.
3. A Yarn Dyeing company which dumps its wastes in the nearby river. It causes heavy damage to the
people those who are using the river. The plant engineers are aware of this, but they do not change the
disposal method because their competitors also doing similarly as it happens to be a cheaper. They
also say that it is the responsibility of the local government.
The above given examples clearly explain how the ethical problems arise most often because
of wrong judgments and expectations of engineers. These necessitate for establishing some codes of
conduct which has to be imposed on engineers’ decisions on the basis of ethical view.

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2.4 Types of inquiry
Inquiry means an investigation. Like general ethics, Engineering ethics also involves
investigations into values, meaning and facts. These inquiries in the field of Engineering ethics are of
three types.
1. Normative Inquiries
2. Conceptual Inquiries
3. Factual or Descriptive Inquiries

Normative Inquiries
These inquiries are mostly helpful to identify the values which guide the individuals and
groups in taking a decision. These are meant for identifying and justifying some norms and standards
of morally desirable nature for guiding individuals as well as groups. In most of the cases, the
normative questions are given below:

1. How do the obligations of engineers protect the public safety in given situations?
2. When should an engineer have to alarm their employers on dangerous practices?
3. Where are the laws and organizational procedures that affect engineering practice on moral issues?
4. Where are the moral rights essential for engineers to fulfill their professional obligations? From
these questions, it is clear that normative inquiries also have the theoretical goal of justifying moral
judgments.
Conceptual Inquiries
These are meant for describing the meaning of concepts, principles, and issues related to
Engineering Ethics. These inquiries also explain whether the concepts and ideas are expressed by
single word or by phrases. The following are some of the questions of conceptual inquiries:
1. What is the safety and how it is related to risk?
2. What does it mean when codes of ethics say engineers should protect the safety, health and welfare
of the public?
3. What is a ‘bribe’?
4. What is a ‘profession’ and ‘professional’?
Factual / Descriptive Inquiries
These help to provide facts for understanding and finding solutions to value based issues. The
engineer has to conduct factual inquiries by using scientific techniques. These help to provide
information regarding the business realities such as engineering practice, history of engineering
profession, the effectiveness of professional societies in imposing moral conduct, the procedures to be
adopted when assessing risks and psychological profiles of engineers. The information about these
facts provide understanding and background conditions which create moral problems. These facts are
also helpful in solving moral problems by using alternative ways of solutions.
These types of inquiries are said to be complementary and interrelated. Suppose an engineer
wants to tell a wrong thing in an engineering practice to his superiors, he has to undergo all these
inquiries and prepare an analysis about the problem on the basis of moral values and issues attached
to that wrong thing. Then only he can convince his superior. Otherwise his judgment may be
neglected or rejected by his superior.

2.5 Moral dilemmas

Why study engineering ethics?

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 Engineering ethics is not only teaching moral behaviour in knowing about immoral and
amoral in a set of beliefs, but also increasing the ability of engineers and other professionals to
face boldly with the moral problems arising from technological advancements, changes and other
related activities. This can be possible be imparted among the engineers, only through college
courses, seminars, etc. which are involved individual study.
Moral Dilemmas
Dilemmas are certain kind of situations in which a difficult choice has to be made.
Moral dilemmas can also be called moral problems. Moral dilemmas have two or more
foldings - moral obligations, duties, rights, goods or ideals come into disagreement with each other.
One moral principle can have two or more conflicting applications for a particular given situation.
Moral dilemmas can be occurred in so many ways. For example, suppose one gives a promise
to his friend that he will meet him on the evening of a particular day, but unfortunately on the same
day his brother has met with an accident and he has to take him to hospital.
The dilemma here consists of a conflict between the duty to keep promise and obligations to
his brother. In this situation, to solve his moral problem, he can make a phone call to his friend and
make apology for his inability to come. So, from the above it is clear that the duty to keep promise
always has two different and conflicting applications.
The moral dilemmas cannot easily be addressed or resolved always. It requires an elaborate
searching which sometimes causing extreme suffering and reflection of a situation. The modern
engineering practice compels that all the engineers have to face boldly about the moral dilemmas in
their careers.
To find a simple and clear solution to the moral problems in the field of engineering, there
must be some provision to allocate time to for learning ethics in engineering courses. But at the same
time, it should not be ignored in the following three categories of complex and gloomy moral
situations:
The Problem of Vagueness
The problem of vagueness is related to individuals. The individuals may not know how to
moral considerations or principles in resolving a moral problem at a particular situation. For example,
an engineer in a higher position of a company, is responsible and having the sole right to make
purchases on his own and behalf of the company.
There may be many suppliers for supplying materials. In this situation, a sales representative
from one of the suppliers approaches him with a moderating gift. In this case, the engineer may have
some doubts like (i) Whether this is an acceptance of a bribe? (ii) Does it create a conflict of interest?
The solution is only with that engineer. He can also discuss with his colleagues about the problem.
The colleague may find the
solution on the basis of previous experiences, - it may not be a kind of bribe, but at the same time it
should not be encouraged in future because there is the possibility of supplying substandard materials.
It is difficult to arrive at the conclusion whether the gift is an innocent amenity or an unacceptable
bribe.
The problems of Conflicting reasons
These occur more frequently. In a difficult situation of a moral problem, an individual may
clearly know about what moral principle has to be applied to resolve the problem. When it arises,
there are two or more principles with clear solutions lead into conflict with one another or one
particular moral principle.

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 Simultaneously there can be of two different directions. In this case, that individual has to
choose a better one among them on the basis of the importance and the applicability. For example, an
engineer has given a promise to his employer and another one to a colleague.
If it is difficult to fulfill both the promises, he can drop off one promise which is of least
importance. If he explains the situations to his colleagues, it can be understood.
The problems of disagreement
The individuals and groups in engineering companies may disagree with resolving moral problems in
difficult situations. The disagreement will be normally about how to interpret, apply and balance the
moral problems. In this situation they have to use the following steps to resolve the problems.
Steps / Procedures in facing / confronting moral dilemmas
All the above said three problems pave the way for the need of several steps in resolving the
moral dilemmas. All the steps are interrelated and they can also be used jointly.
1) Identifying the relevant moral factors and reasons: i.e. Finding solutions for (i) the conflicting
responsibilities (ii) the competing rights and (iii) the clashing ideals involved.
2) Collecting and gathering all the available facts which are relevant to the moral factors while
resolving.
3) Ranking the moral considerations or principles on the basis of importance as applicable to the
situation. But sometimes it is not possible when the objective is to find a way to meet equally urgent
responsibilities and to promote equally important ideals.
4) Considering alternative courses of action for resolving the problems and tracing the full
implications of each. i.e. conducting factual inquiries.

5) Having talked with the colleagues, friend about the problem getting their suggestions and
alternative ideas on resolving that dilemma and
6) Arriving at a careful and reasonable judgment or solution by taking into consideration of all
important moral factors and reasons on the basis of the facts or truths.
7) But it seems to be difficult. to conclude, only the study of Engineering Ethics can help in
developing the skills and attitudes to follow the above steps in resolving a moral problem among the
engineers and other professionals by means of case studies, discussions and debating.

2.6 Moral Autonomy

Meaning and Causes
Autonomy means self-governing or self-determining i.e act independently. Moral autonomy
means the right or the wrong conduct which is of independent on ethical issues. It deals with the
improvement of an individual’s moral thoughts which make high to adopt good habits. Moral
autonomy is concerned with the independent attitude of a person related to ethical issues. It helps to
improve the self-determination among the individuals.

The need for moral autonomy in the field of engineering ethics

The objectives of engineering ethics are not related to implanting particular moral beliefs on
engineers. In other way they help the engineers and other professionalists to strength their
professional values such as honesty, respect the colleagues and think for the welfare of the general
public. Though the above said values have been already in the minds of the engineers, engineering
ethics helps to improve these qualities in a better manner among the engineers, and not inculcating
newly. The structural objective of engineering ethics is to be enable the individuals to understand the

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moral responsibilities in a clear and careful manner. So, the main aim of studying engineering ethics
is to increase the moral autonomy within him.
Moral autonomy is a skill and habit of thinking ethical problems in a rational manner. These
ethical issues are to be found out on the basis of moral problems. These general responsiveness of
moral values are derived only from the training what we have received as a child with response to the
sensitive and right of others and ourselves. Suppose the training is not given in the childhood itself,
those children may be ill-treated or neglected by the society. These children in future may grow up
with lack of senses on moral issues and they become as sociopaths. They are never morally
autonomous. They won’t regret for their mistakes and wrong doings.
These moral concerns can be initiated or imparted among the engineers, mainly engineers of
various subjects and also by the way of their friends, or by social events occurring around them or by
books and movies. So the main aim of all the courses of Applied Ethics is only to improve their
abilities in order to face the moral issues critically. This can only be achieved by improving the
practical skills which are helping in producing effective independent or self-determination thoughts
among the individuals about the moral problems.
Skills for improving moral autonomy
1. The engineers must have the competence for identifying the moral problems and ethical issues
related to the field of engineering – they must have the ability to distinguish and relate these moral
problems with the problems of law, economics, religions principles etc. They must possess the skills
of understanding, clarifying and assessing the arguments which are against the moral issues.
2. They must have the ability to suggest the solutions to moral issues, on the basis of facts. These
suggestions must be consistent and must include all the aspects of the problem.
3. They must have the imaginative skill to view the problems from all view points and also be able to
suggest a proper alternative solution.
4. They must be able to tolerate while giving moral judgments and decisions which may cause
trouble. i.e. they have to understand the difficulties in making moral decisions.
5. They must have adequate knowledge and understanding about the use of ethical language so as to
defend or support their views with others.
6. They must have some better knowledge in understanding the importance of suggestions and better
solutions while resolving moral problems and also about the importance of tolerance on some critical
situations.
7. They must understand the importance of maintaining the moral honesty i.e. the personal
convictions and beliefs and individual’s professional life must be integrated. They must have this skill
of doing so.
Conclusion
From the above decisions on moral autonomy, we can conclude that moral autonomy helps an
engineer to increase his moral outlook in an appreciable manner. It also helps him to be morally
responsible in his daily activities.

2.7 Kohlberg’s theory

Moral Autonomy is based on the psychology of moral development. The first psychological
theory was developed by Jean Piaget. On the basis of Piaget’s theory, Lawrence kohlberg developed
three main levels of moral development which is based on the kinds of reasoning and motivation
adopted by individuals with regard to moral questions.
The Pre Conventional Level

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 It is nothing but self-centered attitude. In this level, right conduct is very essential for an
individual which directly benefits him. According to this level, individuals are motivated by their
willingness to avoid punishment, or by their desire to satisfy their own needs or by the influence of
the power exerted by them. This level is related to the moral development of children and some adults
who never want to go beyond a certain limit.
The Conventional Level
The level deals with the respect for conventional rules and authority. As per this level the
rules and norms of one’s family or group or society has been accepted as the final standard of
morality. These conventions are regarded as correct, because they represent with authority. When
individuals are under this level, always want to please/satisfy others and also to meet the expectations
of the society and not their self interest. Loyalty and close identification with others have been given
much importance. No adult tries to go beyond this level.
The Post Conventional Level
This level is said to be attained when an individual recognizes the right and the wrong on the
basis of a set of principles which governing rights and the general good which are not based on self-
interest or social conventions.
These individuals are called “autonomous”, because they only think for themselves and also
they do not agree that customs are always correct. They want to live by general principles which are
universally applied to all people. They always want to maintain their moral integrity, self-respect and
the respect for other autonomous peoples.
Kohlberg’s theory of moral development is very much related to the goals of studying ethics
at college level. To become morally responsible, an individual must be able and willing to undergo
with moral reasoning. Moral responsibility comes out of the foundation of early moral training given
by an individual’s parents and culture. This early training helps to complete the above said three
levels of moral development by an individual.
As per Kohlberg’s view only few people would reach the post conventional level which is
based on assumption that movement towards autonomous is morally desirable.

2.8 Gilligan’s theory

Gilligan’s argument
Caorl Gilligan was one of the students of Kohlberg. She criticizes Kohlberg’s theory on the
basis of approached made by both male and female towards morality. On the basis of her studies and
researches, she criticizes Kohlberg’s theory which is only based on male bias and his studies are of
typically male preoccupation with general rules and rights.
She also suggest that men are always more interested in resolving moral dilemmas by
applying some most important moral rules. But women always want to keep up the personal
relationship with all those involved in a situation and they always give attention only on the
circumstances responsible for that critical situation and not on general moral rules.
She also states that Kohlberg’s theory is only on ethics of rules and rights. But her theory is
known as ethics of care. i.e. context oriented emphasis required to maintain the personal relationship.
Levels of Moral Development
Gilligan recasts Kohlberg’s three levels of moral development on the basis of her own studies
of women, as follows:

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The Pre-Conventional Level
This is more over the same as Kohlberg’s first level i.e. Right conduct is a selfish thing as
solely one what is good for oneself.
The Conventional Level
This level differs from Kohlberg’s second level. According to her, women don’t want to hurt
others and want to help others i.e. women always want to give up their interests in order to help the
others to fulfill their needs.
The Post Conventional Level
This level is also differed from Kohlberg’s level. In this level, individual (particularly
women) want to balance between caring about other people and their interests. The main aim here is
to balance an individual’s needs with those of others on the basis of mutual caring. This can be
achieved only through context-oriented reasoning and not by abstract rules.
Heinz’s Dilemma
Gilligan’s criticism on the Kohlberg’s theory can be made very clear with the help of a
famous example used by Kohlberg in his questionaries and interviews. This is called Heinz’s
Dilemma.
This example was about a woman and Heinz, her husband living in Europe. The woman was
affected by cancer. The doctors told her to use an expensive drug to save her life.
The pharmacist who also invented that medicine charged ten times the cost of making the
drug. Besides his poverty, Heinz took a lot of effort to borrow money, but he could get only half of
the amount needed. He approached to the pharmacist and begged him to sell the medicine at a cheaper
price or allow him to pay for it later. But the pharmacist refused to do so.
Finally, without any hope, Heinz forcibly entered into the pharmacy and stolen the drug. The
question here is “Was the theft morally right or wrong?”
By asking this question among the male, Kohlberg has received two sets of answers: One is
based on the conventional level i.e. Heinz did a wrong thing. Another one is based on the post
conventional level i.e,Heinz was correct as the life of the wife is more important than the property
right of the pharmacist.
But when the same question was asked among the women, they gave (all women) same
answers. They replied that Heinz was wrong. They further told that instead of stealing the medicine,
Heinz could have tried other alternative solutions. They also told that Heinz should have convinced
still the pharmacist to get the medicine.
From the above, Kohlberg concluded that women’s decisions are always based on
conventional rule and they always have different opinions in applying the general moral rules and
principles about the right to live.
On the basis of the Kohlberg’s comment on the women, Gilligan came to a different
conclusion. She tells that it shows greater sensitivity to people and personal relationships. She
concluded that the decision taken by women is context-oriented and not on the basis of general rules
ranked inorder of priority.
Now, the question here is, how Gilligan’s theory of moral development relates to moral
autonomy as a goal of studying ethics at the college level?
Autonomy requires independent reasoning on the basis of moral concern and not separated
from other people. As per Gilligan’s theory and Kohlberg’s theory, moral autonomy should be
consistent with context-oriented and also with an awareness of general moral principles and rights.

2.9 Consensus and Controversy

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 Consensus means ‘agreement’ and ‘controversy’ means disagreement. The consensus and the
controversies are playing the vital roles while considering the moral autonomy.
When an individual exercises the moral autonomy, he cannot get the same results as others
get in applying moral autonomy. Surely there must be some moral differences i.e. the results or
verdicts will be of controversy. This kind of disagreements is unavoidable. These disagreements
require some tolerances among individuals those who are autonomous, reasonable and responsible.
As per the principle of tolerance, the goal of teaching engineering ethics is not merely
producing an agreed conformity on applying moral principles among engineers but also to reveal the
ways of promoting tolerances to apply moral autonomy.
Both the goals of engineering ethics and the goals of engineering courses have some
similarities. These similarities have to be extended with the help of exercising authority. For example,
in the class room, the teachers are having the authority over students and in the work place, the
managers are having the authority over engineers.
There are two general points regarding the relationship between autonomy and authority with
reference to the class room:
1) Moral autonomy and respect for the authority cannot be differentiated or separated from
each other. Moral autonomy is exercised on the basis of moral concern for other people and also
recognition of good moral reasons. Authority provides for the framework in which learning can take
place. It is based on the acceptance of authority by both the students and the professors. Without this
acceptance, the classes cannot be conducted in a smooth way. On the other hand, cheating will be
encouraged and the trust between faculty and the students may be reduced to some extent. These kind
of deviations are due to the absence of moral views and respect for authority. They must be coincide
with each other.
2) Generally a tension may arise among the individuals regarding the need for consensus
about authority and need for autonomy. This tension can be reduced by discussing openly regarding a
moral issue between students and faculty with the help of the authority.
In short, conflicts will arise between autonomy and authority, when the authority is misused.
For example, in small classes, the students are having the authority to express their own views. But
when the professor doesn’t allow them to do so, he misuses his authority. This will create some moral
problems between the students and the faculty.

2.10 Models of Professional Roles (Professions and Professionalism)

A professional is a member of a profession. The term also describes the standards of
education and training that prepare members of the profession with the particular knowledge and
skills necessary to perform the role of that profession. In addition, most professionals are subject to
strict codes of conduct enshrining rigorous ethical and moral obligations. Professional standards of
practice and ethics for a particular field are typically agreed upon and maintained through widely
recognized professional associations.

Definition of a Profession
"A profession is a disciplined group of individuals who adhere to ethical standards and who hold
themselves out as, and are accepted by the public as possessing special knowledge and skills in a
widely recognised body of learning derived from research, education and training at a high level, and
who are prepared to apply this knowledge and exercise these skills in the interest of others.
It is inherent in the definition of a profession that a code of ethics governs the activities of
each profession. Such codes require behaviour and practice beyond the personal moral obligations of

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an individual. They define and demand high standards of behaviour in respect to the services provided
to the public and in dealing with professional colleagues. Further, these codes are enforced by the
profession and are acknowledged and accepted by the community."
Elements of a profession
According to Krakar profession is based upon:
1. Scientific methods, disciplines, techniques, tools (THE THEORY)
2. Field of work/labour practices, market, reputation (THE PRACTICE)
3. Professional standards
4. Occupational classifications
5. Educational system(s)

6. Communication channels
7. Language (jargon)
8. Professional associations, chambers
9. Professional ethics & legislation
10. History/tradition

Meaning - to be a member of a profession

The words "profession" and "professional" come from the Latin word "professio," which
means a public declaration with the force of a promise. Professions are groups which declare in a
public way that their members promise to act in certain ways and that the group and the society may
discipline those who fail to do so. The profession presents itself to society as a social benefit and
society accepts the profession, expecting it to serve some important social goal. The profession

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usually issues a code of ethics stating the standards by which its members can be judged. The
traditional professions are medicine, law, education and clergy.
The marks of a profession are:
1. Competence in a specialized body of knowledge and skill;
2. An acknowledgment of specific duties and responsibilities toward the individuals it serves and
toward society;
3. The right to train, admit, discipline and dismiss its members for failure to sustain competence or
observe the duties and responsibilities.
Difference between a profession and a business
The line between a business and a profession is not entirely clear, since professionals may
engage in business and make a living by it. However, one crucial difference distinguishes them:
professionals have a fiduciary duty toward those they serve. This means that professionals have a
particularly stringent duty to assure that their decisions and actions serve the welfare of their patients
or clients, even at some cost to themselves. Professions have codes of ethics which specify the
obligations arising from this fiduciary duty.
Ethical problems often occur when there appears to be a conflict between these obligations or
between fiduciary duties and personal goals.
A high level of professionalism is expected when working with clients.
One may be highly respected their professionalism.
The professionalism is "the conduct, aims, or qualities that characterize or mark a
profession or a professional person"; and a profession is defined as "a calling requiring specialized
knowledge and often long and intensive academic preparation."
These definitions imply that professionalism encompasses a number of different attributes,
and, together, these attributes identify and define a professional. The attributes are
Specialized Knowledge
First and foremost, professionals are known for their specialized knowledge. They've
made a deep personal commitment to develop and improve their skills, and, where appropriate, they
have the degrees and certifications that serve as the foundation of this knowledge.
Not all business areas have a stable core of knowledge (and the academic qualifications
that go with this); not all areas demand extensive knowledge to practice successfully; and not all
professionals have top degrees in their field.
What matters, though, is that these professionals have worked in a serious, thoughtful and
sustained way to master the specialized knowledge needed to succeed in their fields; and that they
keep this knowledge up-to-date, so that they can continue to deliver the best work possible.
Competency
Professionals get the job done. They're reliable, and they keep their promises. If circumstances arise
that prevent them from delivering on their promises, they manage expectations up front, and they do
their best to make the situation right. Professionals don't make excuses, but focus on finding
solutions.
Honesty and Integrity
Professionals exhibit qualities such as honesty and integrity . They keep their word, and they can be
trusted implicitly because of this. They never compromise their values , and will do the right thing,
even when it means taking a harder road.
More than this, true professionals are humble – if a project or job falls outside their scope of
expertise, they're not afraid to admit this. They immediately ask for help when they need it, and
they're willing to learn from others.

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Accountability
Professionals hold themselves accountable for their thoughts, words, and actions, especially when
they've made a mistake. This personal accountability is closely tied to honesty and integrity, and it's a
vital element in professionalism.
Self-Regulation
They also stay professional under pressure.
For instance, imagine a customer service employee who's faced with an irate customer. Instead of
getting upset or angry in return, the employee exhibits true professionalism by maintaining a calm,
business-like demeanor, and by doing everything that she can to make the situation right.
Genuine professionals show respect for the people around them, no matter what their role or situation.
They exhibit a high degree of emotional intelligence(EI) by considering the emotions and needs of
others, and they don't let a bad day impact how they interact with colleagues or clients.
Eg. Recognized obligations and values of a professional physician
Professionalism requires that the practitioner strive for excellence in the following areas, which
should be modeled by mentors and teachers and become part of the attitudes, behaviors, and skills
integral to patient care:
Altruism: A physician is obligated to attend to the best interest of patients, rather than self-interest.
Accountability: Physicians are accountable to their patients, to society on issues of public health, and
to their profession.
Excellence: Physicians are obligated to make a commitment to life-long learning.
Duty: A physician should be available and responsive when "on call," accepting a commitment to
service within the profession and the community.
Honor and integrity: Physicians should be committed to being fair, truthful and straightforward in
their interactions with patients and the profession.
Respect for others: A physician should demonstrate respect for patients and their families, other
physicians and team members, medical students, residents and fellows.
These values should provide guidance for promoting professional behavior and for making difficult
ethical decisions.
Difference between profession and professionalism
Profession is a noun describing a job type, usually reserved for a recognized specific career,
i.e. Doctors, Lawyers, Engineers, Psychologists, Social Workers, Vets, Military Officers. It conveys
expertise and/or education.
Professionalism is an adverb. It generally describes the type of behavior that should be the
gold standard for a profession. It can, however, also be used to describe expertise in a career that is
not commonly considered a "profession." Professionalism is an adverb that can be applied to almost
any job. It can be a description of a single momentous act or used as a description of job performance
on a review.
Simply, Profession is “a set of persons using knowledge to engage in a set of activities”
Professionalism “the conduct, aims, or qualities that characterize or mark a profession or a professional
person”

2020 – 2021 14 Jeppiaar Institute of Technology

 Fig 2.2. Behaviors of Professionalism

2.11 Theories About Right Action

There are four types of theories on ethics, which help to create the fundamental principles of
obligation suitable and applicable to professional and personal conduct of a person in his everyday
life. These theories are essential for cause of right action and morality. They are:
1.“Golden mean” ethics (Aristotle, 384 –322 B.C.). The best solution is achieved through
reason and logic and is a compromise or “golden mean” between extremes of excess and deficiency.
For example, in the case of the environment, the golden mean between the extremes of neglect and
exploitation might be protection. Problem: Variability from one person to another in their powers of
reasoning and the difficulty in applying the theory to ethical problems.
2.“Rights –based” ethics (John Locke, 1632 –1704). Every person is free and equal and has
the right to life, health, liberty and possessions (in effect prohibiting capital punishment, medical
charges, jails and income taxes).Problem: One person’s right may be in conflict with another’s rights.
3.“Duty –based” ethics (Immanual Kant, 1724 –1804). Each person has a duty to follow a
course of action that would be universally acceptable for everyone to follow without exception. (Thus
we would all be honest, kind, generous and peaceful).Problem: Universal application of a rule can be
harmful.4.“Utilitarian” ethics (John Stuart Mill, 1806 –1873). The best choice is that which produces
the maximum benefit for the greatest number of people (which could endanger minority
rights).Problem: Qualification of the benefits can be difficult. All these theories can be differentiated
on the basis of what they provide for moral concept, good results for all, duties and human rights.

2.12 Self –Interest, Customs And Religion

Moral justifications and principles form a distinct category of value, which are different from
other category of values. This can be more clear by relating and contrasting moral values to three
other types of values namely self-interest, customs and religion. Focus must be made in each case,
how we can reduce morality to these types of value. Self – Interest and Ethical Egoism Self-interest is

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nothing but one’s personal good. It refers to the goodness of oneself in the long run. Each of the
ethical theories recognizes the importance of self-respect.
Utilitarian considers one’s own good as well as the good of others. Duty ethicists stresses
duties to ourselves and for won well-being. Ethicists of rights emphasize our rights to pursue our own
good. Virtue ethicists accent the importance of self –respect. Each of these theories insists that the
pursuit of self –interest must be balanced and kept under control by moral responsibilities to other
people. Now let us consider a view called “ethical Egoism” which challenges all the ethical theories
and it tries to reduce morality to the pursuit of self-interest. It is called „egoism‟, because it says that
the main duty of us is to maximize our own good.
According to Thomas Hobbes and Any Rand, moral values are reduced to concern for oneself
but always a rational concern which requires consideration of a person’s long-term interests. The
Supporters of ethical egoism make a differentiation between narrower and wider forms of self-
interest. When a person who selfishly preoccupies his own private good and disregard for the good of
others, will be off from rewarding friendships and love. Personal well-being generally requires taking
some large interest in others. But the rational egoist insists that the only reason for showing an interest
in others is for the sake of oneself. Ethical Egoists try to protect their positions by arguing that an
ironic importance of everyone rationally pursuing one’s self-interest is that everyone get benefited.
The society benefits mostly when (i) individuals pursue their private good and
(ii)corporations pursue maximum profits in a competitive free market. The main idea here is that leads
to the improvement of economy through which benefiting everyone. Because, both the individual and
the corporation know very well that what is good for them and how best to pursue that good. As per
ethical egoism, people should always and only pursue their self –interest in a very cautious manner to
value the interest rationally on the basis of facts.
Morality essentially needs a willingness on the part of both individuals and corporations to
place some restrictions on the pursuit of private self –interests. Accepting these constraints is
presupposed in what is meant by moral concern Engineering Ethics also has one task of exhibiting the
moral limits on the pursuit of self interest in the Engineering profession. The above said remarks do
not constitute a wrong proof for ethical egoism. Morality stresses that we have to give value and we
are concerned for the good of other people.
Ethical egoism is not a persuasive or probable theory to state what is morality but it is only a
convinced rejection of morality. Customs and Ethical Relativism As we live in a society which is of
increasingly diverse nature, it is more important to have tolerance for various customs and outlooks.
Hence the concept of ethical pluralism emerges. It views that there may be alternative moral attitudes
that are reasonable. But none of the moral perspectives can be accepted completely by all the rational
and the morally concerned persons. Ethical pluralism allows the customs which plays an important
role in deciding how we should act. Moral values are many, varied and flexible.
So, these moral values allow considerable variation in how different individuals and groups
understand and apply them in their day-today activities. In other words, to be precise, reasonable
persons always have reasonable disagreement on moral issues, including issues in engineering ethics.
Ethical Relativism, an objectionable view, should not be confused with Ethical Pluralism. As per
Ethical relativism says that actions are morally right when they are approved by law or custom and
they are said to be wrong when they violate laws or customs. Ethical relativism tries to reduce moral
values to laws, conventions and customs of societies. What is the necessary for a person to accept
ethical relativism? There are so many reasons for accepting ethical relativism –I. The laws and
customs seem to be definite, real and clear –cut. They help to reduce the endless disputes about right
and wrong. Moreover, laws seem to be an objective way to approach values.

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 The above argument is somewhat weak. This reason underestimates the extent to which
ordinary moral reasons are sufficiently objective to make possible criticism of individual prejudice
and bias. Moreover, moral reasons allow objective criticism of the given laws as morally in adequate.
For example, the apartheid laws (racial segregation) in south Africa. This law violated the human
rights are not given any legal protections to the majority of the blacks, but morally ought to be.
The second reason for accepting ethical relativism is because it believes the values are
subjective at the cultural level. They also state that the moral standards are varied from one culture to
another. The only kind of objectivity is relative to a given set of laws in a given society. This
relativity of morality encourages the virtue of tolerance of difference among societies. The above said
argument is also confusing one. It assumes that ethical relativism is implied by descriptive relativism.
i.e., values and beliefs differ from culture to culture. There is nothing self-certifying about the laws
and beliefs. This can be explained by the following illustration.
Ethical relativism would allow that Hitler and his followers (Nazis) acted correctly when they
killed 6 million Jews, for their laws, customs, and beliefs which were based on anti –Semitism
(hostile to Jews).So, ethical relativism refers anything but for the tolerant doctrine it pretends to be.
But there is nothing tolerant in accepting Nazi beliefs about morality Admitting in tolerant anti-
Semitic beliefs is not an act of tolerance. The supporters of ethical relativism, generally say that an
action is right “for cultures” when believe it as the right one. i.e., it is right “for them” though not “for
us”. So, beliefs, however customary or widely shared, are not self-certifying whether we are talking
about moral beliefs or scientific beliefs.
The third reason is based on the moral relationalism or moral contextulaism. This states that
moral judgments must be made in relation to some factors which varies from case to case. Making
simple and absolute rules are impossible in this way. In most of the cases, customs and laws are
considered as morally important factors for making judgments. All philosophers accepted this moral
relationalism. But contemporary duty and right ethicists like „Kant‟ do not accept. As per their views,
respecting people require some sensitiveness to special circumstances. The virtue ethicists stress the
role of practical wisdom in identifying the facts which are relevant to assessment of conduct based on
virtual manner.
The ethical relativism was accepted by early cultural anthropologists because they had a
specified tendency to overstress the scope of moral difference between cultures. Absorbed with
unusual practices such as head –hunting, human sacrifices and cannibalism (cannibal is a person who
eats human flesh); these persons who shifted their idea quickly form moral views differ greatly to
“Morality is a simply a culture as such”. But modern anthropologists states that all cultures by virtual
show some commitment to promote social co-operation and protect their members against needless
death and suffering. Moral differences are based only on the circumstances and facts, not on the
difference in moral attitudes. For example, we can consider the practice of human sacrifice in the
Aztecs. [Members of a former Indian people who ruled Mexico before the 16thcentury]. This practice
seems to be a sign of cruelty an lack of concern for life. But a full examination of their beliefs reveal
that they believed their gods are pleased by such sacrifice to ensure the survival of their people and
also it was considered an honor for the victims. Refer to the sacrifice or placing chicken and goal to
god. Religion and Divine Command Ethics Moral responsibilities and religious belief are intertwined
in many positive ways.
First, they are related historically. Our moral views have been shaped by the most known
central moral values within the major world religions. For example, the Judeo-Christian tradition has
been influential in Western countries like England, USA etc. Islam has been having a great influence

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in middle east countries such as Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Pakistan etc. Confucianism has been
influential in China and Buddhism, Hinduism and Taoism have been famous in Asian countries.
Second, most of the people still having beliefs and show some important and inevitable
psychological connections between their moral and religious beliefs. Religious views
frequentlysupportmoralresponsibilitybyprovidingadditionalmotivation for being moral. Faith in
Religions or religious hopes imply trust. This trust gives an inspiration to be moral. The main social
functions of religion is motivating right action based on ethical principles. Religion supports many
people to follow their beliefs and promote tolerance and moral concern for others. Many of the
engineers are motivated by the religious beliefs.
Thirdly, religions form a set of higher moral standards. For example, Christianity suggests
for loving neighbors. Many religions include virtue ethics that stresses about particular virtues. For
example, the ethics if Christianity focuses in the virtue of hope, faith and love. Buddhism emphasizes
a feeling of pity (compassion). Islam pressures “insane” (being religious and pursuit of
excellence).Some times, religious set standards below the level of acceptable moral standards. Some
religions do not give equal rights to women, as in Islam (particularly in Iran, Iraq). In this situation the
conflict is not only between secular morality and religion but also among other religions.
By giving stress on the positive connections between secular morality and religion, we go for
defining Divine Command ethics. It views that right action is defined by the commands of God, and
without a belief in God there could be no moral values and if an action is said to be wrong, it means
that it is forbidden by God.
The Major difficulties in Divine Command ethics are: how to know what God’s commands
are and whether God exists or not. Judaism, Christianity, Islam and Hinduism are mostly God-
centered i.e., they believe in God. But some other religions such as Buddhism, Taoism and
Confucianism calls for only faith in a right path from which code of ethics can be derived. For
example in Buddhism the right path include delight steps such as right understanding, right intention,
right intention, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness and right concentration.
Questions on the belief in God were rejected by most of he theologians,[Theology – study of
God] based on the question asked by Socrates. Socrates asked why does god make certain commands
and not others? Are these commands made on the basis of sudden fancy? The answer is surely no.
Because God is supposed to be morally good and He never commands bad acts such as irresponsible
killing, rapes, tortures and other immoralities. Suppose a man claimed that God commands him to kill
people randomly without making any religious inquiry, we can say that the main is mistaken.
Divine Command ethics has things backwards. A morally divine being commands on the
basis of moral reasons which determines the wrongness of actions and rightness of other actions.
Moral reasons are presupposed as the foundation for making certain commands. Moral reasons cannot
force hard to religious matters. Religious beliefs provides an added inspiration for responding to
moral reasons.

2.13 Uses of Ethical Theories

A theory is a kind of explanation, and an ethical theory is an attempt to explain moral values,
to provide a single and unifying statement about moral value, one that is true throughout all the
differences and conflict in moral values.

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 Ethical theory is a tool. In order to find out how or when we should use this tool, we need to
know something about our goals or purposes in ethics. Tools are always created or invented to fulfill
certain instrumental needs.
Some goals of ethical analysis
1. Exploring an issue. Just exploring it, learning about it, what it involves. Just want to satisfy our
curiosity and maybe even learn something. That's a value in itself and good enough reason for doing
ethics.
2. Getting past conflict. Resolve a dispute, get yourself and others "unstuck," by looking to multiply
options, reframe problems, discover common ground, etc.
3. Making a case. Take a side in a moral debate and defend it. Make an argument. Persuade others of
the value and correctness of your position, and to do so eloquently, showing awareness of the
concerns of others and that these are not serious drawbacks.
4. Deciding for yourself. To resolve problems for which you feel a personal urgency, a need to have
an answer, to take a stand. To settle an issue for yourself, at least for now. You want this to be careful,
creative, and give due consideration to all relevant values, inferences, and options.
Simply Ethical theories have so many uses. Out of them, the following three are the most important
uses:

1. Understanding moral dilemmas.

2. Justifying professional obligations and ideas and
3. Relating ordinary and professional morality

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