Introduc on to Communica on Engineering In analog modula on, the carrier wave is varied con nuously

according to the analog message signal.

Communica on Engineering is the branch of engineering that
deals with the transmission, recep on, and processing of (a) Amplitude Modula on (AM)
informa on through electronic systems. The informa on may
(b) Frequency Modula on (FM)
be in the form of voice, video, text, images, or data.
(c) Phase Modula on (PM)
The main goal of communica on engineering is to transfer
informa on from one place to another accurately, quickly, 2. Digital Modula on
and efficiently with minimum noise and distor on.
In digital modula on, digital data (0 and 1) is transmi ed
A basic communica on system consists of: using carrier signals.

1. Informa on Source – generates the message (a) Amplitude Shi Keying (ASK)

2. Transmi er – converts the message into suitable (b) Frequency Shi Keying (FSK)
signals
(c) Phase Shi Keying (PSK)
3. Channel – medium through which signal travels
(d) Quadrature Amplitude Modula on (QAM)
4. Receiver – receives and recovers the message
Summary
5. Des na on – final user of informa on
Communica on engineering enables transmission of
Applica ons: informa on over long distances using electronic systems.
Modula on is an essen al technique used to transmit signals
 Mobile communica on
efficiently.
 Radio and television
Digital modula on techniques are widely used in modern
 Internet and networking communica on systems because they provide be er noise
immunity, higher data rates, and efficient bandwidth
 Satellite communica on u liza on.
 Radar systems Explain the amplitude modula on technique with its all
formula in detail.
 Op cal fiber communica on
1. Amplitude Modula on (AM)
Modula on
Amplitude Modula on (AM) is a modula on technique in
Modula on is the process of varying a parameter of a high-
which the amplitude of the carrier wave is varied according
frequency carrier signal according to the low-frequency
to the instantaneous value of the message signal, while the
message signal.
frequency and phase of the carrier remain constant.
Need for modula on:
Principle of AM
 Reduces antenna size
In communica on systems, low-frequency message signals
 Increases communica on range cannot travel long distances efficiently. Therefore, the
message signal is combined with a high-frequency carrier
 Prevents mixing of signals
signal.
 Improves signal quality
In AM:
Carrier signal parameters:
 Carrier amplitude changes
 Amplitude
 Carrier frequency remains constant
 Frequency
 Carrier phase remains constant
 Phase
Carrier Signal
Types of Modula on Techniques
The carrier wave is:
1. Analog Modula on
𝑐(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos (2𝜋𝑓 𝑡)

Where:
  𝐴 = Carrier amplitude  Message cannot be recovered properly

 𝑓 = Carrier frequency Frequency Components of AM

Message Signal AM wave contains:

The modula ng/message signal is: 1. Carrier frequency 𝑓

𝑚(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos (2𝜋𝑓 𝑡) 2. Upper Side Frequency 𝑓 + 𝑓

Where: 3. Lower Side Frequency 𝑓 − 𝑓

 𝐴 = Message amplitude Thus bandwidth is: 𝐵𝑊 = 2𝑓

 𝑓 = Message frequency Where:

AM Wave Equa on  𝐵𝑊= Bandwidth

The standard equa on of amplitude modulated wave is:  𝑓 = Maximum modula ng frequency

𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴 [1 + 𝑚cos (2𝜋𝑓 𝑡)]cos (2𝜋𝑓 𝑡) AM Power Rela ons

Where: 1. Carrier Power 𝑃 =

 𝑚= Modula on index
Where:
Modula on Index (m)
 𝑅= Load resistance
Modula on index indicates the extent of modula on.
2. Sideband Power
Formula:
Power in each sideband: 𝑃 =𝑃 = 𝑃
𝐴
𝑚=
𝐴 Total sideband power: 𝑃 = 𝑃
Also from AM waveform envelope:
3. Total Power in AM
𝑉 −𝑉
𝑚= 𝑚
𝑉 +𝑉 𝑃 = 𝑃 1+
2
Where:
AM Transmission Efficiency
 𝑉 = Maximum envelope voltage Efficiency is the ra o of sideband power to total transmi ed
 𝑉 = Minimum envelope voltage power.

Condi ons of Modula on 𝑚 /2

𝜂= × 100%
1 + 𝑚 /2
1. Under Modula on
Maximum efficiency occurs at: 𝑚 = 1
When: 𝑚<1
Maximum efficiency: 𝜂 = 33.33%
 Signal is transmi ed properly
Advantages of AM
 No distor on
 Simple transmi er and receiver
2. Perfect Modula on
 Easy demodula on
When: 𝑚=1
 Low cost
 Maximum power transmission
Disadvantages of AM
 Best modula on condi on
 Poor noise immunity
3. Over Modula on
 Low efficiency
When: 𝑚>1
 Large power wastage in carrier
 Distor on occurs
Applica ons of AM  𝑓 = Message frequency

 AM radio broadcas ng Instantaneous Frequency in FM

 Aircra communica on The instantaneous frequency of FM wave is:

 Television picture transmission 𝑓 (𝑡) = 𝑓 + 𝑘 𝑚(𝑡)

 Short-wave communica on Where:

 𝑓 (𝑡)= Instantaneous frequency

Summary  𝑘 = Frequency sensi vity constant (it show how much

carrier frequency change for a given message signal amplitude)
Amplitude Modula on is a technique in which the amplitude
of a high-frequency carrier signal varies according to the FM Wave Equa on
message signal. AM consists of carrier and two sidebands. It
The standard equa on of FM wave is:
is simple and inexpensive but has low efficiency and is easily
affected by noise. 𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos [2𝜋𝑓 𝑡 + 𝛽sin (2𝜋𝑓 𝑡)]
Explain the frequency modula on technique with its all Where:
formula in detail.
 𝐴 = Carrier amplitude
2. Frequency Modula on (FM)
 𝑓 = Carrier frequency
Frequency Modula on (FM) is a modula on technique in
which the frequency of the carrier wave is varied according  𝑓 = Message frequency
to the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal, while
 𝛽= Modula on index of FM
the amplitude and phase of the carrier remain constant.
Frequency Devia on
FM is widely used because it provides be er noise immunity
and high-quality sound transmission. Frequency devia on is the maximum change in carrier
frequency due to modula on.
Principle of FM
Formula: Δ𝑓 = 𝑘 𝐴
In FM:
Where:
 Carrier frequency changes
 Δ𝑓= Frequency devia on
 Carrier amplitude remains constant
Modula on Index of FM
 Carrier phase remains constant
The modula on index in FM is defined as:
When message signal amplitude increases, carrier frequency
increases. Δ𝑓
𝛽=
When message signal amplitude decreases, carrier frequency 𝑓
decreases.
Where:
Carrier Signal
 𝛽= FM modula on index
The carrier wave is: 𝑐(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos (2𝜋𝑓 𝑡)
 Δ𝑓= Frequency devia on
Where:
 𝑓 = Modula ng frequency
 𝐴 = Carrier amplitude
Types of FM
 𝑓 = Carrier frequency
1. Narrow Band FM (NBFM)
Message Signal
Condi on: 𝛽<1
The message signal is: 𝑚(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos (2𝜋𝑓 𝑡)
Characteris cs:
Where:
 Small bandwidth
 𝐴 = Message amplitude
 Used in mobile communica on
2. Wide Band FM (WBFM) Difference Between AM and FM

Condi on: 𝛽>1 Parameter AM FM

Characteris cs:
Quan ty varied Amplitude Frequency
 Large bandwidth
Noise immunity Poor Good
 Be er sound quality
Bandwidth Small Large
 Used in FM broadcas ng
Sound quality Low High
Bandwidth of FM
Power efficiency Low Be er
FM bandwidth is calculated using Carson’s Rule:

𝐵𝑊 = 2(Δ𝑓 + 𝑓 ) Summary : FM provides be er sound quality and high noise

immunity, making it suitable for modern radio and
Where: communica on systems.

 𝐵𝑊= Bandwidth of FM signal

Power in FM 3. Phase Modula on (PM)

In FM: Phase Modula on (PM) is a modula on technique in which

the phase of the carrier signal is varied according to the
 Total transmi ed power remains constant
instantaneous amplitude of the message signal, while the
 Power does not depend on modula on index amplitude and frequency of the carrier remain constant.

Total power: PM is a type of angle modula on and is closely related to

Frequency Modula on (FM).
𝐴
𝑃 =
2𝑅 Principle of PM

Where: In PM:

 𝑅= Load resistance  Carrier phase changes

Advantages of FM  Carrier amplitude remains constant

1. Be er noise immunity  Carrier frequency remains constant

2. High fidelity sound When the message signal changes, the phase angle of the
carrier changes propor onally.
3. Constant transmi ed power
Carrier Signal
4. Less distor on
The carrier signal is:
Disadvantages of FM
𝑐(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos (2𝜋𝑓 𝑡)
1. Requires larger bandwidth
Where:
2. Complex transmi er and receiver
 𝐴 = Carrier amplitude
3. More costly than AM

Applica ons of FM  𝑓 = Carrier frequency

Message Signal
 FM radio broadcas ng
The modula ng signal is:
 Television sound transmission
𝑚(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos (2𝜋𝑓 𝑡)
 Mobile communica on
Where:
 Satellite communica on
 𝐴 = Message amplitude
 Radar systems
 𝑓 = Message frequency
 Frequency Devia on in PM

PM Wave Equa on Maximum frequency devia on is:

The standard equa on of phase modulated wave is: Δ𝑓 = 𝑘 𝐴 𝑓

𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓 𝑡 + 𝑘 𝑚(𝑡) Where:

Where:  Δ𝑓= Frequency devia on

 𝐴 = Carrier amplitude Bandwidth of PM

 𝑓 = Carrier frequency Bandwidth of PM is approximately given by Carson’s Rule:

 𝑘 = Phase sensi vity constant 𝐵𝑊 = 2(Δ𝑓 + 𝑓 )

 𝑚(𝑡)= Message signal Subs tu ng Δ𝑓:

For Sinusoidal Message Signal 𝐵𝑊 = 2𝑓 (𝑘 𝐴 + 1)

If: 𝑚(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos (2𝜋𝑓 𝑡) Power in PM

Then PM signal becomes: In PM:

𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓 𝑡 + 𝑚 cos (2𝜋𝑓 𝑡)  Total transmi ed power remains constant

Where:  Amplitude of carrier remains unchanged

 𝑚 = Phase modula on index Total power: 𝑃 =

Modula on Index of PM Where:

The modula on index of PM is:  𝑅= Load resistance

𝑚 =𝑘 𝐴 Advantages of PM

Where: 1. Be er noise immunity than AM

 𝑚 = Phase modula on index 2. Constant transmi ed power

 𝑘 = Phase sensi vity 3. Used in digital communica on

 𝐴 = Amplitude of message signal 4. Improved signal quality

Unit: Disadvantages of PM

 Radian 1. Complex circuitry

Instantaneous Phase 2. Large bandwidth requirement

The instantaneous phase of PM wave is: 3. Difficult demodula on

𝜃 (𝑡) = 2𝜋𝑓 𝑡 + 𝑘 𝑚(𝑡) Applica ons of PM

Where:  Satellite communica on

 𝜃 (𝑡)= Instantaneous phase  Mobile communica on

Instantaneous Frequency in PM  Digital transmission systems

Instantaneous frequency is:  Radar systems

𝑘 𝑑𝑚(𝑡)  Telemetry
𝑓 (𝑡) = 𝑓 +
2𝜋 𝑑𝑡
This shows:

 Frequency varia on depends on the rate of change

of message signal.
Difference Between FM and PM 1. Frequency Division Mul plexing (FDM)

Parameter FM PM In FDM, the total bandwidth is divided into several frequency

bands, and each signal is transmi ed simultaneously using
Quan ty varied Frequency Phase different carrier frequencies.

Modula on Depends on frequency Depends on message Each user gets a separate frequency band.
index devia on amplitude
Working of FDM
Frequency  Different message signals modulate different carrier
Independent of 𝑓 Depends on 𝑓
devia on frequencies.

Complexity Moderate Higher  All modulated signals are combined.

 Signals travel simultaneously through the same

channel.
Summary
 At receiver, filters separate each signal.
Phase Modula on (PM) is an angle modula on technique in
which the phase of the carrier wave changes according to the FDM Formula
message signal. PM provides be er noise immunity and
Total bandwidth required:
constant transmi ed power. It is widely used in modern
digital and satellite communica on systems. 𝐵𝑊 = 𝐵𝑊 + 𝐵𝑊 + 𝐵𝑊 + ⋯ + 𝐺𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑠

Where:

Mul plexing in Analog Communica on  𝐵𝑊= Bandwidth of each channel

Mul plexing is a technique in which mul ple signals are Advantages of FDM
combined and transmi ed through a single communica on
channel to improve channel u liza on and reduce 1. Simultaneous transmission possible
transmission cost. 2. No synchroniza on needed
The device used at transmi ng side is called: 3. Simple opera on for analog signals
 Mul plexer (MUX) Disadvantages of FDM
The device used at receiving side is called: 1. Requires large bandwidth
 Demul plexer (DEMUX) 2. Crosstalk may occur
Need for Mul plexing 3. Guard bands waste bandwidth
1. Efficient use of bandwidth Applica ons of FDM
2. Reduces communica on cost  Radio broadcas ng
3. Allows mul ple users to share one channel  Television transmission
4. Increases transmission capacity  Cable TV networks
Basic Block Diagram 2. Time Division Mul plexing (TDM)
Input Signals → Mul plexer → Communica on Channel → In TDM, mul ple signals share the same communica on
Demul plexer → Output Signals channel but at different me intervals.
Types of Mul plexing in Analog Communica on Each user gets a fixed me slot.
Main analog mul plexing techniques are: Working of TDM
1. Frequency Division Mul plexing (FDM)  Signals are sampled sequen ally.
2. Time Division Mul plexing (TDM)
 Each signal transmits during its allo ed me slot.
3. Wavelength Division Mul plexing (WDM)
  Receiver reconstructs original signals using 3. Efficient use of op cal fiber
synchroniza on.
Disadvantages of WDM
TDM Formula
1. Expensive system
Sampling frequency condi on:
2. Complex design
𝑓 ≥ 2𝑓
Applica ons of WDM
 𝑓 = Sampling frequency
 Op cal fiber communica on
 𝑓 = Maximum message frequency
 High-speed internet
This is based on Nyquist sampling theorem.
 Long-distance communica on
Types of TDM
Difference Between FDM and TDM
(a) Synchronous TDM
Parameter FDM TDM
 Fixed me slots assigned.
Basis Frequency division Time division
(b) Asynchronous TDM
Transmission Simultaneous Sequen al
 Time slots assigned only when needed.

Advantages of TDM Guard bands Required Not required

1. Efficient bandwidth u liza on Synchroniza on Not required Required

2. No guard bands required Summary

3. Suitable for digital communica on Mul plexing is used to transmit mul ple signals through a
single channel efficiently.
Disadvantages of TDM
Main techniques:
1. Synchroniza on required
1. FDM – signals separated by frequency
2. Complex circuitry
2. TDM – signals separated by me
Applica ons of TDM
3. WDM – signals separated by wavelength
 Telephone systems
Mul plexing improves bandwidth u liza on, reduces cost,
 Digital communica on
and increases communica on efficiency in modern
 Computer networks communica on systems.

3. Wavelength Division Mul plexing (WDM)

WDM is used in op cal fiber communica on where mul ple Modulators in Analog Modula on
op cal signals are transmi ed using different wavelengths of
A modulator is an electronic circuit or device that combines
light.
the message signal with a high-frequency carrier signal to
It is similar to FDM but uses light wavelengths instead of produce a modulated wave.
frequencies.
In analog communica on, modulators are mainly classified
Working of WDM according to the type of modula on:

 Different op cal signals use different wavelengths. 1. AM Modulator

 Op cal mul plexer combines signals. 2. FM Modulator

 Receiver separates wavelengths using op cal filters. 3. PM Modulator

Advantages of WDM 1. Amplitude Modulator (AM Modulator)

An AM modulator produces amplitude modulated
1. Very high data transmission rate signals by varying the amplitude of the carrier wave
according to the message signal.
2. Large communica on capacity
Principle of AM Modulator Balanced modulator suppresses the carrier and produces only
sidebands.
 Carrier amplitude changes with message signal.
Output:
 Frequency and phase remain constant.
𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴 𝐴 cos (2𝜋𝑓 𝑡)cos (2𝜋𝑓 𝑡)
AM equa on:
Using trigonometric iden ty:
𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴 [1 + 𝑚cos (2𝜋𝑓 𝑡)]cos (2𝜋𝑓 𝑡)
𝐴 𝐴
Where: 𝑠(𝑡) = [cos 2𝜋(𝑓 + 𝑓 )𝑡 + cos 2𝜋(𝑓 − 𝑓 )𝑡]
2
 𝐴 = Carrier amplitude Advantages

 𝑓 = Carrier frequency 1. Be er power efficiency

 𝑓 = Message frequency 2. Carrier suppression possible

 𝑚= Modula on index Applica ons

Types of AM Modulators  DSB-SC genera on

(a) Square Law Modulator  SSB communica on

It uses nonlinear characteris cs of electronic devices like 2. Frequency Modulator (FM Modulator)
diodes or transistors.
FM modulator produces frequency modulated signals by
Output contains: varying carrier frequency according to message signal.

 Carrier component FM Equa on

 Sideband components 𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos [2𝜋𝑓 𝑡 + 𝛽sin (2𝜋𝑓 𝑡)]

Advantages Where:

1. Simple design  𝛽= FM modula on index

2. Low cost Types of FM Modulators

Disadvantages (a) Direct FM Modulator

1. Distor on occurs Carrier frequency changes directly according to message

signal.
2. Low efficiency
Methods:
(b) Switching Modulator
1. Reactance Modulator
In this modulator, transistor acts as a switch controlled by
carrier signal. 2. Varactor Diode Modulator

 Message signal mul plies with switching carrier. Reactance Modulator

 Produces AM output. Uses transistor or FET to vary reactance of oscillator circuit.

Advantages Frequency devia on: Δ𝑓 = 𝑘 𝐴

1. Be er efficiency Varactor Diode Modulator

2. Simple implementa on Uses variable capacitance diode.

Disadvantages  Reverse voltage changes capacitance.

1. Harmonics produced  Oscillator frequency changes accordingly.

2. Filtering required Advantages of Direct FM

1. Simple design

(c) Balanced Modulator 2. Good frequency stability

Disadvantages Comparison of Analog Modulators

1. Limited frequency devia on Parameter

Modulator Amplitude Frequency Phase
Varied
2. Nonlinear distor on possible

(b) Indirect FM Modulator AM

Amplitude Changes Constant Constant
Modulator
Based on Armstrong method.
FM
Steps: Frequency Constant Changes Constant
Modulator
1. Generate PM signal
PM
Phase Constant Constant Changes
2. Integrate message signal Modulator

3. Convert PM into FM

Advantages Applica ons of Analog Modulators

1. Be er frequency stability  Radio broadcas ng
2. High-quality FM genera on  Television systems
Disadvantages
 Satellite communica on
1. Complex circuitry
 Mobile communica on

 Radar systems
3. Phase Modulator (PM Modulator)
Summary
PM modulator varies the phase of the carrier signal according
Analog modulators are electronic circuits used to generate
to the message signal.
modulated signals for communica on systems.
PM Equa on 𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓 𝑡 + 𝑘 𝑚(𝑡)
Main types:
Types of PM Modulators 1. AM Modulator → changes amplitude
(a) Direct PM Modulator 2. FM Modulator → changes frequency
 Message signal directly changes phase of carrier. 3. PM Modulator → changes phase
 Uses phase shi ing circuits. These modulators are essen al for efficient transmission of
Modula on Index signals over long distances in communica on engineering.

𝑚 =𝑘 𝐴

(b) Indirect PM Modulator Demodulator

Generated using FM methods and differen ator circuits. A demodulator is an electronic circuit used to recover the
original message signal from the modulated carrier wave at
Advantages of PM Modulator the receiver side.

1. Be er noise immunity Demodula on is the reverse process of modula on.

2. Constant transmi ed power Types of Demodulators

Disadvantages Main types are:

1. Complex implementa on 1. AM Demodulators

2. Large bandwidth required 2. FM Demodulators

3. PM Demodulators
1. AM Demodulators (b) Square Law Detector

AM demodulators recover the message signal from an AM Uses nonlinear characteris cs of diode or transistor.
wave.
Working
Main types:
 Input AM signal passes through nonlinear device.
1. Envelope Detector
 Squaring ac on produces message component.
2. Square Law Detector
 Low pass filter extracts message signal.
3. Product Detector
Advantages
(a) Envelope Detector
1. Useful for low-level signals
Envelope detector is the simplest and most widely used AM
demodulator. Disadvantages

It consists of: 1. Limited linearity

2. Distor on possible
 Diode
(c) Product Detector
 Capacitor
Also called synchronous detector.
 Resistor
Working
Working
 Received AM signal mul plied with locally generated
 Diode rec fies AM signal.
carrier.
 Capacitor charges to peak value.
 Low pass filter extracts message signal.
 Capacitor discharges through resistor.
Equa on
 Output follows envelope of AM wave.
𝒔(𝒕) = 𝒎(𝒕)𝐜𝐨𝐬 (𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕) × 𝐜𝐨𝐬 (𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕)
Condi on for Proper Detec on
A er filtering:
𝟏 𝟏
≪ 𝑹𝑪 ≪ 𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 ∝ 𝒎(𝒕)
𝒇𝒄 𝒇𝒎

Where:
Advantages
 𝒇𝒄 = Carrier frequency
1. Be er performance
 𝒇𝒎 = Message frequency
2. Used for DSB-SC and SSB
 𝑹𝑪= Time constant
Disadvantages
Advantages
1. Complex circuitry
1. Simple and inexpensive
2. Requires synchroniza on
2. Easy implementa on
2. FM Demodulators
Disadvantages
FM demodulators recover message signal from frequency
1. Works only for standard AM
modulated wave.
2. Distor on during over modula on
Main types:
Applica ons
1. Slope Detector
 AM radio receivers
2. Foster-Seeley Discriminator

3. Ra o Detector

4. PLL Detector
(a) Slope Detector (d) PLL Demodulator

Converts frequency varia ons into amplitude varia ons. Uses Phase Locked Loop for FM detec on.

Working Working

 FM signal applied to tuned circuit. 1. PLL locks onto FM input signal.

 Frequency devia on produces amplitude varia on. 2. VCO tracks frequency changes.

 Envelope detector recovers message signal. 3. Error voltage becomes message signal.

Advantages PLL Equa on

1. Simple circuit 𝑓 =𝑓 +𝑘 𝑉

Disadvantages Where:

1. Poor linearity  𝑓 = Output frequency

2. Sensi ve to noise  𝑉 = Control voltage

Advantages

(b) Foster-Seeley Discriminator 1. Excellent noise immunity

Widely used FM demodulator. 2. High stability

Working 3. Accurate demodula on

 Uses transformer and diodes. Applica ons

 Frequency changes converted into voltage  Modern FM receivers

varia ons.
 Communica on systems
 Output propor onal to frequency devia on.

Advantages
3. PM Demodulators
1. Good linearity
PM demodulators recover message signal from phase
2. Be er output quality modulated signals.

Disadvantages Main methods:

1. Sensi ve to amplitude noise 1. Phase discriminator

2. Requires limiter stage 2. PLL detector

PM Detec on Using PLL

(c) Ra o Detector  PM signal applied to PLL.

Improved version of Foster-Seeley discriminator.  Phase difference generates error voltage.

Working  Output gives message signal.

 Uses diode network and capacitor.

 Removes amplitude varia ons automa cally.

Advantages

1. Be er noise immunity

2. No limiter required

Disadvantages

1. Complex design
Summary Basic Digital Communica on System

Demodulators are circuits used to recover the original Binary Data → Modulator → Channel → Demodulator →
informa on signal from modulated waves. Output Data

Main types:

1. AM Demodulators Types of Digital Modula on Techniques

o Envelope detector Main digital modula on techniques are:

o Square law detector 1. Amplitude Shi Keying (ASK)

o Product detector 2. Frequency Shi Keying (FSK)

2. FM Demodulators 3. Phase Shi Keying (PSK)

o Slope detector 4. Quadrature Amplitude Modula on (QAM)

o Foster-Seeley discriminator

o Ra o detector 1. Amplitude Shi Keying (ASK)

o PLL detector In ASK, the amplitude of the carrier signal changes according
to binary data while frequency and phase remain constant.
3. PM Demodulators
 Binary 1 → High amplitude
o Phase discriminator
 Binary 0 → Low amplitude or no carrier
o PLL detector

PLL demodulators are widely used in modern communica on

systems because of their high accuracy and noise immunity. ASK Equa on

2. Digital Modula on Techniques 𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴 𝑚(𝑡)cos (2𝜋𝑓 𝑡)

Digital modula on is the process of transmi ng digital data Where:

(binary 0 and 1) by varying the parameters of a high-
 𝐴 = Carrier amplitude
frequency carrier signal.
 𝑓 = Carrier frequency
The carrier parameters changed are:
 𝑚(𝑡)= Binary signal
1. Amplitude

2. Frequency
Working of ASK
3. Phase
 Carrier transmi ed for bit 1
Digital modula on is widely used in modern communica on
systems because it provides:  Carrier absent or reduced for bit 0

 Be er noise immunity Advantages

 High data rate 1. Simple circuit

 Efficient bandwidth u liza on 2. Low cost

Need for Digital Modula on 3. Easy implementa on

1. Reliable communica on Disadvantages

2. High-speed data transmission 1. Poor noise immunity

3. Be er security 2. Less reliable

4. Efficient bandwidth usage 3. Low power efficiency

5. Less effect of noise

Applica ons For binary 0:

 Op cal communica on 𝑠 (𝑡) = 𝐴 cos (2𝜋𝑓 𝑡 + 𝜋)

 Remote controls Types of PSK

 RFID systems 1. BPSK

2. QPSK

2. Frequency Shi Keying (FSK) 3. DPSK

In FSK, the frequency of the carrier changes according to 4. 8-PSK ,16 -PSK etc. (m-ary PSK)
binary data while amplitude remains constant.
Advantages
 Binary 1 → Frequency 𝑓
1. High noise immunity
 Binary 0 → Frequency 𝑓 2. Efficient bandwidth usage
FSK Equa ons 3. Be er performance
For binary 1: Disadvantages
𝑠 (𝑡) = 𝐴 cos (2𝜋𝑓 𝑡) 1. Complex receiver
For binary 0:
2. Synchroniza on required
𝑠 (𝑡) = 𝐴 cos (2𝜋𝑓 𝑡)
Applica ons
Advantages
 Wi-Fi
1. Be er noise immunity than ASK
 Satellite communica on
2. Constant amplitude
 Bluetooth
3. Reliable transmission
 Mobile communica on
Disadvantages

1. Larger bandwidth required

4. Quadrature Amplitude Modula on (QAM)
2. Complex circuitry
QAM combines:
Applica ons
 Amplitude modula on
 Radio communica on
 Phase modula on
 Caller ID systems
Both amplitude and phase are varied simultaneously.
 Wireless modems
QAM Equa on

𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐼(𝑡)cos (2𝜋𝑓 𝑡) + 𝑄(𝑡)sin (2𝜋𝑓 𝑡)

3. Phase Shi Keying (PSK)
Where:
In PSK, the phase of the carrier signal changes according to
 𝐼(𝑡)= In-phase component
binary data while amplitude and frequency remain constant.
 𝑄(𝑡)= Quadrature component
Binary Phase Shi Keying (BPSK)
Types of QAM
 Binary 1 → Phase 0∘
1. 16-QAM
 Binary 0 → Phase 180∘
2. 64-QAM
PSK Equa ons
3. 256-QAM
For binary 1:
Higher QAM levels provide:
𝑠 (𝑡) = 𝐴 cos (2𝜋𝑓 𝑡)
  Higher data rates  Mobile communica on

 Be er bandwidth efficiency  Satellite communica on

Advantages  Internet and Wi-Fi

1. Very high data rate  Television broadcas ng

2. Excellent bandwidth efficiency  Op cal fiber communica on

3. Used in modern communica on systems Summary

Disadvantages ASK- Simplest but noisy

1. Sensi ve to noise FSK- Be er noise unity

2. Complex implementa on PSK- Most widely use

Applica ons QAM- Higher data rate (4g,5g)

 4G and 5G networks GMSK- Used in GSM (2g)

 Broadband internet

 Cable TV Digital Mul plexing

 Wi-Fi systems Digital Mul plexing is a technique in which mul ple digital
signals are combined and transmi ed through a single
Comparison of Digital Modula on Techniques
communica on channel to improve bandwidth u liza on and
Parameter Noise Bandwidth communica on efficiency.
Technique
Changed Immunity Efficiency At the transmi er:

ASK Amplitude Poor Low  Mul plexer (MUX) combines signals.

FSK Frequency Good Medium At the receiver:

PSK Phase Very Good High  Demul plexer (DEMUX) separates signals.

Need for Digital Mul plexing

Amplitude +
QAM Good Very High
Phase 1. Efficient use of bandwidth

MSK/GMSK Freq/phase high high 2. Reduces transmission cost

3. Allows mul ple users to share one channel

Advantages of Digital Modula on 4. Increases communica on capacity

1. Be er noise immunity 5. Improves data transmission efficiency

2. High-speed communica on Basic Block Diagram

3. Secure transmission Digital Inputs → Mul plexer → Communica on Channel →

Demul plexer → Original Outputs
4. Efficient bandwidth u liza on
Types of Digital Mul plexing
5. Supports modern digital systems
Main digital mul plexing techniques are:
Disadvantages of Digital Modula on
1. Time Division Mul plexing (TDM)
1. Complex circuitry
2. Sta s cal Time Division Mul plexing (STDM)
2. Synchroniza on required
3. Code Division Mul plexing (CDM/CDMA)
3. Higher implementa on cost
4. Orthogonal Frequency Division Mul plexing (OFDM)
Applica ons of Digital Modula on
1. Time Division Mul plexing (TDM) 2. Sta s cal Time Division Mul plexing (STDM)

In TDM, mul ple digital signals share the same STDM is an advanced form of TDM where bandwidth is
communica on channel but transmit in different me slots. allocated dynamically according to demand.

Each user gets a fixed me interval. Only ac ve users get transmission slots.

Working of TDM Features

 Signals are sampled sequen ally.  Dynamic slot alloca on

 Each signal occupies a specific me slot.  Uses buffer memory

 Signals are transmi ed one a er another rapidly.  Higher channel efficiency

 Receiver separates signals using synchroniza on. Advantages

Sampling Condi on 1. Efficient channel u liza on

Based on Nyquist theorem: 𝑓 ≥ 2𝑓 2. Reduced idle me

Types of TDM Disadvantages

(a) Synchronous TDM 1. Complex control system

 Fixed me slots assigned to each user. 2. Delay possible during heavy traffic

 Slots remain reserved even if no data is transmi ed. Applica ons

Advantages  Data communica on

1. Simple design  Internet networks

2. Easy synchroniza on

Disadvantages 3. Code Division Mul plexing (CDM/CDMA)

1. Bandwidth wastage possible In CDMA, mul ple users share the same bandwidth
simultaneously using unique codes.
(b) Asynchronous TDM (Sta s cal TDM)
Each user has a unique spreading code.
 Time slots assigned only when data is available.
Working of CDMA
 More efficient than synchronous TDM.
 Data mul plied with unique code sequence.
Advantages
 Signals transmi ed simultaneously.
1. Be er bandwidth u liza on
 Receiver uses same code to recover desired signal.
2. Higher efficiency
CDMA Equa on
Disadvantages
Transmi ed signal: 𝑆(𝑡) = 𝐷(𝑡) × 𝐶(𝑡)
1. Complex circuitry
Where:
2. Buffer memory required
 𝐷(𝑡)= Data signal
Applica ons of TDM
 𝐶(𝑡)= Code sequence
 Telephone networks
Advantages
 PCM systems
1. High security
 Computer communica on
2. Be er noise immunity

3. Mul ple users simultaneously

Disadvantages Difference Between TDM and CDMA

1. Complex receiver Parameter TDM CDMA

2. Synchroniza on required
Basis Time slots Unique codes
Applica ons
Users One at a me Simultaneous
 3G mobile communica on
Synchroniza on Required Complex
 Satellite communica on
Efficiency Moderate High
 Military communica on

Advantages of Digital Mul plexing

4. Orthogonal Frequency Division Mul plexing (OFDM)
1. Efficient bandwidth usage
OFDM is a modern mul plexing technique in which data is
transmi ed using mul ple orthogonal subcarriers. 2. Be er communica on quality

Working of OFDM 3. High-speed transmission

 Data divided into many low-rate streams. 4. Reduced transmission cost

 Each stream transmi ed on separate orthogonal 5. Supports mul ple users

carrier.
Disadvantages of Digital Mul plexing
 Reduces interference and improves efficiency.
1. Complex circuitry
OFDM Equa on
2. Synchroniza on needed

𝑠(𝑡) = 𝑋 𝑒 3. Expensive equipment

Where: Applica ons of Digital Mul plexing

 Mobile communica on
 𝑋 = Data symbol
 Internet communica on
 𝑓 = Subcarrier frequency

Advantages  Satellite systems

1. High spectral efficiency  Fiber op c networks

2. Resistant to mul path fading  Television broadcas ng

3. High-speed data transmission

Disadvantages Summary

1. Complex implementa on Digital mul plexing combines mul ple digital signals into one
communica on channel for efficient transmission.
2. High peak-to-average power ra o
Main techniques:
Applica ons
1. TDM – uses me slots
 Wi-Fi
2. STDM – dynamic me alloca on
 4G/5G communica on
3. CDMA – uses unique codes
 Digital TV broadcas ng
4. OFDM – uses orthogonal subcarriers

Modern communica on systems like Wi-Fi, 4G, 5G, and fiber

op c communica on widely use digital mul plexing
techniques.