COMPLETE DIGITAL NOTES On AAR eee cra Rea Cam ead PERFECT FOR eee) Coats Beets) Poeun Corsi CMe} BeeldSeonreurs GY matterath a SSC CULT OFFICIAL “8 Matter) Va ><. aS easy ELEMENT + made up of one type of atoms or particles. * Example : Copper, Oxygen, Hydrogen, Gold, etc. ZB Metals & Metalloids pi Nonmetals ‘* Elements that are * Elements that have * Elements that are typically hard, shiny, properties intermediate generally poor malleable, ductile, and between metals and conductors of heat and good conductors of heat nonmetals. electricity and lack the and electricity, properties of metals. * For example : Iron (Fe), | | © For example : Silicon + For example : Carbon Copper (Cu), Gold (Au), i), Boron (B), Arsenic (C), Sulfur (S), Oxygen Aluminum (A). (As), Germanium (Ge). (0), Nitrogen (N) COMPOUND * Have fixed composition that can be broken down into elements by chemical or electrochemical reactions. * For example: water, sugar, salt, etc. RSS <>} Homogeneous Mixture (Solution) sj] * Components are uniformly mixed, and the mixture appears as a single phase SS + Example: Saltwater, air, vinegar. water. Solution of iodine in alcohol known as Tincture of iodine :~ Antiseptic Solution =f Heterogeneous Mixture * Components are not uniformly mixed wa + Example: Sand and water, oil and 4 (+ Melting (Solid — Liquid) Go * Freezing (Liquid + Solid) 2 ©) * Vaporization (Liquid > Gas) = ©) * Condensation (Gas — Liquid) * Sublimation (Solid —> Gas directly, x eg,, Dry ice (Solid CO2), Camphor, a .. i Naphthalene, Ammonium chloride) — Deposition ( Gas —> Solid ) Liquid‘SSC CULT OFFICIAL Process by which a liquid changes into a gas at any temperature (not just boiling point). Factors increasing evaporation if more: ‘© Surface area © Temperature + Wind speed ‘* Humidity (decreases evaporation if more) ‘Dispersed phase- The dispersed phase is the substance that is dispersed in a medium. * Dispersion medium- The medium in which the dispersed phase is dispersed. (na starch solution, the starch is the dispersed phase and the water is the dispersion medium. } SESE = a Liquid Gos Aerosol Fog, clouds, mist oo. Ea ea Se eee reteset 7 = me a eo Qi ane me ae Wass a sev vw Mik of magne, mud (ay |S | ce eee Sai =o a Bicad oe Cae esc ae eeee rafal eT ares a aes aa Solute: The substance being dissolved (e.g., salt). Solvent: The substance that dissolves the solute (e.g., water). Concentration: The amount of solute dissolved in a given amount of solvent, Saturated Solution: Contains the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve at a given temperature. Unsaturated Solution: Can dissolve more solute or solution below the saturation level Filtration: Used to separate solids from liquids (e.g., separating sand from water), lation: Used to separate miscible liquids with different boiling points. (e.g., separating water from alcohol). Fractional distillation: If boiling point difference b/w liquids is less than 25 Kelvin. (e.g..- crude oil, ethanol & water Separating funnel: To separate mixture containing two immiscible liquids, (e.g. oil and water Chromatography: Used to separate substances based on their solubility and affinity to a medium (e-g., separating dyes). Evaporation: Used to separate a solute from a solvent (e.g., evaporating water to leave salt behind). Sieving: Used to separate particles based on size (e.g., separating grains from husk). Magnetic Separation: Used to separate magnetic substances (e.g., separating iron filings from sand).‘SSC CULT OFFICIAL ‘© Brownian Motion (1827) The random motion of particles suspended in a fluid (liquid = or gas). * Plasma - Fourth state of matter discovered by Sir William Crookes in 1879 Fifth state of matter is Bose-Einstein condensate (BEC) © The existence of BECs was predicted by physicists Albert Einstein and Satyendra Nath Bose in the 1920s First created in 1995 by scientists Eric Cornell and Carl Wieman. They were awarded Nobel Prize in Physics in 2001. BEC occurs at extremely low temperatures near absolute zero. © Gas used in cooking cylinder - Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG) © Gas in balloons - Hydrogen and Helium * Gas inside a bulb - Neon gas * Boiling point of water - 100°C / 373 K ‘© Freezing point of water - 0°C / 273 K * Kelvin (K) and Celsius (°C) Relationship: °C + 273.15 ae © Fahrenheit (°F) and Celsius (°C) Relationship: = F = (9/5 x °C) + 32 [ The Fahrenheit and Celsius scales have one point at which they intersect. They are equal at ~40 °C and -40 °F } IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS * Glycol is added to aviation gasoline because it prevents freezing of petrol ‘+ Which gas is used as a fire extinguisher? -- Carbon Dioxide ‘* Which fuel has a calorific value equal to petrol? -- Kerosene ‘* Highest percentage of carbon (90%) and lowest percentage of volatile material is found in which form of coal? -- Anthracite ‘© The major constituent of Gobar gas / Biogas/ Natural gas /Marsh gas is ~ Methane ‘* The major constituent in the LPG (Liquified Petroleum Gas) is -- Butane © Which fibre catches fire least? -- Cotton ‘© Which fuel has maximum calorific value? -- Hydrogen ‘* Which gas in its solid state is also known as dry ice? -- Carbon Dioxide ‘© Water gas is the combination of -- CO and H, ‘© The depletion of ozone layer is due to -- Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) ‘* Which ions are responsible for the hardness of water? -- Calcium and Magnesium ions © Greenhouse effect / Global warming is caused by -- Carbon Dioxide,Carbon monoxide, methane ‘© The constituents of automobile exhaust that can cause cancer or mental disease and pollutes the air of a big city? -- Lead © The metallic constituents of hard water are -- Calcium, Magnesium and IronSeema Heavy water is -- Deuterium Oxide (D,0) om The highest volume of gases in lower atmosphere is comprised of -- Nitrogen Identify the element that is most prolific in the crust of the earth. -- Oxygen a The mixture of flammable (carbon monoxide and hydrogen) and non-flammable gases (nitrogen and carbon dioxide) is called by what name?-- Producer Gas Nitrogen is not a GreenHouse gas. Ozone layer in the upper parts of the atmosphere serves as a protective shield against harmful - Solar UV radiation Thorium (Th) caused radioactive pollution along the coast of Kerala. What are the components responsible for acid rain ? -- Sulphur dioxide (SO, ‘and Nitrogen oxides (NO,) Not servicing the vehicles results in incomplete combustion of carbonaceous matter in automobile engine which generates -- Carbon Monoxide (CO) Uranium eventually decays into a stable isotope of -- Lead (Pb) The basic process taking place in nuclear reactors is -- Nuclear Fission Name the particle that is most essential to continue the chain reaction during the fission of Uranium -- Neutron Which reaction is the main cause of energy radiated from Sum? -- Nuclear Fusion The isotope of Uranium used in atomic reactors is -- Uranium-235 (?35U) In Carbon dating, a weak C-14 molecule deteriorates and transforms into - Nitrogen-14 ("*N) In the Canada Deuterium Uranium (CANDU) reactor, a natural uranium fuelled reactor, the function of moderator and coolant is performed by: -- Heavy water (D,0) The Radioactive element which is commonly used in nuclear power plant for producing electricity by nuclear fission is - Uranium Two elements which are used to absorb neutrons to control the chain reaction during nuclear fusion are -- Boron (B) and Cadmium (Cd)‘SSC CULT OFFICIAL * An atom is the smallest unit of matter that makes up a chemical element. @ + Itis made up of mainly three particles: Protons, Neutrons and Electrons.) ATOMI [The number of atoms constituting a molecule is known as its atomicity. | ee a Argon Monoatomic Helium Monoatomic eo Oxygen Diatomic Hydrogen Diatomic Nitrogen jatomic 2 Chlorine Diatomic Phosphorus Tetraatomic Sulphur Polyatomic (@) + The charged particles (atoms) are called ions, they are formed by gaining or losing electrons) * | 4 Atoms gaining electrons are called negatively charged atoms or anions (CI). => i) (_ + Atoms loosing electrons are called positively charged atoms or cations. (Na*). M nd = The combining capacity of an element is known as its valency. Example- Sodium (Atomic no. 11 - 2,8,1) it's valency is 1 Avogadro's Number: | 6.022 x 10® (number of atoms or molecules in one mole). 6 oO ‘+ Example: 1 mole of water (H,0) = 6.022 x 10% molecules of water. Law of Definite Proportions: ‘+ A chemical compound always contains the same elements in the same proportion by mass. ‘+ Law of definite proportion is given by Joseph Proust in 1797 + John Dalton assumed that an atom is indivisible. | ‘* In 1886, E. Goldstein discovered canal rays, which led to the discovery of a e subatomic particle called Proton.ona SSC CULT OFFICIAL BS eee © Positively Carbon e charged onan Oo “Pudding” Phosphorus @ Negatively Sulphur @ bay Platinum ® Tron ® ‘Spherical Copper © cloud of Silver © ed Gold | oO iat oO) Electron | Mercury @ see * a-Particles: (+ 2 charge and 4 mass number) when fast-moving a-particles are bombarded on 1000 atom thick gold foil * Centre is positively charged which is called nucleus. All mass resides in the nucleus. * Electrons revolves around the nucleus in circular orbits. Drawback:- ‘* Revolving electrons would lose energy and fall into the Nucleus BOHR’S MODEL OF ATOM © Special orbits known as discrete orbits of electrons are allowed inside the atom. * While revolving in discrete orbits the electrons do not radiate energy, these orbits are called energy levels. K,L,M... shells. number) Sty ‘Atoms of the same element with different mass numbers (due to a different number of neutrons). * Same chemical properties different physical property ‘* Example: Carbon-12 and Carbon-14 (both are carbon atoms, same ‘atomic number, different mass numbers). ‘+ Maximum number of Electrons present in a shell is given by 2n? (n = shell { For stable element - Outermost shell should have octet complete ( Re ° —~- ;ctrons) } LETTS ‘+ Atoms of different elements with the same mass number but different atomic numbers. ‘© Different chemical properties same physical property ‘© Example: Calcium-40 and Argon- 40 (both have the same mass number 40, but different atomic numbers and elements).SSC CULT OFFICIAL + e Isotones: same number of neutrons e Isohyets: same amount of rainfall |e Isohalines: same amount of salinity pr ass Electron :1897 : J.J Thomson Proton : 1920 : Ernst Rutherford / E. Goldstein Neutron : 1932 : James Chadwick Positron : 1932 : Carl Anderson IMPORTANT POINTS Generally atomic radius is measured in which unit? -- Angstrom How many types of isotopes does Scandium have? -- 13 _-----—_represents an alpha particle. - “He, Protium, deuterium and tritium are the naturally occurring isotopes of - Hydrogen © Elements having the same atomic numbers / Protons but different mass numbers / Neutrons but showing similar chemical properties are called ___. -- Isotopes © "Atomic theory” of matter was given by__ -- John Dalton © In which shell does the valence electron of magnesium fall? -- M Shell Nucleus of an atom consists of Protons and Neutrons‘SSC CULT OFFICIAL a ACID AND BASE ] Combination or Synthesis Reactions: The reactions in which two or more chemicals combine to generate a single new compound. Mg(s) + 0,(g) —> 2MgO(s) Decomposition reaction: The reaction in which a complex is broken down into two or more simple components using heat or electricity. AB —->A+B Thermal Decomposition: Decomposition of a substance on heating. Example: 2Pb(NO,),(s) + heat —> 2PbO(s) + 4NO,(g) + O,(g) = + Electrolytic Decomposition: Example: When electricity is passed in water, it decomposes into hydrogen and oxygen. 2H,0 — 2H,(g) + 0,(g) Displacement reaction: A reaction where an element with higher reactivity replaces a similar element with lower reactivity in a compound. A+BC > AC+B ‘© When zinc reacts with hydrochloric acid, it gives hydrogen gas and zinc chloride. Zn(s) + 2HCI(aq) —> ZnCl,(aq) + H,(g) wwe) Double Displacement Reactions / Electron Transfer: 2 85 Metathesis Reactions: Oxidation is the loss of electrons, while The mutual exchange of ions in which || ‘eduction is the gain of electrons. two chemicals react to generate two Exampl distinct molecules. In the reactlon AB + CD > AC + BD aR Cir aaa (Cal BaCl,(aq) + Na,SO,(aq) > BaSO,(s) bem (Precipitate) + 2NaCl(aq) © Ag’ + e- —> Ag (Ag is undergoing reduction). arr a xSSC CULT OFFICIAL BR ed Oxidation occurs at the anode, while reduction occurs at the cathode in electrochemical cells. ‘* Example: In a galvanic cell, iron oxidizes at the anode, and copper is reduced at the cathode. OXIDIZING AGENT: § REDUCING AGENT: © The substance which gives oxygen or ‘© The substance which gives hydrogen or remove oxygen is called a Reducing agent remove hydrogen is called an Oxidizing agent) | Potassium(k) Katrina. Sodium(Na) Ne Calcium(Ca) Car Magnesium(Mg) Mangi Aluminium(Al) Alto Zine(Zn) Zen Iron(Fe) Ferrari Lead(Pb) Phir bhi Hydrogen(H) Haye Copper(Cu) Kyun Mercury(Hg) Mili Silver(Ag) Silver Gold(Au) Audi called the Redox reaction. Example: The reaction in which oxidation and reduction both take place simultaneously is 2Na+Cl, —> 2NaCI (Na is oxidized, Cl is reduced) Definition: * Substances that release hydrogen ions (H*) when dissolved in water. Chemical properties: * React with metals to produce hydrogen gas: 2HCl+Zn —> ZnCl,+H, * (Example: Hydrochloric acid reacting with zinc) Definition: * Substances that release hydroxide ions (OH’) when dissolved in water. * The hydroxides of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals are soluble in water. These are also known as alkalis. * Alkali is considered a strong base. * For example: sodium hydroxide, magnesium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, etc. ‘© Salt is formed by the reaction of an acid and a base (neutralization reaction). © Example: HCI (acid)+NaOH (base) —> NaCl (salt)+H,0 (water) wo nn 3 ® — t t t wy Gostric Leneniuice Pure water ik of Sodium juice (about 22) Bleed opal yang (about 1.2) (74) (10), solution, (about)SSC CULT OFFICIAL © pH Scale Range: 0 to 14. “4 © Acidic Solutions: pH less than 7 jo Basic (e.g., HCI has pH 1-2). Uy eh aL Litmus Paper: © An acid turns blue litmus paper red. * A base turns red litmus paper blue. * Neutral Solutions: pH = 7 (e.g., 7 Neutral pure water). © Basic Solutions: pH greater than 7 Acidic (e.g., NaOH has pH 13-14). Turmeric: © Turmeric is another natural indicator. © It is yellow in colour. Ce Source of organic acid * Turmeric solution or paper turns reddish brown with base. Citrus fruits such as © It does not change colour with acid. "Stag 9 ani basa, Vinegar, Tomato © The juice of red cabbage is originally purple in colour. Apple, Grape Tamarind, grapes, unripe mangoes Oxalie acid Spinach, Cabbage a Oo Lactic acid | Curd, milk SS S z © It turns reddish with acid and turns greenish with base. Ascorbie acid Ose” indicators: onion and vanilla Citrus fruits, ama (Vitamin C) cil @e@ & SALT AND FORMULAS (WATER OF CRYSTALLIZATION): Many salts contain water molecule and are known as Hydrated Sal Cn Ce ae Washing Soda Sodium carbonate decahydrate Na,CO,-10H,0 Epsom Salt Magnesium sulphate heptahydrate MgSO,.7H,0 a Blue Vitriol Copper(ll) sulphate pentahydrate CuSO,.5H,0 Potassium aluminum sulphate > Potash Alum danas KAI(SO,),.12H,0 ED Glauber's salt Sodium sulphate decahydrate Na,SO,.10H,O 2 Plaster of Paris Calcium sulphate hemihydrate CaSO ,-1/2H,0 QD White vitriot Zine sulphate heptahydrate ZnSO,,7H,0 Q Gypsum Calcium sulphate dihydrate CaSO,,2H,0 <> _ Bleaching powder Calcium hypochlorite ca(OCl),, CS Slaked lime Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH),SSC CULT OFFICIAL Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)/Caustic soda Obtained by the electrolytic decomposition of sodium chloride (brine). This process is known as the Chlor - Alkali process. Overall reaction: 2NaCl(aq)+2H,O(!) Cla(g)+H9(g)+2NaOH(aq) Hydrogen gas is used as fuel, margarine, in making of ammonia for fertilizer, etc. Chlorine gas is used in water treatment, manufacturing of PVC, disinfectants, CFC, pesticides, manufacturing of bleaching powder and hydrochloric acid. Sodium hydroxide is used for degreasing of metals, manufacturing of paper, soap, detergents, artificial fibres, bleach, etc ¢ Bleaching Powder (CaOCI,)/chloride of lime When calcium hydroxide (staked lime) reacts with chlorine, it gives calcium oxychloride (bleaching powder) and water is formed. Ca(OH),+Cl, Ca(OCl),+H, © used as disinfectant to clean water, moss remover, weed killers, etc. ‘© used for bleaching of cotton in textile industry, bleaching of wood pulp in paper industry, * used as an oxidizing agent in many industries, such as textiles industry, paper industry, etc. |(Ge» Baking Soda (NaHCO,): Obtained using byproducts of Chlor - alkali process. The chemical name is sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO,) or sodium bicarbonate. ee Preparation Method: * Baking soda is obtained by the reaction of brine with carbon dioxide and ammonia. This is known as the Solvay process. NaCl+NH,+CO,+H,0 NaHCO,+NH,CI ‘* When baking soda is heated, it decomposes into sodium carbonate, carbon dioxide and water. 2NaHCO, + heat _Na,CO, + CO, + H,0 a Plaster of Paris (CaSO,-/2H,0) © Produced by heating gypsum (CaSO,:2H,0) to about 150°C. This process removes water molecules, creating a fine white powder that hardens when mixed with water. Conversion reaction: 2CaSO,-2H,0 2CaSO,-%H,0 + 3H,0. © When mixed with water, Plaster of Paris rehydrates and reforms into gypsum: 2CaSO,-%sH,0+3H,0 2CaSO,-2H,0 @,