Preface

This textbook is revised based on the 2nd edition of the pre-college textbook
"Mathematics," referencing the "Pre-College Education Standards for International
Students in China (Trial)" and combining recent teaching experience with
international students.

The textbook is divided into 5 parts: Algebra, Plane Analytic Geometry, Space
Analytic Geometry, Limits and Derivatives of Functions, and Probability &
Statistics, comprising a total of 20 chapters.

Considering the language foundation of international students and the practical needs
for entering university studies, this textbook focuses on the application of theorems
and formulas. Examples follow immediately after conclusions, and a large number of
after-class exercises are provided for practice. Proofs of theorems and derivations of
some formulas are omitted, and the language is kept as simple and easy to understand
as possible.

This textbook covers most high school knowledge required for higher mathematics,
such as Sets, Inequalities, Functions, Trigonometric Functions, Sequences, and
Plane Vectors. Meanwhile, to better facilitate the transition between high school and
university mathematics, this textbook appropriately extends into university
mathematics content, adding topics such as Space Vectors, Space Planes and Lines,
Limits of Sequences and Functions, and Applications of Derivatives.

This revision also updates the after-class exercises from the 2nd edition. Among them,
Deng Yun participated in the compilation of exercises for Chapters 1-7, Chapter 9,
and Chapter 10. In addition, the appendix provides mathematical vocabulary
appearing in this textbook in chapter order, and is equipped with a "Chinese-English
Table of Mathematical Symbols" for learners' reference.

This textbook has wide applicability; it can serve as a mathematics textbook for
pre-college international students in China, and also as a reference book for first-year
domestic university undergraduate students studying higher mathematics.
CSCA Math Textbook Table of Contents

Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

1.1 Definition of Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

1.2 Representation of Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Relationships Between Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Operations on Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Chapter 2: Inequalities ..........................................................9

2.1 Properties of Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2.2 Intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3 Solving Linear Inequalities in One Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4 Solving Quadratic Inequalities in One Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.5 Solving Fractional Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16

Chapter 3: Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

3.1 Rectangular Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

3.2 Concept of Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.3 Properties of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.4 Several Common Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.5 Exponents and Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.6 Logarithms and Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.7 Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Chapter 4: Solid Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

4.1 Basic Properties of Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

4.2 Parallelism in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Chapter 5: Inverse Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

5.1 Graphs and Properties of Inverse Sine and Inverse Cosine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

5.2 Graphs and Properties of Inverse Tangent and Inverse Cotangent . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

1
CSCA Math Textbook Table of Contents

5.3 Simple Trigonometric Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

Chapter 6: Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51

6.1 Concepts of Sequences and Related Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

6.2 Arithmetic Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6.3 Geometric Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

Chapter 7: Straight Lines in the Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59

7.1 Angle of Inclination and Slope of a Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

7.2 Equations of a Straight Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
7.3 Positional Relationships Between Two Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
7.4 Distance from a Point to a Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Chapter 8: Conic Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

8.1 The Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

8.2 The Ellipse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
8.3 The Hyperbola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
8.4 The Parabola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

Chapter 9: Space Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

9.1 Space Rectangular Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

9.2 Space Vectors and Their Linear Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83
9.3 Dot Product of Space Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

Chapter 10: Space Planes and Space Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

10.1 Equations of Space Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91

10.2 Equations of Space Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
10.3 Positional Relationships Between Planes and Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

2
 Chapter 1: Sets

Translated and Typeset from Original Text

1 Sets

1.1 Definition of Sets

1.1.1 I. Definition of Sets

Definition 1: We collectively refer to the objects of our study as elements, and a collection
formed by some elements is called a set, or simply a set.

For example, apples, bananas, and watermelons form a set. Apples, bananas, and watermelons
are all elements in this set. Another example is {x | −1 ≤ x ≤ 3}, which is also a set; −1, 0, 1, 2, 3
are all elements in this set. There are many more elements in this set, as shown in Figure 1.1-1:

x
−1 0 1 2 3

Figure 1: Elements of the set on a number line

We generally use uppercase letters A, B, C, . . . to represent sets, and lowercase letters a, b, c, . . .

to represent the elements in a set. For example, A = {apples, bananas, watermelons}, and
b = apples.

A set has the following three characteristics:

1. Definiteness (): The elements in a set are certain. For example, "numbers greater than
2 and less than 3" constitutes a set, but "beautiful people" cannot constitute a set because
the elements that make it up are not well-defined.

2. Distinctness (): The elements in a set are mutually distinct. For example, a set cannot
be written in the form of {1, 2, 4, 4, 6}; it should be written as {1, 2, 4, 6}.
 3. Unorderedness (): The elements in a set have no specific order. For example, the set
{1, 2, 4, 6} and {2, 1, 6, 4} represent the exact same set.

Common number sets are denoted as follows:

• N (Set of Natural Numbers): For example, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .

• Z (Set of Integers): For example, . . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .

• Q (Set of Rational Numbers): Numbers that can be expressed as fractions.

• R (Set of Real Numbers): All rational and irrational numbers.

• N∗ or N+ (Set of Positive Integers): 1, 2, 3, . . .

If an element a belongs to a set A, we denote it as a ∈ A. If it does not belong to set A, we

denote it as a ∈
/ A.

1.2 Representation of Sets

There are generally two common methods for representing a set:

1. Roster Method (): Listing all the elements of the set one by one inside braces {}. For
example, the set of positive divisors of 6 can be written as {1, 2, 3, 6}.

2. Set-Builder Notation (): Stating the common properties that the elements must satisfy
inside braces. For example, the set of real numbers greater than 3 can be written as {x ∈ R |
x > 3}.

Example 1: Use the roster method to represent the set of natural numbers less than 5.
Solution: Let A be the set of natural numbers less than 5. The elements are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4. So,
A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}.

Example 2: Use set-builder notation to represent the set of all even integers.
Solution: Let B be the set of all even integers. An even integer can be expressed as 2k where k
is an integer. Thus, B = {x | x = 2k, k ∈ Z}.

Exercises 1.1 & 1.2

1. Use the roster method to represent the set of integer solutions to the equation x2 − 9 = 0.
 2. Use set-builder notation to represent the set of all real numbers strictly between −2 and
5.

3. Represent the set of letters in the word "mathematics" using the roster method.

1.3 Relationships Between Sets

1. Subset (): If every element of set A is also an element of set B, we say that A is a subset
of B, denoted as A ⊆ B (read as "A is contained in B").

2. Equality of Sets (): If A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A, then set A and set B contain exactly the same
elements, and we say the two sets are equal, denoted as A = B.

3. Proper Subset (): If A ⊆ B but there is at least one element in B that is not in A, then
A is a proper subset of B, denoted as A ( B.

4. Empty Set (): A set containing no elements is called the empty set, denoted by ∅. The
empty set is considered a subset of every set (i.e., ∅ ⊆ A for any set A).

Example 3: Given A = {1, 2, 3}, write down all the subsets and proper subsets of A.
Solution: The subsets of A include sets with 0 elements, 1 element, 2 elements, and 3 elements.

• 0 elements: ∅
• 1 element: {1}, {2}, {3}
• 2 elements: {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}
• 3 elements: {1, 2, 3}

Total subsets: 8.
Proper subsets are all the subsets above except the set itself {1, 2, 3}. Total proper subsets: 7.

Example 4: Determine the relationship between A = {x ∈ Z | 0 ≤ x < 4} and B = {0, 1, 2, 3}.

Solution: Solving the condition for A, the integers satisfying 0 ≤ x < 4 are 0, 1, 2, 3. Therefore,
A = {0, 1, 2, 3}. Since they have exactly the same elements, A = B.

Exercises 1.3

1. Given M = {a, b}, write down all the subsets and proper subsets of M .
 2. Determine the relationship between C = {1, 3, 5} and D = {x ∈ N | x is an odd number less than 6}.

1.4 Operations on Sets

1.4.1 I. Intersection and Union

Intersection (): The set containing all elements that belong to both set A and set B is called
the intersection of A and B, denoted as A ∩ B.

A ∩ B = {x | x ∈ A and x ∈ B}

Union (): The set containing all elements that belong to set A or set B (or both) is called the
union of A and B, denoted as A ∪ B.

A ∪ B = {x | x ∈ A or x ∈ B}

A B A B

A∩B A∪B

Figure 2: Venn Diagrams for Intersection and Union

Example 5: Let A = {2, 4, 6, 8} and B = {4, 5, 6, 7}. Find A ∩ B and A ∪ B.

Solution: The common elements in both sets are 4 and 6. Therefore, A ∩ B = {4, 6}.
Combining all distinct elements from both sets gives A ∪ B = {2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}.

1.4.2 II. Universal Set and Complement

Universal Set (): A set that contains all objects under consideration in a specific context is
called the universal set, usually denoted by U .

Complement (): Let A be a subset of the universal set U . The set of all elements in U that
are not in A is called the complement of A with respect to U , denoted as {U A (or CU A).

{U A = {x | x ∈ U and x ∈
/ A}
 U

{U A

Figure 3: Venn Diagram for Complement: {U A

Example 6: Let the universal set U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, and A = {1, 3, 5}. Find {U A.
Solution: The elements that are in U but not in A are 2, 4, and 6. Therefore, {U A = {2, 4, 6}.

Exercises 1.4

1. Let A = {x | 1 < x ≤ 5} and B = {x | 3 < x < 7}. Find A ∩ B and A ∪ B.

2. Let the universal set U = R, and A = (−∞, 3]. Find {U A.

Self-Test 1

1. Fill in the blanks or calculate.

(1) Which of the following can form a set? . (e.g., A. Tall buildings
in a city, B. Positive integers less than 10, C. Good students).

(2) Represent the set of letters in the word "mathematics" using the roster method: .

(3) Let A = {1, 2, 3}. The number of subsets of A is . The number of proper
subsets is .

(4) Let A = {x | 1 < x < 5} and B = {x | 3 ≤ x ≤ 7}.

Then A ∩ B = , A∪B = .

(5) Let the universal set U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, and A = {2, 4}.
Then {U A = .
 (6) Let the universal set U = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10}, A = {2, 6, 8}, B = {0, 4, 6, 10}.
Then {U A = ,
{U B = ,
({U A) ∩ ({U B) = .

(7) Let the universal set U = {x | −5 ≤ x < 5}, A = {x | −2 ≤ x < 2}.

Then {U A = .

(8) Let the universal set U = {x ∈ Z | −5 ≤ x ≤ 5}, A = {x ∈ Z | −2 ≤ x < 2}.

Then {U A = .

(9) Let the universal set U = R, A = (−4, 2), B = [−1, 5].

Then A ∪ B = ,
A∩B = ,
{U A = ,
{U B = .

2. Multiple Choice Questions (Choose the single correct answer from the four options
provided).

(10) Given the universal set U = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}, M = {1, 2, 4, 5}, N = {0, 3, 5, 7}, then
{U (M ∪ N ) = ( ).

A. {6, 8}
B. {5, 7}
C. {4, 6, 7}
D. {1, 3, 5, 6, 8}

(11) Given the universal set U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}, A = {2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {2, 3, 6, 7}, then
B ∩ ({U A) = ( ).

A. {1, 6}
B. {1, 7}
C. {6, 7}
D. {2, 3}
 Chapter 2: Inequalities
Translated and Typeset from Original Text

2 Inequalities

2.1 Properties of Inequalities

2.1.1 I. Inequality Relations

Generally, expressions connected by the symbols “<”, “>”, “≤”, “≥”, or “6=” are called inequal-
ities. For example, 3 > 2, 2x + 1 ≤ 0, and a 6= 1 are all inequalities.

Regarding the comparison of real numbers a and b, we have the following relations:

- a − b > 0 ⇐⇒ a > b;

- a − b = 0 ⇐⇒ a = b;

- a − b < 0 ⇐⇒ a < b.

For example, from a − 1 > 0, we conclude a > 1, i.e., a − 1 > 0 ⇒ a > 1; from a ≤ −3, we
conclude a + 3 ≤ 0, i.e., a ≤ −3 ⇒ a + 3 ≤ 0.

2.1.2 II. Properties of Inequalities

Inequalities have the following properties:

Property 1 a > b ⇐⇒ b < a.

Example 1 3 > 2 ⇐⇒ 2 < 3.

Property 2 a > b, b > c ⇒ a > c.

Example 2 5 > 3, 3 > 2 ⇒ 5 > 2.


a + c > b + c,
Property 3 a > b ⇒
a − c > b − c.
(Adding or subtracting the same number on both sides of an inequality does not change the
direction of the inequality sign.)

2 + 3 > 1 + 3,
Example 3 2 > 1 ⇒
2 − 4 > 1 − 4.
Property 4 (1) a > b, c > 0 ⇒ ac > bc;
(Multiplying or dividing both sides of an inequality by the same positive number does not
change the direction of the inequality sign.)

Example 4 a > 2 ⇒ 2a > 4.

(2) a > b, c < 0 ⇒ ac < bc.

(Multiplying or dividing both sides of an inequality by the same negative number changes the
direction of the inequality sign.)

Example 5 a > 2 ⇒ −2a < −4.

Property 5 a > b, c > d ⇒ a + c > b + d.

Example 6 3 > 2, −4 > −5 ⇒ 3 + (−4) > 2 + (−5).

Property 6 a > b > 0, c > d > 0 ⇒ ac > bd.

Example 7 6 > 4 > 0, 3 > 2 > 0 ⇒ 6 × 3 > 4 × 2.

Property 7 a > b > 0 ⇒ an > bn (n ∈ N, n ≥ 1).

3
3
Example 8 12 > 13 > 0 ⇒ 12 > 13 .
√ √
Property 8 a > b > 0 ⇒ n a > n b (n ∈ N, n ≥ 2).
q q
Example 9 4 > 9 > 0 ⇒ 4 > 2 19 .
1 1 2 1

1 1
Example 10 Let a < b < 0, then fill in the blank for a b (with “>” or “<”).

Solution: ∵ a < b < 0,

1
∴ ab > 0, ab > 0.
1 1 1
By Property 4, we have a · ab < b · ab , which is b < a1 .
Then by Property 1, we get a1 > 1b .

Example 11 Let −1 < a < 2, 1 < b < 3, then ( ) < 2a − 3b < ( ).

Solution: ∵ −1 < a < 2,

∴ By Property 4, we have −2 < 2a < 4;
∵ 1 < b < 3,
∴ By Property 4, we have −9 < −3b < −3.
By Property 5, we have −2 + (−9) < 2a + (−3b) < 4 + (−3), which is −11 < 2a − 3b < 1.

Summary

1. Inequality relations: (1) a − b > 0 ⇐⇒ a > b; (2) a − b = 0 ⇐⇒ a = b; (3) a − b < 0 ⇐⇒ a < b.

2. Properties of inequalities: (1) a > b ⇐⇒ b < a. (2) a > b, b > c ⇒ a > c. (3) a > b ⇒

a + c > b + c,
. (4) a > b, c > 0 ⇒ ac > bc; a > b, c < 0 ⇒ ac < bc. (5) a > b, c > d ⇒ a + c > b + d.
a − c > b − c
√
(6) a > b > 0, c > d > 0 ⇒ ac > bd. (7) a > b > 0 ⇒ an > bn (n ∈ N, n ≥ 1). (8) a > b > 0 ⇒ n
a>
√n
b (n ∈ N, n ≥ 2).

Exercises 2.1

1. Multiple Choice Questions (Only one correct answer for each of the following questions).

(1) Given a < b < 0, c > 0, which of the following expressions is correct? ( )
c c a b
A. a − c < b − c B. ac > bc C. a < b D. c > c

(2) Which of the following conclusions is correct? ( )

1 1
A. If a > b, then −3a > −3b B. If a > b > 0, then a < b
C. If a > b, then ac > bc D. If a < b, then a2 < b2
√ √
(3) Given a = 5 − 2 5, b = 2 5 − 5, the relationship between a and b is ( ).
A. a < b B. a = b C. a > b D. Cannot be determined

(4) If a > b > 0, c > d > 0, then ( ).

a b
A. a − c > b − d B. ac > bd C. a2 − c2 > b2 − d2 D. c > d

(5) If a > b, then ( ).

3 4
A. −5a > −5b B. a − b > 0 C. a > b D. a2 < b2

(6) If a < b < 0, which of the following expressions is false? ( )

1 1 1 1
A. a > b B. a−b > a C. |a| > |b| D. a2 > b2

(7) Which of the following options is correct? ( )

a b
A. If a > b, then a + c < b + c B. If a > b, then c < c
a b
C. If ac > bc, then a > b D. If a > b, then c2 +1
> c2 +1

2. Fill in the Blanks.

1
(1) Let 3 < a < 6, then < a < .

(2) Let −2 < a < 3, then <a+3< , < −3a < .

(3) Let −1 < a < 2, then <a+3< , <a−5< .

(4) Let −3 < a < 0, 2 < b < 4, then < a + 2b < , <a−b< .

(5) Let 2 < a < 4, 1 < b < 5, then < ab < .

(6) Let − 13 < a < − 14 , 1

5 < b < 12 , then < 1
a − 2
b < .

(7) Let −3 < a < 3, then < a3 < .

√
(8) Let 4 < a < 81, then < a< .
 x
(9) If 30 < x < 42, 16 < y < 24, then < x − 2y < , < y < .

2.2 Solving Quadratic Inequalities in One Variable

2.2.1 I. Solving Quadratic Equations in One Variable

Definition 1 We call ax2 + bx + c = 0 (a 6= 0) a quadratic equation with one unknown. Let

∆ = b2 − 4ac, then:

1. When ∆ = b2 − 4ac > 0, the equation has two distinct real roots:
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x1,2 = (quadratic formula).
2a

2. When ∆ = b2 − 4ac = 0, the equation has two equal real roots:

b
x1 = x2 = − .
2a

3. When ∆ = b2 − 4ac < 0, the equation has no real roots.

Example 1 Solve the quadratic equations: (1) 2x2 − 3x + 1 = 0 (2) x2 − 4x + 4 = 0 (3)

3x2 − 2x + 4 = 0

Solution: (1) a = 2, b = −3, c = 1. From ∆ = b2 − 4ac = (−3)2 − 4 × 2 × 1 = 1 > 0, the equation

has two distinct real roots:
 √ √
−b− ∆ −(−3)− 1
x1 =
2a = 2×2 = 12 ,
√ √
x = −b+ ∆ −(−3)+ 1
2 2a = 2×2 = 1.

(2) a = 1, b = −4, c = 4. From ∆ = b2 − 4ac = (−4)2 − 4 × 1 × 4 = 0, the equation has two equal
real roots: √
−b ± ∆ −b −(−4)
x1,2 = = = = 2,
2a 2a 2×1
i.e., x1 = x2 = 2.

(3) a = 3, b = −2, c = 4. From ∆ = b2 − 4ac = (−2)2 − 4 × 3 × 4 = −44 < 0, the equation has no
real roots.

2.2.2 II. Solving Quadratic Inequalities in One Variable

Definition 2 We call an inequality containing only one unknown with the highest degree of 2
a quadratic inequality with one unknown.

The general form of a quadratic inequality is:

ax2 + bx + c > 0 (a 6= 0), or ax2 + bx + c < 0 (a 6= 0), etc.

We call the set of all solutions of the inequality the solution set.

Example 2 Solve the linear inequality 2x + 3 > 0.

Solution: 2x + 3 > 0 ⇒ 2x > −3 ⇒ x > − 32 . The solution set is x | x > − 32 .



Regarding the solution sets of quadratic inequalities, see Table 2.2-1.

Table 1: Solution Sets of Quadratic Inequalities

∆ = b2 − 4ac ∆>0 ∆=0 ∆<0

y y y
Graph of
x1 x2
x x x
x1 = x2

y = ax2 + bx + c (a > 0)

ax2 + bx + c > 0 (a > 0) {x | x < x1 or x > x2 } {x | x 6= x1 } R

ax2 + bx + c ≥ 0 (a > 0) {x | x ≤ x1 or x ≥ x2 } R R

ax2 + bx + c < 0 (a > 0) {x | x1 < x < x2 } ∅ ∅

ax2 + bx + c ≤ 0 (a > 0) {x | x1 ≤ x ≤ x2 } {x | x = x1 } ∅

Example 3 Solve the inequality 2x2 − 3x + 1 > 0.

y
1
Solution: From 2x2 − 3x + 1 = 0 ⇒ x1 = 2, x2 = 1, and a = 2 >
0, we know the graph of y = 2x2 − 3x + 1 is as shown in Figure y = 2x2 − 3x + 1

2.2-1.
Therefore, the solution set of the inequality 2x2 − 3x + 1 > 0 x
O 1 1
2
is x | x < 12 or x > 1 .


Figure 2.2-1

Example 4 Solve the inequality −3x2 − 2x + 1 ≥ 0.

Solution: Because a = −3 < 0, we multiply both sides of the
inequality by (−1) to get 3x2 + 2x − 1 ≤ 0, i.e., y

−3x2 − 2x + 1 ≥ 0 ⇐⇒ 3x2 + 2x − 1 ≤ 0.
y = 3x2 + 2x − 1

From 3x2 + 2x − 1 = 0 ⇒ x1 = −1, x2 = 13 , and a = 3 > 0, we x

know the graph of y = 3x2 + 2x − 1 is as shown in Figure 2.2-2. −1 O 1
3

Therefore, the solution set for 3x2 + 2x − 1 ≤ 0 is

x | −1 ≤ x ≤ 13 , i.e., the solution set for −3x2 − 2x + 1 ≥ 0

Figure 2.2-2
is x | −1 ≤ x ≤ 13 .


Example 5 Solve the inequality x2 − 2x + 1 ≥ 0.

y
Solution: From x2 − 2x + 1 = 0 ⇒ x1 = x2 = 1, and a = 1 > 0, y = x2 − 2x + 1
we know the graph of y = x2 − 2x + 1 is as shown in Figure
2.2-3.
Therefore, the solution set of the inequality x2 − 2x + 1 ≥ 0 is x
O 1
R.
Figure 2.2-3

Example 6 Solve the inequality x2 − 2x + 3 < 0.

y
y = x2 − 2x + 3
Solution: From ∆ = b2 − 4ac = 4 − 12 = −8 < 0, we know
x2 − 2x + 3 = 0 has no real roots, and a = 1 > 0. The graph of
y = x2 − 2x + 3 is as shown in Figure 2.2-4.
Therefore, the solution set of the inequality x2 − 2x + 3 < 0 is
∅. x
O

Figure 2.2-4

Summary

1. The solutions of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 (a 6= 0) fall into three cases: (1) When ∆ =
√
−b± ∆
b2 − 4ac > 0, two distinct real roots: x1,2 = 2a . (2) When ∆ = b2 − 4ac = 0, two equal real
b
roots: x1 = x2 = − 2a . (3) When ∆ = b2 − 4ac < 0, no real roots.

2. To find the solution set of a quadratic inequality: ax2 + bx + c > (<, ≥, ≤)0 (a > 0); if a < 0,
first multiply both sides by (−1). The solving process is divided into three steps: (1) Solve the
equation ax2 + bx + c = 0; (2) Draw the graph of y = ax2 + bx + c; (3) Write out the solution set
based on the graph.
Exercises 2.2

1. Solve the quadratic equations.

(1) x2 − 8x + 16 = 0 (4) x2 − 5x = 0

(2) 2x2 − 5x − 3 = 0 (5) 4x2 − 1 = 0

(3) 3x2 + 2x + 5 = 0

2. Solve the quadratic inequalities.

(1) 2x2 − 7x + 3 > 0 (7) x2 − 4x + 4 ≤ 0

(2) 5x2 + 3x < 0

(8) (2x − 3)(x − 3) > 0
(3) x2 − 4 < 0
(9) (x + 6)(5 − 2x) ≥ 0
(4) x2 − 4x + 4 > 0
(10) −2x2 + 3x + 5 ≥ 0
(5) 2x2 − 5x + 3 < 0

(6) 2x2 + 4x + 3 ≥ 0 (11) −3x2 − 6x + 1 > 0

2.3 Solving Fractional Inequalities

Definition An expression containing an unknown in the denominator is called a fraction (frac-

x2 −2x 2x 1 x+5
tional expression). For example, x+1 , x2 −4x+3 , x−1 are fractions; 2 is not a fraction.

Regarding the solution of fractional inequalities, we have the following conclusions:

f (x)
1. g(x) > 0 ⇐⇒ f (x)g(x) > 0.
f (x)
2. g(x) < 0 ⇐⇒ f (x)g(x) < 0.

f (x)g(x) ≥ 0,
f (x)
3. g(x) ≥ 0 ⇐⇒
g(x) 6= 0.

f (x)g(x) ≤ 0,
f (x)
4. g(x) ≤ 0 ⇐⇒
g(x) 6= 0.

x+1
Example 1 Solve the inequality 2x−3 > 0.
x+1
Solution: 2x−3 > 0 ⇐⇒ (x + 1)(2x − 3) > 0.
(x + 1)(2x − 3) = 0 ⇒ x1 = −1, x2 = 32 .
3

The solution set for (x + 1)(2x − 3) > 0 is x | x < −1 or x > 2 .
x+1
> 0 is x | x < −1 or x > 32 .

So the solution set for 2x−3
 3x−1
Example 2 Solve the inequality x+2 < 0.
3x−1
Solution: x+2 < 0 ⇐⇒ (3x − 1)(x + 2) < 0.
(3x − 1)(x + 2) = 0 ⇒ x1 = −2, x2 = 13 .
1

Because the solution set for (3x − 1)(x + 2) < 0 is x | −2 < x < 3 ,
the solution set for 3x−1 1

x+2 < 0 is x | −2 < x < 3 .

x−2
Example 3 Solve the inequality 2x+5 ≥ 0.

Solution:

x−2 (x − 2)(2x + 5) ≥ 0 ⇒ x ≤ − 5 or x ≥ 2 5
2
≥ 0 ⇐⇒ ⇒ x < − or x ≥ 2.
2x + 5 2x + 5 6= 0 ⇒ x 6= − 5 2
2

x−2
≥ 0 is x | x < − 52 or x ≥ 2 .

So the solution set for 2x+5

2x+3
Example 4 Solve the inequality x−5 ≤ 0.

Solution: 
2x + 3 (2x + 3)(x − 5) ≤ 0 ⇒ − 3 ≤ x ≤ 5
2
≤ 0 ⇐⇒
x−5 x − 5 6= 0 ⇒ x 6= 5

2x+3
≤ 0 is x | − 32 ≤ x < 5 .

So the solution set for x−5

Summary

To find the solution set of a fractional inequality: first, use the following formulas to trans-
f (x)
form the fractional inequality into a quadratic inequality, and then solve it. (1) g(x) > 0 ⇐⇒
f (x)g(x) > 0.
f (x)
(2) g(x) < 0 ⇐⇒ f (x)g(x) < 0.

f (x)g(x) ≥ 0,
f (x)
(3) g(x) ≥ 0 ⇐⇒
g(x) 6= 0.

f (x)g(x) ≤ 0,
f (x)
(4) g(x) ≤ 0 ⇐⇒
g(x) 6= 0.

Exercises 2.3

2x−5 3x+1 x−3 2−x

1. (1) 3x−7 > 0 (2) x−2 > 0 (3) 2x+5 > 0 (4) 3x+2 > 0
x+4 x−4
2. (1) 5x+3 < 0 (2) 4x+1 <0 (3) 2x−1
x−4 < 0 (4) 1−2x
x+2 < 0
x−5 2x−3 5x+4 −3x+5
3. (1) x+3 ≥ 0 (2) x−4 ≥ 0 (3) 3x−1 ≥ 0 (4) 2x−1 ≥ 0
x+10
4. (1) x+2 ≤ 0 (2) 3x+1
x+2 ≤ 0 (3) 4x−1
2x+3 ≤ 0
x−2
(4) 4−3x ≤0
Self-Test 2

1. Multiple Choice Questions (Only one correct answer for each of the following questions).

(1) Which of the following options is correct? ( )

A. If a > b, then a + 2c > b + 2c B. If a > b, then − a1 > − 1b
C. If −3a > −3b, then a > b D. If a > b, c > d, then a − c > b − d

(2) Which of the following options is correct? ( )

A. If a > b, c > d, then ac > bd B. If a < b, then a4 < b4
√ √
C. If a > b, then a3 < b3 D. If a > b > 0, then a > b

(3) The solution set of the inequality x2 − 5x − 14 < 0 is ( ).

A. (−2, 7) B. (−∞, −2) ∪ (7, +∞) C. (−7, 2) D. (−∞, −7) ∪ (2, +∞)

(4) The solution set of the inequality −2x2 + 7x − 3 ≤ 0 is ( ).

A. 12 , 3 B. −∞, 12 ∪ [3, +∞) C. −3, − 12 D. (−∞, −3] ∪ − 12 , +∞
     

(5) The solution set of the inequality x2 − 12x + 36 ≥ 0 is ( ).

A. R B. {x | x = 6} C. {x | x 6= 6} D. ∅

2. Fill in the Blanks.

(1) Let −4 < x < 7, −3 < y < −2, then < 3x + 2y < , < 3x − 2y < ,
< 1 − 2x < .
1 1
(2) Let 2 < x < 4, 2 < y < 3, then < x + y < .

(3) The solution set of the inequality (x + 2)(x − 3) > 0 is .

(4) The solution set of the inequality (x − 2)(x − 7) ≤ 0 is .

(5) The solution set of the inequality x2 + 2x + 4 > 0 is .

(6) The solution set of the inequality x2 + x + 3 < 0 is .

(7) The solution set of the inequality x2 − x − 6 ≥ 0 is .

(8) The solution set of the inequality −6x2 − x + 2 ≤ 0 is .

3. Calculation Questions (Show your work and the final result).

2x−3 x+4
(1) x+3 <0 (3) 2x−3 >0
3x−5 5x+2
(2) x+5 ≥0 (4) 1−2x ≥0
 Chapter 3: Functions (Part 1)

Translated and Typeset from Original Text

3 Functions

3.1 Rectangular Coordinate System

3.1.1 I. Definition of Rectangular Coordinate System

In the same plane, two mutually perpendicular number axes that share a common origin form
a rectangular coordinate system, or simply a Cartesian coordinate system.

The horizontal number axis is called the x-axis (or axis of abscissas), and the vertical number
axis is called the y-axis (or axis of ordinates). The x-axis and y-axis are collectively called the
coordinate axes, and their intersection point O is called the origin.

Generally, the x-axis and y-axis take the same unit length. The plane where the coordinate
system lies is called the coordinate plane. The x-axis and y-axis divide the coordinate plane
into four quadrants, which are respectively the first quadrant, the second quadrant, the
third quadrant, and the fourth quadrant.

Note: Points on the x-axis, y-axis, and the origin do not belong to any quadrant.

3.1.2 II. Coordinates of Points and Symmetry

In the rectangular coordinate system, for any point P in the plane, draw perpendicular lines
from P to the x-axis and y-axis. Suppose the feet of the perpendiculars on the x-axis and y-axis
represent the real numbers a and b respectively. Then the ordered pair of real numbers (a, b) is
called the coordinates of point P , denoted as P (a, b). Here, a is the abscissa (x-coordinate),
and b is the ordinate (y-coordinate).

For a given point P (a, b), its symmetry properties are as follows:
 y

y
3
(−, +) (+, +)
2

1 Quadrant II Quadrant I

x x
−3 −2 −1 O 1 2 3 O
−1 Quadrant III Quadrant IV
−2 (−, +) (+, −)

−3

Figure 2: Quadrants and Signs

Figure 1: Rectangular Coordinate System

• Its symmetric point with respect to the x-axis is P1 (a, −b).

• Its symmetric point with respect to the y-axis is P2 (−a, b).
• Its symmetric point with respect to the origin is P3 (−a, −b).

Example 1: Find the coordinates of the symmetric points of P (−3, 4) with respect to the
x-axis, y-axis, and the origin.
Solution: The symmetric point with respect to the x-axis is (−3, −4).
The symmetric point with respect to the y-axis is (3, 4).
The symmetric point with respect to the origin is (3, −4).

3.1.3 III. Distance and Midpoint Formulas

Suppose A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ) are two arbitrary points in the plane.

• Distance Formula: The distance between A and B is given by:

(1)
p
|AB| = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2

• Midpoint Formula: The coordinates of the midpoint M (x, y) of the line segment AB
are:
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
x= , y= (2)
2 2

Example 2: Given points A(−1, 2) and B(3, −1), find the distance between A and B.
Solution: Using the distance formula:
p p √ √
|AB| = (3 − (−1))2 + (−1 − 2)2 = 42 + (−3)2 = 16 + 9 = 25 = 5
Example 3: Given points A(−2, 4) and B(4, −2), find the coordinates of the midpoint M of
the line segment AB.
Solution: Let M (x, y). According to the midpoint formula:
−2 + 4 4 + (−2)
x= = 1, y= =1
2 2
Therefore, the coordinates of the midpoint M are (1, 1).

Exercises 3.1

1. Find the distance between the points P (2, −3) and Q(−4, 5).

2. Find the distance from the point M (−6, 8) to the origin O(0, 0).

3. Find the coordinates of the midpoint of the line segment connecting A(−5, 1) and B(3, 7).

4. Given the midpoint of line segment AB is M (1, 2) and point A is (−3, 4), find the coordi-
nates of point B.

5. Determine which quadrant the point M (−4, −8) lies in.

6. Find the coordinates of the point symmetric to A(2, −5) with respect to the x-axis, y-axis,
and the origin.

3.2 Concept of Function

3.2.1 I. Definition of Function

In many practical problems, there are variables whose values change. If for every real number x in
a non-empty subset D of the real number set R, there is a unique real number y corresponding
to it according to a certain rule f , then this corresponding relationship is called a function
defined on the set D, denoted as:
y = f (x) (3)

where x is the independent variable and y is the dependent variable.

The set D of all possible values of the independent variable x is called the domain of the function.
The set of all corresponding values of the dependent variable y, M = {y | y = f (x), x ∈ D}, is
called the range of the function.
Example 4: Find the domain of the following functions: (1) f (x) = 1
x−2 (2) f (x) =
√
2x + 4 (3) f (x) = √x−1
1

Solution: (1) For the fractional expression to be meaningful, the denominator must not be zero:
x − 2 6= 0 =⇒ x 6= 2. Thus, the domain is {x | x 6= 2}.
(2) For the square root to be meaningful, the expression under the radical must be non-negative:
2x + 4 ≥ 0 =⇒ x ≥ −2. Thus, the domain is [−2, +∞).
(3) The expression under the square root in the denominator must be strictly greater than zero:
x − 1 > 0 =⇒ x > 1. Thus, the domain is (1, +∞).

Example 5: Given f (x) = 2x2 − 3x + 1, find the values of f (0), f (−2), and f (a).
Solution: Substitute x = 0: f (0) = 2(0)2 − 3(0) + 1 = 1.
Substitute x = −2: f (−2) = 2(−2)2 − 3(−2) + 1 = 2(4) + 6 + 1 = 15.
Substitute x = a: f (a) = 2a2 − 3a + 1.

3.2.2 II. Representation Methods of Functions

There are generally three ways to represent a function:

1. Analytical Method: Using a mathematical expression (formula) to show the relationship

between variables. E.g., y = 2x + 1.
2. Table Method: Listing corresponding values of variables in a table.
3. Graphical Method: Using a graph in a coordinate system to represent the function
visually.

3.2.3 III. Piecewise Functions

In some cases, the functional relationship requires different analytical expressions in different
intervals of the domain. Such a function is called a piecewise function.

Example 6: Given the piecewise function


x2 + 1,

x≥1
f (x) =
2x,

x<1
Find the values of f (2), f (0), and f (f (−1)).
Solution: Since 2 ≥ 1, we use the first expression: f (2) = 22 + 1 = 5.
Since 0 < 1, we use the second expression: f (0) = 2(0) = 0.
First find f (−1): since −1 < 1, f (−1) = 2(−1) = −2.
Then find f (f (−1)) = f (−2). Since −2 < 1, f (−2) = 2(−2) = −4.
Thus, f (f (−1)) = −4.
Exercises 3.2

1. Find the domain of the following functions:

(1) f (x) = 3x − 5
(2) f (x) = x+1
x2 −9
√
(3) f (x) = 5−x

2. Given f (x) = −x2 + 4x, calculate f (1), f (−1), and f (x + 1).


3x + 2, x>0




3. Given the piecewise function f (x) = 0, x = 0 , calculate f (2), f (0), and f (−3).



x − 1,

x<0

3.3 Properties of Functions

3.3.1 I. Monotonicity (Increasing and Decreasing)

When the independent variable x increases in a certain interval, if the function value y also
increases, the graph rises from left to right. This property is called the monotonicity of the
function.

1. Increasing Function: Let the domain of function y = f (x) be D, and let I be an interval
within D. For any two numbers x1 , x2 ∈ I, if x1 < x2 implies f (x1 ) < f (x2 ), then y = f (x) is
an increasing function on the interval I.

2. Decreasing Function: For any two numbers x1 , x2 ∈ I, if x1 < x2 implies f (x1 ) > f (x2 ),
then y = f (x) is a decreasing function on the interval I.

Example 7: Prove that the function f (x) = 3x + 2 is an increasing function on (−∞, +∞).
Proof: Let x1 and x2 be any two real numbers in (−∞, +∞) such that x1 < x2 . Calculate the
difference:
f (x1 ) − f (x2 ) = (3x1 + 2) − (3x2 + 2) = 3(x1 − x2 )

Since x1 < x2 , we have x1 − x2 < 0. Therefore, 3(x1 − x2 ) < 0, which means f (x1 ) − f (x2 ) < 0,
or f (x1 ) < f (x2 ). By definition, f (x) = 3x + 2 is an increasing function on R.

Example 8: Prove that the function f (x) = −x2 is a decreasing function on [0, +∞).
Proof: Let x1 and x2 be any two real numbers in [0, +∞) such that 0 ≤ x1 < x2 . Calculate the
difference:
f (x1 ) − f (x2 ) = (−x21 ) − (−x22 ) = x22 − x21 = (x2 − x1 )(x2 + x1 )

Since 0 ≤ x1 < x2 , we know that x2 − x1 > 0 and x2 + x1 > 0. Therefore, (x2 − x1 )(x2 + x1 ) > 0,
which means f (x1 ) − f (x2 ) > 0, or f (x1 ) > f (x2 ). By definition, f (x) = −x2 is a decreasing
function on [0, +∞).

3.3.2 II. Parity (Even and Odd Functions)

The prerequisite for a function to have parity is that its domain must be symmetric about
the origin (e.g., [−a, a], (−a, a), or (−∞, +∞)).

1. Even Function: If for any x in the domain, f (−x) = f (x), then the function f (x) is called
an even function. The graph of an even function is symmetric with respect to the y-axis. (e.g.,
y = x2 , y = |x|)

2. Odd Function: If for any x in the domain, f (−x) = −f (x), then the function f (x) is called
an odd function. The graph of an odd function is symmetric with respect to the origin. (e.g.,
y = x3 , y = x1 )

Example 9: Determine the parity of the following functions: (1) f (x) = 2x3 ; (2) f (x) =
3x2 − 1; (3) f (x) = 2x + 1.
Solution: (1) The domain is R, which is symmetric about the origin.
f (−x) = 2(−x)3 = −2x3 = −f (x). Thus, f (x) = 2x3 is an odd function.
(2) The domain is R, which is symmetric about the origin.
f (−x) = 3(−x)2 − 1 = 3x2 − 1 = f (x). Thus, f (x) = 3x2 − 1 is an even function.
(3) The domain is R, symmetric about the origin.
f (−x) = 2(−x) + 1 = −2x + 1. Since f (−x) 6= f (x) and f (−x) 6= −f (x), the function
f (x) = 2x + 1 is neither even nor odd.

Exercises 3.3

1. Determine whether the function f (x) = −2x + 5 is an increasing or decreasing function on

R, and prove your conclusion using the definition.

2. Prove that the function f (x) = 1

x is a decreasing function on (0, +∞).

3. Determine the parity of the following functions:

(1) f (x) = x4 − 2x2

 (2) f (x) = 2
x
(3) f (x) = x3 + x2
(4) f (x) = |x| − 3

4. If f (x) is an odd function defined on R and f (2) = 5, what is the value of f (−2)? What
is the value of f (0)?
 Chapter 3: Functions (Part 2)

Translated and Typeset from Original Text

3.4 Several Common Functions

3.4.1 I. Linear Function

A function in the form y = kx + b (where k and b are constants, and k 6= 0) is called a linear
function. Its domain and range are both (−∞, +∞). The graph of a linear function is a
straight line.

• When k > 0, y increases as x increases, meaning it is an increasing function on R.

• When k < 0, y decreases as x increases, meaning it is a decreasing function on R.

3.4.2 II. Quadratic Function

A function in the form y = ax2 + bx + c (a 6= 0) is called a quadratic function. Its domain is

(−∞, +∞). By completing the square, it can be transformed into the vertex form:
2
4ac − b2

b
y =a x+ + (1)
2a 4a
 
b 4ac−b2
The graph is a parabola. The coordinates of the vertex are − 2a , 4a , and the axis of
symmetry is the vertical line x = − 2a
b
.

• If a > 0, the parabola opens upwards, and the function has a minimum value at the
vertex.
• If a < 0, the parabola opens downwards, and the function has a maximum value at
the vertex.

Example 10: Find the vertex, axis of symmetry, and maximum/minimum value of the quadratic
function y = x2 − 4x + 3.
 y y

O
x
a>0

a<0
x
O

Figure 1: Quadratic Function (a > 0) Figure 2: Quadratic Function (a < 0)

Solution: Here a = 1, b = −4, c = 3. Since a > 0, the parabola opens upwards and has a
minimum value.
The x-coordinate of the vertex is x = − 2a
b −4
= − 2×1 = 2.
4ac−b2 4(1)(3)−(−4)2
The y-coordinate of the vertex is y = 4a = 4(1) = 12−16
4 = −1.
Therefore, the vertex is (2, −1), the axis of symmetry is x = 2, and the minimum value of the
function is −1.

3.4.3 III. Inverse Proportional Function

A function in the form y = k

x (k 6= 0) is an inverse proportional function. Its domain is
{x | x 6= 0}, and its range is {y | y 6= 0}. The graph is a hyperbola, which is symmetric with
respect to the origin (odd function).

Exercises 3.4

1. Find the coordinates of the intersection points of the line y = 2x − 4 with the x-axis and
the y-axis.

2. Find the vertex coordinates, axis of symmetry, and maximum value of the quadratic func-
tion y = −2x2 + 8x − 5.

3. Determine the quadrants in which the branches of the hyperbola y = − x3 are located.
3.5 Exponents and Exponential Functions

3.5.1 I. Fractional Exponents

We establish the following definitions for fractional exponents, extending the concept of expo-
nents from integers to rational numbers (a > 0, m, n ∈ N+ , n > 1):
m √ m 1 1
an = n m
a , a− n = m = √
n m
, a0 = 1 (2)
a n a
Properties of rational exponents (for a > 0, b > 0 and r, s ∈ Q):

(1) ar · as = ar+s
(2) (ar )s = ars
(3) (ab)r = ar br

2 1
Example 11: Evaluate 8 3 and 9− 2 .
Solution:
2 √
3
√
3
83 = 82 = 64 = 4
1 11 1
9− 2 = =√ =
1
9 2 9 3

3.5.2 II. Exponential Function

A function in the form y = ax (a > 0, a 6= 1) is called an exponential function.

• Domain: (−∞, +∞)

• Range: (0, +∞)
• Fixed Point: The graph always passes through the point (0, 1) because a0 = 1.
• Monotonicity:

– If a > 1, the function is strictly increasing on R.

– If 0 < a < 1, the function is strictly decreasing on R.

Exercises 3.5

1. Calculate the following values:

1
(1) 27 3
3
(2) 16− 4
 y
y

y = ax (0 < a < 1)
y = ax (a > 1)
(0, 1)
(0, 1)

x
x O
O

Figure 4: Exponential Function (0 < a <

Figure 3: Exponential Function (a > 1)
1)

1
(3) ( 49 )− 2

2. Compare the sizes of the following pairs of numbers using the properties of exponential
functions:

(1) 30.5 and 30.8

(2) 0.2−1.5 and 0.2−1.2

3.6 Logarithms and Logarithmic Functions

3.6.1 I. Concept of Logarithm

If ax = N (a > 0, a 6= 1), then the exponent x is called the logarithm of N to the base a,
denoted as:
x = loga N (3)

Note: Since ax > 0, the argument N must be strictly positive (N > 0). Negative numbers and
zero do not have logarithms. Important identities: loga 1 = 0, loga a = 1.

• Common Logarithm: A logarithm with base 10, denoted as lg N .

• Natural Logarithm: A logarithm with base e ≈ 2.71828, denoted as ln N .
• Properties of Logarithms (a > 0, a 6= 1, M > 0, N > 0):

(1) loga (M N ) = loga M + loga N

(2) loga M


N = loga M − loga N
(3) loga (M n ) = n loga M
Example 12: Calculate log2 16, lg 100, and log3 81 + log5 1.
Solution: Since 24 = 16, we have log2 16 = 4.
Since 102 = 100, we have lg 100 = 2.
Since 34 = 81 and 50 = 1, log3 81 + log5 1 = 4 + 0 = 4.

3.6.2 II. Logarithmic Function

A function in the form y = loga x (a > 0, a 6= 1) is called a logarithmic function.

• Domain: (0, +∞)

• Range: (−∞, +∞)
• Fixed Point: The graph passes through (1, 0) because loga 1 = 0.
• Monotonicity:

– If a > 1, the function is strictly increasing on (0, +∞).

– If 0 < a < 1, the function is strictly decreasing on (0, +∞).

The exponential function y = ax and the logarithmic function y = loga x are inverse functions
of each other. Their graphs are symmetric with respect to the line y = x.

y
y

y = loga x (a > 1)
(1, 0)
x
O x
O(1, 0)
y = loga x (0 < a < 1)

Figure 6: Logarithmic Function (0 < a <

Figure 5: Logarithmic Function (a > 1) 1)

Exercises 3.6

1. Convert the exponential equation 53 = 125 to logarithmic form.

2. Convert the logarithmic equation log2 1

8 = −3 to exponential form.
 3. Calculate the values:

(1) lg 1000
(2) ln e5
(3) log2 32 − log2 2

3.7 Trigonometric Functions

3.7.1 I. Radians and Arbitrary Angles

An angle is formed by rotating a ray. Counterclockwise is positive, clockwise is negative. Radian

Measure: 360◦ = 2π rad, 180◦ = π rad. Conversion: 1◦ = π
180 rad.

3.7.2 II. Definition of Trigonometric Functions

For a point P (x, y) on the terminal side of angle α, with distance r = x2 + y 2 :

p

y x y
sin α = , cos α = , tan α = (x 6= 0) (4)
r r x
sin α
Fundamental Identities: sin2 α + cos2 α = 1, cos α = tan α.

Example 13: Given sin α = 3

5 and α is an angle in the second quadrant, find cos α and tan α.
Solution: In the second quadrant, x < 0 and y > 0, so cos α < 0.
Using the Pythagorean identity:
s  2 r
p
2 3 16 4
cos α = − 1 − sin α = − 1 − =− =−
5 25 5

Using the quotient identity:

sin α 3/5 3
tan α = = =−
cos α −4/5 4

3.7.3 III. Graphs of Trigonometric Functions

• Sine Function (y = sin x): Domain R, Range [−1, 1], Period 2π, Odd function (symmet-
ric about the origin).
• Cosine Function (y = cos x): Domain R, Range [−1, 1], Period 2π, Even function
(symmetric about the y-axis).
• Tangent Function (y = tan x): Domain {x | x 6= π
2 + kπ, k ∈ Z}, Range R, Period π,
Odd function.
 y
y = sin x
1

x
O π 2π
−1
y = cos x

Figure 7: Graphs of Sine and Cosine Functions

Exercises 3.7

1. Convert 120◦ and 300◦ to radians.

2. Convert 5π
6 and 3π
4 to degrees.

3. If tan α = 4
3 and α is an angle in the third quadrant, find the values of sin α and cos α.

Self-Test 3

1. Multiple Choice Questions (Choose the single correct answer).

(1) In a rectangular coordinate system, the point P (−3, −7) lies in ( ).

A. Quadrant I B. Quadrant II C. Quadrant III D. Quadrant IV

(2) In a rectangular coordinate system, the symmetric point of P (−2, 3) with respect to the
y-axis is ( ).

A. (−2, −3) B. (2, −3) C. (3, 2) D. (2, 3)

(3) Which of the following functions is exactly the same as the function y = x + 1? ( )

x2
√
A. y = B. y = C. y = D. y = ( x + 1)2
p p
x +1 (x + 1)2 3
(x + 1)3
1
(4) The graph of the function y = x 2 is a curve that primarily exists in ( ).

A. Quadrant I only B. Quadrants I and III C. Quadrants I and II D. Quadrant

IV only

(5) The function y = 2x − 3 on the interval (−∞, +∞) is ( ).

 A. An increasing function B. A decreasing function C. Not monotonic D. A con-
stant function

(6) The function f (x) = −2x3 is ( ).

A. An odd function B. An even function C. Neither even nor odd D. Both even
and odd

2. Fill in the blanks.

(1) The distance between points A(1, 4) and B(4, 8) in the Cartesian coordinate system is
.
√
(2) The domain of the function f (x) = 1
x−5 + x is .

(3) The value of log3 27 + lg 1000 is .

(4) In radian measure, the angle 135◦ is equal to .

3. Calculation and Proof Questions.

(1) Given the quadratic function f (x) = x2 − 6x + 8:

i. Find the coordinates of its vertex and the equation of its axis of symmetry.

ii. Find the coordinates of the points where its graph intersects the x-axis and the y-axis.

(2) Given cos α = 5

13 and α is an angle in the fourth quadrant, find the exact values of sin α
and tan α.

(3) Use the definition of parity to prove that the function f (x) = 1
x is an odd function.
 Chapter 4: Trigonometric Functions (Part 1)

Translated and Typeset from Original Text

4 Trigonometric Functions

4.1 Definition of Angles and Radian Measure

4.1.1 I. Definition of Angles

1. Definition of Angle

In a plane, a figure formed by rotating a ray around its endpoint from one position to another
is called an angle, often denoted by letters like α, β, etc. The endpoint of the ray is called the
vertex of the angle. The ray at the start of the rotation is called the initial side of the angle,
and the ray at the end of the rotation is called the terminal side of the angle.

2. Positive and Negative Angles

An angle formed by counterclockwise rotation is called a positive angle, and an angle formed
by clockwise rotation is called a negative angle (see Figure 4.1-1 and Figure 4.1-2).

Terminal side Vertex

Initial side
Negative angle

Positive angle
Initial side
Vertex Terminal side
Counterclockwise Clockwise

Figure 1: Positive angle Figure 2: Negative angle

3. Zero Angle

If the initial side and terminal side of an angle coincide without any rotation, it is a zero angle,
denoted as α = 0◦ .
4. Acute, Right, and Obtuse Angles

If 0◦ < α < 90◦ , it is called an acute angle;

If α = 90◦ , it is called a right angle;
If 90◦ < α < 180◦ , it is called an obtuse angle.

5. Quadrant Angles

If we place the vertex of an angle at the origin of a rectangular coordinate system, and align its
initial side with the positive direction of the x-axis, then the quadrant in which its terminal side
lies determines the quadrant of the angle. For example, 30◦ , −330◦ , 390◦ , and 750◦ are all first
quadrant angles (see Figure 4.1-3). However, if the terminal side lies exactly on a coordinate
axis, the angle does not belong to any quadrant.
y

390◦
30◦
x
O

Figure 3: Angles with the same terminal side

The conditions for an angle α to lie in a specific quadrant are:

• k · 360◦ < α < k · 360◦ + 90◦ (k ∈ Z) ⇐⇒ α is a first quadrant angle;

• k · 360◦ + 90◦ < α < k · 360◦ + 180◦ (k ∈ Z) ⇐⇒ α is a second quadrant angle;
• k · 360◦ + 180◦ < α < k · 360◦ + 270◦ (k ∈ Z) ⇐⇒ α is a third quadrant angle;
• k · 360◦ + 270◦ < α < k · 360◦ + 360◦ (k ∈ Z) ⇐⇒ α is a fourth quadrant angle.

Note: (1) Since angles α = k · 360◦ + β (k ∈ Z) share the same terminal side as angle β, they
belong to the same quadrant.
(2) To determine which quadrant an angle α is in, generally write it in the form α = k · 360◦ + β,
where −360◦ < β < 360◦ (k ∈ Z).

Example 1: Determine which quadrant the following angles are in: (1) 800◦ (2) 1000◦
(3) −1600◦

Solution: (1) Since 800◦ = 2 × 360◦ + 80◦ , and 80◦ is a first quadrant angle, 800◦ is a first
quadrant angle.
(2) Since 1000◦ = 3×360◦ −80◦ , and −80◦ is a fourth quadrant angle, 1000◦ is a fourth quadrant
angle.
(3) Since −1600◦ = (−4) × 360◦ − 160◦ , and −160◦ is a third quadrant angle, −1600◦ is a third
quadrant angle.

4.1.2 II. Radian Measure

In addition to degree measure, angles can also be measured in radians. 360◦ = 2π rad; 180◦ = π
rad.

Note: To determine which quadrant α is in when using radians, express it as α = k · 2π + β,

where −2π < β < 2π (k ∈ Z).

Example 2: Determine which quadrant the following angles are in: (1) 37π
6 (2) 341π
8 (3)
− 100π
3

Solution: (1) 37π

6 6 . Wait, a simpler way:
= 3π + π6 = 2π +π + π6 = 2π + 7π 37π
6 ÷2π = 37
12
1
= 3 + 12 .
So 37π
6 = 3 · 2π + π6 . Since π
6 is a first quadrant angle, 37π
6 is a first quadrant angle.

(2) 341π
8 ÷ 2π = 341
16 = 21 +16 . So
5 341π
8 = 21 · 2π + 8 .
5π
Since π
2 < 5π
8 < π, the angle 5π
8 is a
second quadrant angle. Thus, 8 is a second
341π
quadrant angle.

(3) − 100π
3 ÷2π = − 6 = −16− 6 = −16− 3 . So − 3 = −16·2π − 3 . Since − 2 < − 3 < −π,
100 4 2 100π 4π 3π 4π

3 is a second quadrant angle. Thus, − 3 is a second quadrant angle.

− 4π 100π

Exercises 4.1

1. Multiple Choice Questions

(1) Let set A = {angles less than 90◦ }, B = {first quadrant angles}. Then A ∩ B = ( ).

A. {Acute angles}
B. {Angles less than 90◦ }
C. {First quadrant angles}
D. None of the above

(2) If α is an acute angle, then α + 90◦ is a ( ).

A. First quadrant angle

 B. Second quadrant angle
C. Positive angle less than 180◦
D. Positive angle less than a right angle

(3) If α is a third quadrant angle, then α

2 is a ( ).

A. First or second quadrant angle

B. Second or third quadrant angle
C. First or third quadrant angle
D. Second or fourth quadrant angle

(4) Among the following angles, which one has the same terminal side as 330◦ ? ( )

A. 30◦
B. 150◦
C. −150◦
D. −30◦

(5) If α = 7 ,
6π
the terminal side of α lies in the ( ).

A. First quadrant
B. Second quadrant
C. Third quadrant
D. Fourth quadrant

(6) −300◦ = ( ).

A. − 4π
3
B. − 5π
3
C. − 7π
4
D. − 7π
6

2. Fill in the table.

Degrees 0◦ 30◦ 45◦ 60◦ 90◦ 120◦ 135◦ 150◦

Radians 0 π
6
π
4
π
3
π
2
2π
3
3π
4
5π
6

3. Determine which quadrant the following angles belong to: Group A: (1) 80◦ (2)
−215◦ (3) 305◦ (4) −150◦ (5) 5π
3 (6) − π9 (7) 11π
6 (8) − 5π
4

Group B: (1) 860◦ (2) 1356◦ (3) −2000◦ (4) −1200◦ (5) 31π
5 (6) 89π
7 (7) − 57π
9 (8)
− 97π
4
4.2 Definition and Relationships of Trigonometric Functions

4.2.1 I. Definition of Trigonometric Functions

Let α be an arbitrary angle in standard position, and P (x, y) be any point on the terminal side
of α (see Figure 4.2-1). Let r = x2 + y 2 . Then we define:
p

y
• Sine of α: sin α = r
• Cosine of α: cos α = x
r
y
• Tangent of α: tan α = x (x 6= 0)
• Cotangent of α: cot α = x
y (y 6= 0)
• Secant of α: sec α = r
x (x 6= 0)
• Cosecant of α: csc α = r
y (y 6= 0)

P (x, y)
y

α
x
O x

Figure 4: Definition of Trigonometric Functions

Example 1: Given that point P (−3, 4) is on the terminal side of angle α, find the values of
sin α, cos α, tan α, cot α, sec α, csc α.
p p √
Solution: x = −3, y = 4. r = x2 + y 2 = (−3)2 + 42 = 25 = 5.

y 4 x 3
sin α = = , cos α = =−
r 5 r 5
y 4 x 3
tan α = =− , cot α = =−
x 3 y 4
r 5 r 5
sec α = =− , csc α = =
x 3 y 4

4.2.2 II. Trigonometric Values of Special Angles

To easily remember the values for 30◦ , 45◦ , and 60◦ , you can use the following two right-angled
triangles:
 Degrees 0◦ 30◦ 45◦ 60◦ 90◦ 120◦ 135◦ 150◦ 180◦

Radians 0 π
6
π
4
π
3
π
2
2π
3
3π
4
5π
6 π
√ √ √ √
1 2 3 3 2 1
sin α 0 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 0
√ √ √ √
3 2 1 2 3
cos α 1 2 2 2 0 − 12 − 2 − 2 −1
√ √ √ √
tan α 0 3
3
1 3 Undef. − 3 −1 − 3
3
0
√ √ √ √
cot α Undef. 3 1 3
3
0 − 3
3
−1 − 3 Undef.

Table 1: Trigonometric values of special angles

√
60◦ 2 45◦ 2
1 1
30◦ 45◦
√
3 1

Since angles α and α + 2kπ (k ∈ Z) have the same terminal side, we have Formula 4-1:

sin(α + 2kπ) = sin α or sin(α + k · 360◦ ) = sin α

cos(α + 2kπ) = cos α or cos(α + k · 360◦ ) = cos α

tan(α + 2kπ) = tan α or tan(α + k · 360◦ ) = tan α

4.2.3 III. Signs of Trigonometric Functions

The signs of sin α, cos α, and tan α in different quadrants are summarized below (ASTC rule:
All, Sine, Tangent, Cosine):

Quadrant II: Sine +

Quadrant I: All +

x
O

Quadrant III: Tangent

Quadrant
+ IV: Cosine +

Figure 5: Signs of trigonometric functions

Example 2: Fill in the blanks with ">" or "<". (1) cos 250◦ 0 (2) sin(− π4 ) 0
(3) tan(−672◦ ) 0 (4) tan 11π
3 0

Solution: (1) Since 250◦ is a third quadrant angle, cos 250◦ < 0.
(2) Since − π4 is a fourth quadrant angle, sin(− π4 ) < 0.
(3) Since −672◦ = −2 × 360◦ + 48◦ , and 48◦ is a first quadrant angle, tan(−672◦ ) > 0.
(4) Since 11π
3 = 4π − π3 , it’s a fourth quadrant angle, so tan 11π
3 < 0.

Example 3: Given cos α > 0, then α is a ( ) quadrant angle. Solution: Since cos α = x
r > 0,
we have x > 0. The angle must be in Quadrant I or IV.

4.2.4 IV. Fundamental Relations Among Trigonometric Functions

From the definitions, we can derive the following fundamental identities:

sin2 α + cos2 α = 1 (1)

sin α
= tan α, tan α · cot α = 1 (2)
cos α
sec2 α = 1 + tan2 α, csc2 α = 1 + cot2 α (3)

Example 4: Given cos α = 14 , find the value of sin α.

√
Solution: From sin2 α + cos2 α = 1, we get sin α = ± 1 − cos2 α.
s  2 √
1 15
sin α = ± 1 − =±
4 4

Example 5: Given sin α = − 13 and α is a third quadrant angle, find cos α and tan α.
Solution: Since α is a third quadrant angle, cos α < 0.
s  2 √
p 1 2 2
cos α = − 1 − sin2 α = − 1 − − =−
3 3
√
sin α −1/3 1 2
tan α = = √ = √ =
cos α −2 2/3 2 2 4

Example 6: Given tan α = 3, evaluate sin α+2 cos α .

3 sin α−cos α

Solution: Divide the numerator and the denominator by cos α:

3 tan α − 1 3(3) − 1 8
= =
tan α + 2 3+2 5
Exercises 4.2
√
1. Given point P (2, −2 3) is on the terminal side of α, find sin α, cos α, tan α, cot α, sec α, csc α.

2. Given point P (−6, 8) is on the terminal side of α, find sin α, cos α, tan α, cot α, sec α, csc α.

3. Given point P (−1, −2) is on the terminal side of α, find sin α, cos α, tan α, cot α, sec α, csc α.

4. Evaluate the following:

(1) sin(−300◦ ), cos(−300◦ ), tan(−300◦ )

(2) sin(−690◦ ), cos(−690◦ ), tan(−690◦ )
(3) sin 17π 17π 17π
4 , cos 4 , tan 4

5. Fill in the blanks with ">" or "<": (1) sin 770◦ 0 (2) cos(−950◦ ) 0 (3) sin(− 99π
5 )
0

6. If the terminal side of α passes through P (1, −3), then sin α cos α = ( ).

7. cos 1110◦ = ( ).
√
8. If P ( 3, −1) is on the terminal side of α, then cos α + tan α = .

9. Given tan α = − 12 , evaluate sin α−3 cos α .

sin α+cos α

4.3 Induction Formulas of Trigonometric Functions

4.3.1 I. Formulas for π ± α and −α

As shown in Figure 4.3-1, let P (x, y) be a point on the terminal side of angle α. Let Q be the
corresponding point on the terminal side of π + α such that |OQ| = |OP |. The coordinates of
Q are (−x, −y). Let r = x2 + y 2 = |OP | = |OQ|.
p

From the definition, we have:

−y
sin(π + α) = = − sin α
r
−x
cos(π + α) = = − cos α
r
−y y
tan(π + α) = = = tan α
−x x
 y

π+α P (x, y)

α
x

Q(−x, −y)

Figure 6: Induction Formula Geometry for π + α

This gives us Formula 4-2:

sin(π + α) = − sin α (4)

cos(π + α) = − cos α (5)

tan(π + α) = tan α (6)

Similarly, for angle −α, the point is P 0 (x, −y), leading to Formula 4-3:

sin(−α) = − sin α (7)

cos(−α) = cos α (8)

tan(−α) = − tan α (9)

For angle π − α, using π + (−α), we get Formula 4-4:

sin(π − α) = sin α (10)

cos(π − α) = − cos α (11)

tan(π − α) = − tan α (12)

Rule of Thumb: The trigonometric function values for angles π ± α and −α are equal to the
same-named function value of α, with a sign determined by assuming α is an acute angle and
checking the original quadrant.

Example 1: Evaluate the following: (1) sin 210◦ (2) cos(−60◦ ) (3) tan 3π
4 (4)
sin 11π
6

Solution: (1) sin 210◦ = sin(180◦ + 30◦ ) = − sin 30◦ = − 12 .

(2) cos(−60◦ ) = cos 60◦ = 12 .
(3) tan 3π π π
4 = tan(π − 4 ) = − tan 4 = −1.
(4) sin 11π
6 = sin(2π − 6 ) = sin(− 6 ) = − sin 6 = − 2 .
π π π 1

π
4.3.2 II. Formulas for 2 ±α

By exploring the symmetry relative to the line y = x, we derive Formula 4-5:

π
sin( − α) = cos α (13)
2
π
cos( − α) = sin α (14)
2
π
tan( − α) = cot α (15)
2

And for π
2 + α, using π
2 − (−α), we get Formula 4-6:

π
sin( + α) = cos α (16)
2
π
cos( + α) = − sin α (17)
2
π
tan( + α) = − cot α (18)
2

Rule of Thumb for π

2 ± α: "Function name changes (sine to cosine, etc.), sign depends on the
original quadrant (assuming α is acute)."

Example 2: Given sin α = − 35 , find cos( π2 − α) and cos( π2 + α).

Solution: cos( π2 − α) = sin α = − 35 .
cos( π2 + α) = − sin α = −(− 35 ) = 35 .

Exercises 4.3

1. Evaluate the following trigonometric functions:

(1) sin 210◦ , cos 210◦ , tan 210◦

(2) sin 5π 5π 5π
4 , cos 4 , tan 4
(3) sin 180◦ , cos 180◦ , tan 180◦

2. Evaluate the following:

(1) sin(−45◦ ), cos(−45◦ ), tan(−45◦ )

(2) sin(− 7π 5π 4π
6 ), cos(− 4 ), tan( 3 )

3. Simplify the following expressions:

 − sin(180◦ +α)+sin(−α)−tan(360◦ +α)
(1) tan(180◦ +α)+cos(−α)+cos(180◦ −α)
sin(α−5π) cos( π2 −α) cos(8π−α)
(2) cos(3π−α) sin(α−3π) sin(−α−4π)

4. Calculate the values:

(1) sin 750◦ tan(−405◦ ) + cos(−660◦ )

(2) sin 585◦ cos 1290◦ + cos(−30◦ ) sin 210◦
(3) sin(−420◦ ) + cos 510◦ − tan 675◦ + cot 390◦
 Chapter 4: Trigonometric Functions (Part 2)

Translated and Typeset from Original Text

3.4 Graphs and Properties of Trigonometric Functions

3.4.1 I. Graph and Properties of the Sine Function

The function y = sin x is called the sine function. We can sketch its graph over the interval
[0, 2π] using the five-point method. The five key points are: (0, 0), ( π2 , 1), (π, 0), ( 3π
2 , −1),
and (2π, 0). By plotting these points and connecting them with a smooth curve, we obtain the
fundamental cycle of the sine wave. Using its periodicity, we can extend this graph along the
x-axis.
y

1
3π
2
x
−π O π π 2π
2

−1

Figure 1: Graph of y = sin x

Properties of y = sin x:

1. Domain: R, Range: [−1, 1]. Maximum value is 1 (when x = π

2 + 2kπ, k ∈ Z), minimum
value is −1 (when x = 3π
2 + 2kπ, k ∈ Z).

2. Periodicity: It is a periodic function with a fundamental period of T = 2π.

3. Parity: sin(−x) = − sin x, so it is an odd function. Its graph is symmetric with respect
to the origin.
 4. Monotonicity: It is strictly increasing on the intervals [− π2 + 2kπ, π2 + 2kπ] (k ∈ Z),
and strictly decreasing on the intervals [ π2 + 2kπ, 3π
2 + 2kπ] (k ∈ Z).

3.4.2 II. Graph and Properties of the Cosine Function

The function y = cos x is called the cosine function. Since cos x = sin(x + π2 ), the graph of
the cosine function can be obtained by shifting the sine curve to the left by π
2 units. Its five key
points in [0, 2π] are: (0, 1), ( π2 , 0), (π, −1), ( 3π
2 , 0), and (2π, 1).

π
π
x
O 2
3π 2π
2

−1

Figure 2: Graph of y = cos x

Properties of y = cos x:

1. Domain: R, Range: [−1, 1]. Maximum value is 1 (when x = 2kπ), minimum value is
−1 (when x = π + 2kπ).

2. Periodicity: It is a periodic function with a fundamental period of T = 2π.

3. Parity: cos(−x) = cos x, so it is an even function. Its graph is symmetric with respect
to the y-axis.

4. Monotonicity: It is strictly increasing on the intervals [−π + 2kπ, 2kπ] (k ∈ Z), and
strictly decreasing on the intervals [2kπ, π + 2kπ] (k ∈ Z).

3.4.3 III. Graph and Properties of the Tangent Function

The function y = tan x is called the tangent function. The graph of the tangent function
consists of infinitely many separate branches, divided by vertical asymptotes.
 x = − π2 y x= π
2

x
−π O π

Figure 3: Graph of y = tan x

Properties of y = tan x:

1. Domain: {x | x 6= π
2 + kπ, k ∈ Z}.

2. Range: R = (−∞, +∞). It has no maximum or minimum values.

3. Periodicity: It is a periodic function with a fundamental period of T = π.

4. Parity: tan(−x) = − tan x, so it is an odd function. Its graph is symmetric with respect
to the origin.

5. Monotonicity: It is strictly increasing on every interval (− π2 +kπ, π2 +kπ) (k ∈ Z). Note

that it is not monotonically increasing over its entire domain, only within each continuous
branch.

Example 1: Find the domain of the function y = 2 sin x−1 .

1

Solution: For the function to be meaningful, the denominator cannot be zero.

1
2 sin x − 1 6= 0 =⇒ sin x 6=
2

The solutions to sin x = 1

2 are x = π
6 + 2kπ and x = 5π
6 + 2kπ (k ∈ Z). Therefore, the domain
is {x | x 6= π
6 + 2kπ and x 6= 5π
6 + 2kπ, k ∈ Z}.
Exercises 4.4

1. Determine the parity of the following functions:

(1) y = x2 cos x
(2) y = sin x + tan x
(3) y = | sin x|

2. Find the maximum and minimum values of the function y = 3 − 2 cos x, and state the
values of x for which they occur.

3. Without evaluating the functions, compare the sizes of the following pairs:

(1) sin 170◦ and sin 160◦

(2) cos(− 8π
7 ) and cos(− 7 )
9π

3.5 The Graph of Function y = A sin(ωx + ϕ)

In many physical applications (such as alternating current and simple harmonic motion), we
encounter functions of the form y = A sin(ωx + ϕ), where A > 0 and ω > 0. The physical
meanings of the constants are:

• A (Amplitude): The maximum deviation from the equilibrium position. The range of
the function is [−A, A].

• T (Period): The time taken for one complete cycle, calculated as T = ω .

2π

• f (Frequency): The number of cycles per unit time, f = 1

T = 2π .
ω

• ωx + ϕ (Phase): Determines the state of the oscillation at any given x.

• ϕ (Initial Phase): The phase when x = 0.

Transformations from y = sin x to y = A sin(ωx + ϕ):

1. Phase Shift (Translation): Transform y = sin x into y = sin(x + ϕ). Shift the graph of
y = sin x to the left by ϕ units (if ϕ > 0) or to the right by |ϕ| units (if ϕ < 0).

2. Change of Period (Horizontal Scaling): Transform y = sin(x+ϕ) into y = sin(ωx+ϕ).

Compress (if ω > 1) or stretch (if 0 < ω < 1) the graph horizontally by a factor of ω,
1

keeping the y-coordinates unchanged.

 3. Change of Amplitude (Vertical Scaling): Transform y = sin(ωx + ϕ) into y =
A sin(ωx + ϕ). Stretch (if A > 1) or compress (if 0 < A < 1) the graph vertically by a
factor of A, keeping the x-coordinates unchanged.

Example 2: State the sequence of transformations required to obtain the graph of y = 3 sin(2x+
π
3) from the graph of y = sin x.

Solution: Step 1: Shift the graph of y = sin x to the left by π

3 units to get y = sin(x + π3 ).
Step 2: Compress the graph horizontally to 1
2 of its original width to get y = sin(2x + π3 ).
Step 3: Stretch the graph vertically to 3 times its original height to get y = 3 sin(2x + π3 ).

Exercises 4.5

1. Find the amplitude, period, and initial phase of the following functions:

(1) y = 2 sin(3x − π4 )
(2) y = 1
2 cos( 12 x + π6 )

2. Describe how to obtain the graph of y = 2 sin( 12 x − π4 ) from the graph of y = sin x using
graphical transformations.

Self-Test 4

1. Multiple Choice Questions (Choose the single correct answer from the four options
provided for each question).

(1) If the terminal side of an angle α passes through the point P (−3, 4), then sin α = ( ).

A. 4
5 B. − 35 C. 3
5 D. − 45

y
= 45 . Correct answer: A.
p
Solution: r = (−3)2 + 42 = 5. sin α = r

(2) In which quadrant are both the sine and tangent functions negative? ( )

A. Quadrant I B. Quadrant II C. Quadrant III D. Quadrant IV

Solution: Sine is negative in QIII and QIV. Tangent is negative in QII and QIV. Both are
negative in QIV. Correct answer: D.
 (3) The period of the function y = sin 2x is ( ).

A. π
2 B. π C. 2π D. 4π

Solution: Period T = 2π
ω = 2π
2 = π. Correct answer: B.

(4) Which of the following equals sin α? ( )

A. sin(π − α) B. sin(π + α) C. sin(2π − α) D. sin(3π + α)

Solution: From the induction formula, sin(π − α) = sin α. Correct answer: A.

(5) The domain of the function y = tan( π4 − x) is ( ).

A. {x | x 6= π4 }
B. {x | x 6= − π4 }
C. {x | x 6= kπ + π4 , k ∈ Z}
D. {x | x 6= kπ + 3π
4 ,k ∈ Z}

Solution: We require π
4 − x 6= kπ + π2 . Solving for x gives x 6= −kπ − π4 . Since k spans all
integers, this is equivalent to x 6= kπ + 4 .
3π
Correct answer: D.

(6) The function y = 2 cot(x + π2 ) is ( ).

A. An odd function B. An even function C. Both odd and even D. Neither

odd nor even

Solution: cot(x + π2 ) = − tan x. So y = −2 tan x. Since tan(−x) = − tan x, y(−x) =

−2 tan(−x) = 2 tan x = −y(x). It is an odd function. Correct answer: A.

(7) If sin(α + π6 ) = 45 , then sin(α + 7π

6 ) = ( ).
√ √
A. − 45 B. 4
5 C. − 2 5 3 D. 2 3
5

Solution: Notice that 7π

6 = π6 +π. Thus, sin(α+ 7π
6 ) = sin((α+ 6 )+π) = − sin(α+ 6 ) = − 5 .
π π 4

Correct answer: A.

2. Fill in the blanks.

(1) Convert 150◦ into radians: .

(2) Convert 5π
3 rad into degrees: .

(3) The minimum value of the function y = 3 sin x − 2 is , which occurs when x =
.
 (4) If tan α = 12 , then sin α+3 cos α
sin α−cos α = .
(Solution hint: Divide the numerator and denominator by cos α. The expression becomes
tan α+3 0.5+3 3.5
tan α−1 = 0.5−1 = −0.5 = −7.)

3. Calculation Questions.

(1) Given cos α = − 35 and α is a third quadrant angle, calculate the exact values of sin α and
tan α.

(2) Simplify the following trigonometric expression:

sin(π + α) cos(−α)
cos(π − α) tan(π + α)
 Chapter 5: Trigonometric Functions of Sum and
Difference of Two Angles (Part 1)

Translated and Typeset from Original Text

5 Trigonometric Functions of Sum and Difference of Two Angles

In practical calculations, we often need to find the trigonometric function values of the sum or
difference of two angles (such as α + β or α − β) based on the trigonometric function values of
the individual angles α and β. This section introduces the fundamental formulas for the sine,
cosine, and tangent of the sum and difference of two angles.

5.1 Sum and Difference Formulas for Sine, Cosine, and Tangent

5.1.1 Sine Formulas for the Sum and Difference of Two Angles

The formulas for the sine of the sum and difference of two angles, α and β, are given as follows:

Sum Formula for Sine:

sin(α + β) = sin α cos β + cos α sin β (1)

Difference Formula for Sine:

sin(α − β) = sin α cos β − cos α sin β (2)

Example 1: Calculate the exact value of sin 75◦ .

Solution: By rewriting 75◦ as the sum of two special angles (45◦ and 30◦ ), we can apply the
sum formula for sine:

sin 75◦ = sin(45◦ + 30◦ )

= sin 45◦ cos 30◦ + cos 45◦ sin 30◦

√ √ √
2 3 2 1
= × + ×
√2 √2 2 2
6+ 2
=
4

Example 2: Given sin α = − 13 and cos β = 14 , where both α and β are angles in the fourth
quadrant. Find the value of sin(α − β).

Solution: Since α is a fourth quadrant angle and sin α = − 13 , we have cos α > 0. Using the
Pythagorean identity sin2 α + cos2 α = 1:
s  2 r √
p 1 8 2 2
cos α = 1 − sin2 α = 1− − = =
3 9 3

Since β is also a fourth quadrant angle and cos β = 14 , we have sin β < 0:
s  2 r √
p 1 15 15
sin β = − 1 − cos2 β = − 1 − =− =−
4 16 4

Now, substitute these values into the difference formula for sine:

sin(α − β) = sin α cos β − cos α sin β

    √ ! √ !
1 1 2 2 15
= − × − × −
3 4 3 4
√
1 2 30
=− +
12
√ 12
2 30 − 1
=
12

5.1.2 Cosine Formulas for the Sum and Difference of Two Angles

The formulas for the cosine of the sum and difference of two angles are:

Sum Formula for Cosine:

cos(α + β) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β (3)

Difference Formula for Cosine:

cos(α − β) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β (4)

Note: Pay special attention to the signs in the cosine formulas. The sign in the middle of the
expansion is the opposite of the sign inside the argument.

Example 3: Calculate the exact value of cos 15◦ .

Solution: Rewriting 15◦ as 45◦ − 30◦ , we apply the difference formula for cosine:

cos 15◦ = cos(45◦ − 30◦ )

= cos 45◦ cos 30◦ + sin 45◦ sin 30◦

√ √ √
2 3 2 1
= × + ×
√2 √2 2 2
6+ 2
=
4

Example 4: Simplify the expression cos 40◦ cos 20◦ − sin 40◦ sin 20◦ .

Solution: Recognizing the structure of the sum formula for cosine (cos α cos β − sin α sin β =
cos(α + β)), we have:

cos 40◦ cos 20◦ − sin 40◦ sin 20◦ = cos(40◦ + 20◦ )

= cos 60◦
1
=
2

5.1.3 Tangent Formulas for the Sum and Difference of Two Angles

sin θ
Using the quotient identity tan θ = cos θ along with the sine and cosine sum/difference formulas,
we can derive the formulas for the tangent of the sum and difference of two angles:

Sum Formula for Tangent:

tan α + tan β
tan(α + β) = (5)
1 − tan α tan β

Difference Formula for Tangent:

tan α − tan β
tan(α − β) = (6)
1 + tan α tan β
Conditions: These formulas hold provided that α, β, and α ± β are not equal to kπ + π2 (k ∈ Z),
meaning the tangents must be defined.

Example 5: Calculate the exact value of tan 105◦ .

Solution: We can rewrite 105◦ as 60◦ + 45◦ and use the sum formula for tangent:

tan 105◦ = tan(60◦ + 45◦ )

tan 60◦ + tan 45◦
=
1 − tan 60◦ tan 45◦
√
3+1
= √
1− 3×1
√
1+ 3
= √
1− 3
To rationalize the denominator, multiply the numerator and denominator by the conjugate
√
(1 + 3):
√
◦ (1 + 3)2
tan 105 = √ √
(1 − 3)(1 + 3)
√
1+2 3+3
=
1−3
√
4+2 3
=
−2
√
= −2 − 3

Example 6: Given tan α = 2 and tan β = 3, find the value of tan(α + β).

Solution: Substituting the given values directly into the tangent sum formula:
tan α + tan β
tan(α + β) =
1 − tan α tan β
2+3
=
1−2×3
5
=
1−6
5
=
−5
= −1

Exercises 5.1

1. Evaluate the exact values of the following trigonometric expressions:

 (1) sin 15◦

(2) cos 75◦

(3) tan 15◦

2. Simplify the following expressions:

(1) sin 47◦ cos 17◦ − cos 47◦ sin 17◦

(2) cos 25◦ cos 35◦ − sin 25◦ sin 35◦

tan 20◦ +tan 25◦

(3) 1−tan 20◦ tan 25◦

3. Calculation Questions:

(1) Given sin α = 45 , and α ∈ π

. Find the exact value of cos α + π3 .



2,π

(2) Given cos α = − 35 and cos β = 12

13 , where α is a third quadrant angle and β is a fourth
quadrant angle. Calculate the exact value of sin(α − β).

1
(3) Given tan α = 2 and tan β = 13 . Find the value of tan(α + β).
 Chapter 5: Trigonometric Functions of Sum and
Difference of Two Angles (Part 2)

Translated and Typeset from Original Text

4.2 Double-Angle Formulas

By setting β = α in the sum formulas for sine, cosine, and tangent derived in the previous
section, we can obtain the formulas for the trigonometric functions of double angles (i.e., 2α).

4.2.1 Double-Angle Formula for Sine

From the sum formula sin(α + β) = sin α cos β + cos α sin β, let β = α:

sin(α + α) = sin α cos α + cos α sin α

This simplifies to the double-angle formula for sine:

sin 2α = 2 sin α cos α (1)

4.2.2 Double-Angle Formula for Cosine

From the sum formula cos(α + β) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β, let β = α:

cos(α + α) = cos α cos α − sin α sin α

This gives the primary double-angle formula for cosine:

cos 2α = cos2 α − sin2 α (2)

Using the Pythagorean identity sin2 α + cos2 α = 1, we can express cos 2α entirely in terms of
sine or cosine.
Substituting sin2 α = 1 − cos2 α into the primary formula:

cos 2α = cos2 α − (1 − cos2 α)

cos 2α = 2 cos2 α − 1 (3)

Substituting cos2 α = 1 − sin2 α into the primary formula:

cos 2α = (1 − sin2 α) − sin2 α

cos 2α = 1 − 2 sin2 α (4)

Note: The alternate forms of the double-angle cosine formula are extremely useful for power-
reduction, specifically:
1 + cos 2α 1 − cos 2α
cos2 α = and sin2 α =
2 2

4.2.3 Double-Angle Formula for Tangent

tan α+tan β
From the sum formula tan(α + β) = 1−tan α tan β , let β = α:

tan α + tan α
tan(α + α) =
1 − tan α tan α
This yields the double-angle formula for tangent:
2 tan α
tan 2α = (5)
1 − tan2 α
π kπ π
Condition: This formula holds provided α 6= 4 + 2 and α 6= 2 + kπ (k ∈ Z).

3 π


Example 1: Given sin α = 5 and α ∈ 2,π . Find the values of sin 2α, cos 2α, and tan 2α.

Solution: Since α is a second quadrant angle and sin α = 35 , cos α must be negative.
s  2
p
2 3 4
cos α = − 1 − sin α = − 1 − =−
5 5

Now, we calculate the double-angle values:

  
3 4 24
sin 2α = 2 sin α cos α = 2 − =−
5 5 25
 2  2
4 3 16 9 7
cos 2α = cos2 α − sin2 α = − − = − =
5 5 25 25 25
sin 2α −24/25 24
tan 2α = = =−
cos 2α 7/25 7
(Alternatively, tan 2α could be found using the double-angle tangent formula after determining
tan α = − 34 .)
Example 2: Evaluate the expression 2 cos2 15◦ − 1.

Solution: Recognizing the structure of the alternate double-angle formula for cosine (cos 2θ =
2 cos2 θ − 1), we set θ = 15◦ :

2 cos2 15◦ − 1 = cos(2 × 15◦ )

= cos 30◦
√
3
=
2

Exercises 5.2

1. Evaluate the following expressions without using a calculator:

(1) 2 sin 22.5◦ cos 22.5◦

π π
(2) cos2 8 − sin2 8

(3) 1 − 2 sin2 75◦

2. Calculation Questions:

5
(1) Given cos α = − 13 and α is a third quadrant angle. Find sin 2α, cos 2α, and tan 2α.

(2) Given tan α = 2. Find the value of tan 2α.

Self-Test 5

1. Multiple Choice Questions (Choose the single correct answer from the options provided).

(1) cos 15◦ cos 45◦ − sin 15◦ sin 45◦ = ( )

√ √
1 3 3
A. 2 B. 2 C. − 12 D. − 2

Hint: Use cos(α + β) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β. cos(15◦ + 45◦ ) = cos 60◦ = 12 . Option A.
 (2) The value of 2 sin 15◦ cos 15◦ is ( )
√ √
2 3 1
A. 2 B. 2 C. 2 D. 1

Hint: Use sin 2α = 2 sin α cos α. sin(2 × 15◦ ) = sin 30◦ = 12 . Option C.

(3) If sin α = 45 , and α ∈ π

2,π , then cos 2α = ( )

7 7 24
A. 25 B. − 25 C. 25 D. − 24
25

16 32 7
Hint: Use cos 2α = 1 − 2 sin2 α = 1 − 2


25 =1− 25 = − 25 . Option B.

(4) sin 105◦ = ( )

√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
6− 2 6+ 2 2− 6 6+ 2
A. 4 B. 4 C. 4 D. − 4
√ √ √ √ √
Hint: sin(60◦ + 45◦ ) = sin 60◦ cos 45◦ + cos 60◦ sin 45◦ = 3 2
2 2 + 12 2
2
= 6+ 2
4 . Option B.

2. Fill in the Blanks.

(1) If cos α = − 23 , and π < α < 3π

2 , then cos α2 = .
Hint: cos α = 2 cos2 α2 −1 ⇒ cos2 α2 = 1+cos α
2 = 1
6. Since π
2 < α
2 < 3π
4 (Quadrant II),
√
6
cos α2 = − 6 .

(2) cos 75◦ = .

√ √
Hint: cos(45◦ + 30◦ ) = 6− 2
4 .

(3) If sin α = − 37 , then cos 2α = .

9 31
Hint: cos 2α = 1 − 2 sin2 α = 1 − 2


49 = 49 .

(4) cos 85◦ cos 25◦ + sin 85◦ sin 25◦ = .

Hint: cos(85◦ − 25◦ ) = cos 60◦ = 1
2.

(5) If cos α = − 34 , and π < α < 3π

2 , then tan 2α = .
q √ √ √ √
2 7/3
Hint: sin α = − 1 − 16 9
= − 47 . Then tan α = 7
3 . tan 2α = 2 tan α
1−tan2 α
= 1−7/9 = 3 7.
 Chapter 6: Sequences (Part 2)

Translated and Typeset from Original Text

6.3 Geometric Sequences

6.3.1 I. Concept of Geometric Sequence

Definition: If a sequence has the property that the ratio of any term to its preceding term
(starting from the second term) is equal to the same non-zero constant, this sequence is called
a geometric sequence. This constant is called the common ratio of the geometric sequence,
usually denoted by the letter q (q 6= 0).

Expressed as a mathematical formula:

an
=q (n ≥ 2, q 6= 0) (1)
an−1

4 8 16
For example, the sequence 2, 4, 8, 16, . . . is a geometric sequence because 2 = 2, 4 = 2, 8 = 2.
Its common ratio is q = 2.

6.3.2 II. General Term Formula of a Geometric Sequence

If the first term of a geometric sequence is a1 and the common ratio is q, then:

a2 = a1 q

a3 = a2 q = a1 q 2

a4 = a3 q = a1 q 3
..
.

By induction, we obtain the general term formula for a geometric sequence:

an = a1 q n−1 (2)

Example 1: Find the 5th term of the geometric sequence 3, −6, 12, . . . .
 −6
Solution: Here, the first term a1 = 3, and the common ratio q = 3 = −2. Using the general
term formula an = a1 q n−1 , when n = 5:

a5 = 3 × (−2)5−1 = 3 × (−2)4 = 3 × 16 = 48

6.3.3 III. Geometric Mean

If three non-zero numbers a, G, b form a geometric sequence, then G is called the geometric
G b
mean between a and b. According to the definition of a geometric sequence, we have a = G,
which simplifies to:
√
G2 = ab =⇒ G = ± ab (3)

Note: a and b must have the same sign for their geometric mean to exist as a real number.

Properties of Geometric Sequences: In a geometric sequence {an }, if the sum of the indices
are equal (m + n = p + q), then the product of the corresponding terms are also equal:

am · an = ap · aq (m, n, p, q ∈ N+ ) (4)

6.3.4 IV. Sum of the First n Terms of a Geometric Sequence

Let the sum of the first n terms of a geometric sequence {an } be Sn .

Sn = a1 + a1 q + a1 q 2 + · · · + a1 q n−1

Multiply both sides by q:

qSn = a1 q + a1 q 2 + a1 q 3 + · · · + a1 q n

Subtracting the second equation from the first gives:

Sn − qSn = a1 − a1 q n =⇒ (1 − q)Sn = a1 (1 − q n )

Thus, the formula for the sum of the first n terms is:

 a1 (1−qn ) , (q =

6 1)
1−q
Sn = (5)
na1 ,

(q = 1)

Since an = a1 q n−1 , we can also write the formula as:

a1 − an q
Sn = (q 6= 1) (6)
1−q
Example 2: Find the sum of the first 6 terms of the geometric sequence 1, 12 , 14 , . . . .

Solution: Given a1 = 1, q = 12 , and n = 6. Since q 6= 1, we use the sum formula:



1 6
6
a1 (1 − q ) 1 × 1 − 2
S6 = = 1
1−q 1− 2
1 63
1− 64 64 63
= 1 = 1 =
2 2
32

Exercises 6.3

1. Fill in the blanks:

(1) The geometric mean between 2 and 8 is .

(2) In the geometric sequence {an }, if a1 = 3 and q = 2, then a4 = .

(3) In the geometric sequence {an }, if a2 · a8 = 36, then a4 · a6 = .

2. Calculation Questions:

(1) In a geometric sequence, a2 = 6 and a5 = 48. Find a1 , the common ratio q, and S5 .

(2) Evaluate the sum: 1 + 3 + 32 + · · · + 310 .

Self-Test 6

1. Multiple Choice Questions (Choose the single correct answer from the four options
provided for each question).

(1) If the general term of a sequence is an = 2n2 − 3, then a4 = ( ).

A. 28 B. 29 C. 30 D. 31

Hint: Substitute n = 4 into the formula. a4 = 2(4)2 − 3 = 2(16) − 3 = 32 − 3 = 29. Option

B.
 (2) The arithmetic mean of 2 and 14 is ( ).

A. 10 B. 8 C. ±8 D. 6

a+b 2+14
Hint: Arithmetic mean A = 2 = 2 = 8. Option B.

(3) The general term formula for the sequence 0, 23 , 45 , 67 , . . . is ( ).

n−1
A. an = n+1
n−1
B. an = 2n+1
2(n−1)
C. an = 2n−1
2n
D. an = 2n+1

Hint: Check the terms for n = 1, 2, 3, 4. For option C: n = 1 =⇒ a1 = 0. n = 2 =⇒

2(1) 2(2)
a2 = 3 = 23 . n = 3 =⇒ a3 = 5 = 45 . Matches perfectly. Option C.

n
(4) If Sn is the sum of the first n terms of sequence {an }, and Sn = n+1 , then a5 = ( ).

5 6 1
A. 6 B. 5 C. 30 D. 30

5 4 25−24 1
Hint: a5 = S5 − S4 = 6 − 5 = 30 = 30 . Option C.

(5) If {an } is an arithmetic sequence, and a2 + a12 = 10, then a7 = ( ).

A. 5 B. 6 C. 7 D. 8

Hint: By properties of arithmetic sequences, a2 + a12 = a7 + a7 = 2a7 . Thus 2a7 = 10 =⇒

a7 = 5. Option A.

(6) Which of the following sequences is a geometric sequence? ( )

A. 2, 4, 6, 8, . . .
B. 22 , 24 , 26 , 28 , . . .
C. 1, −1, 1, −1, 0, . . .
D. 1, 12 , 13 , 14 , . . .

24
Hint: Option B has a constant ratio q = 22
= 22 = 4. Option A is arithmetic, C is not
geometric (ratio fails at 0), D is harmonic. Option B.

2. Fill in the Blanks.

(1) In an arithmetic sequence, if a1 = 3 and d = 4, then a5 = .

(2) In a geometric sequence, if a1 = 2 and q = 3, then the general term an = .

(3) The sum of the first 10 terms of the arithmetic sequence 2, 5, 8, . . . is .

 (4) If the geometric mean of x and 4 is 6, then x = .
Hint: 62 = 4x =⇒ 36 = 4x =⇒ x = 9.

3. Calculation Questions.

(1) The sum of the first n terms of an arithmetic sequence is Sn = n2 + 2n. Find the general
term formula an .

(2) In a geometric sequence {an }, it is given that a3 = 12 and a6 = 96.

i. Find the first term a1 and the common ratio q.

ii. Find the sum of the first 8 terms, S8 .

 Chapter 7: Straight Lines in the Plane (Part 1)

Translated and Typeset from Original Text

7 Straight Lines in the Plane

7.1 Angle of Inclination and Slope of a Line

7.1.1 I. Angle of Inclination of a Line

Definition 1: When a line intersects the x-axis, the angle formed by the positive direction of
the x-axis and the upward direction of the line is called the angle of inclination of the line,
usually denoted by α.

Specifically, when the line is parallel to or coincides with the x-axis, its angle of inclination is
defined as 0◦ . As shown in the figures below, α1 and α2 are the angles of inclination for lines l1
and l2 respectively, while the angle of inclination for line l3 is 0◦ .

y y y
l1 l2
α3 = 0◦
l3
α2
α1
x x x
O O O

Figure 1: Acute Angle Figure 2: Obtuse Angle Figure 3: Zero Angle

Note 1: The range of the angle of inclination is 0◦ ≤ α < 180◦ .

7.1.2 II. Slope of a Line

Definition 2: When the angle of inclination of a line α 6= 90◦ , we call tan α the slope of the
line. The slope is usually denoted by k, i.e.,

k = tan α (1)

Specifically, when the angle of inclination α = 90◦ (the line is perpendicular to the x-axis), the
slope of the line does not exist.

Example 1: If the angle of inclination of a line is 45◦ , what is its slope?

Solution: k = tan 45◦ = 1.

7.1.3 III. Slope Formula Given Two Points

If a line passes through two distinct points P1 (x1 , y1 ) and P2 (x2 , y2 ), and x1 6= x2 (meaning the
line is not perpendicular to the x-axis), its slope k can be calculated using the coordinates of
the two points:
y2 − y1
k= (2)
x2 − x1

Example 2: Find the slope of the line passing through the points A(−2, 3) and B(4, −1).

Solution: Using the slope formula:

−1 − 3 −4 2
k= = =−
4 − (−2) 6 3

Exercises 7.1

1. Fill in the blanks or calculate:

(1) If the angle of inclination of a line is 60◦ , its slope k = .

√
(2) If the slope of a line is k = 3, its angle of inclination α = .

(3) Find the slope of the line passing through points C(1, 4) and D(3, 8).
7.2 Equations of a Straight Line

Just as an equation can represent a set of numbers, an equation in two variables x and y can
represent a curve (or a straight line) in a coordinate plane. For a straight line, there are several
common forms of its equation.

7.2.1 I. Point-Slope Form

If a line l passes through a known point P1 (x1 , y1 ) and has a known slope k, then for any other
point P (x, y) on the line, the slope calculated using P and P1 must equal k:
y − y1
=k
x − x1
Multiplying both sides by (x − x1 ) yields the point-slope form equation of the line:

y − y1 = k(x − x1 ) (3)

Note: This form cannot represent vertical lines (where slope k does not exist). A vertical line
passing through P1 (x1 , y1 ) has the equation x = x1 .

Example 3: Find the equation of the line passing through the point A(2, −3) with a slope of
4.

Solution: Using the point-slope form with x1 = 2, y1 = −3, and k = 4:

y − (−3) = 4(x − 2)

y + 3 = 4x − 8 =⇒ 4x − y − 11 = 0

7.2.2 II. Slope-Intercept Form

If a line l has a slope k and its intersection point with the y-axis is (0, b), then b is called the
y-intercept of the line. Using the point-slope form with the point (0, b):

y − b = k(x − 0)

This simplifies to the slope-intercept form:

y = kx + b (4)

Example 4: Find the slope and the y-intercept of the line with the equation 2x + 3y − 6 = 0.

Solution: Rearrange the equation into the slope-intercept form (y = kx + b):

2
3y = −2x + 6 =⇒ y = − x + 2
3
Comparing with y = kx + b, the slope is k = − 23 , and the y-intercept is b = 2.
7.2.3 III. General Form

In a rectangular coordinate system, the equation of any straight line can be written as a linear
equation in two variables x and y. This is called the general form of the line equation:

Ax + By + C = 0 (where A and B are not both zero) (5)

By rearranging the general form, we can easily find the slope and intercepts of the line:

• If B 6= 0, the equation can be rewritten as y = − B

A
x− B.
C
Thus, the slope k = − B
A
and
the y-intercept b = − B
C
.

• The x-intercept (where y = 0) is x = − C

A (provided A 6= 0).

Exercises 7.2

1. Find the equation of the line for each of the following conditions (express your
final answer in general form Ax + By + C = 0):

(1) Passing through point (1, 2) with a slope of 3.

(2) Passing through point (−3, 4) with an angle of inclination of 135◦ .

(3) Passing through the two points A(−1, −2) and B(3, 6).

2. Find the slope, x-intercept, and y-intercept of the following lines:

(1) 3x − 4y + 12 = 0

(2) x + 2y − 8 = 0
 Chapter 7: Straight Lines in the Plane (Part 2)

Translated and Typeset from Original Text

7.3 Positional Relationships Between Two Lines

In a plane coordinate system, the positional relationship between two straight lines can be
determined by their slopes and intercepts, or by the coefficients in their general equations. The
three main relationships are intersecting, parallel, and coincident. Special attention is given
to the case of perpendicular intersection.

7.3.1 I. Intersection of Two Lines

If two lines l1 and l2 intersect, they have exactly one common point. The coordinates of this
intersection point must satisfy the equations of both lines. Therefore, finding the intersection
point of two lines is equivalent to solving the system of linear equations formed by their line
equations.

Given two lines in general form: l1 : A1 x + B1 y + C1 = 0 l2 : A2 x + B2 y + C2 = 0 If A1

A2 6= B2 ,
B1

the system has a unique solution, meaning the two lines intersect at one point.

Example 1: Find the coordinates of the intersection point of the lines l1 : 2x + y − 5 = 0 and
l2 : x − y + 2 = 0.

Solution: Set up the system of equations:


2x + y − 5 = 0

(1)
x − y + 2 = 0

(2)

Adding equation (1) and equation (2) gives: 3x − 3 = 0 =⇒ x = 1. Substituting x = 1 into

equation (2) gives: 1 − y + 2 = 0 =⇒ y = 3. Therefore, the intersection point of the two lines
is (1, 3).
7.3.2 II. Parallel Lines

For two non-vertical lines l1 and l2 with slopes k1 and k2 and y-intercepts b1 and b2 :

• The two lines are parallel (l1 k l2 ) if and only if their slopes are equal and their y-intercepts
are different:
l1 k l2 ⇐⇒ k1 = k2 and b1 6= b2 (1)

• If both k1 = k2 and b1 = b2 , the two lines are coincident.

If both lines are vertical, their slopes do not exist, but they are parallel to each other.

Example 2: Determine if the line l1 : 2x − 3y + 4 = 0 is parallel to the line l2 : 4x − 6y − 1 = 0.

Solution: Transform both equations into the slope-intercept form to find their slopes: For l1 :
3y = 2x + 4 =⇒ y = 23 x + 43 . Thus, k1 = 23 . For l2 : 6y = 4x − 1 =⇒ y = 23 x − 16 . Thus,

3. Since k1 = k2 = and their y-intercepts are different ( 43 6= − 16 ), the two lines are
2 2
k2 = 3
parallel (l1 k l2 ).

7.3.3 III. Perpendicular Lines

For two non-vertical lines l1 and l2 with slopes k1 and k2 : The two lines are perpendicular
(l1 ⊥ l2 ) if and only if the product of their slopes is −1:

l1 ⊥ l2 ⇐⇒ k1 · k2 = −1 (2)

If one line is horizontal (k = 0) and the other is vertical (slope undefined), they are also
perpendicular.

For equations in the general form A1 x + B1 y + C1 = 0 and A2 x + B2 y + C2 = 0, the condition

for them to be perpendicular is:
A1 A2 + B1 B2 = 0 (3)

Example 3: Find the equation of the line passing through point P (1, 2) and perpendicular to
the line 3x − y + 2 = 0.

Solution: The given line is y = 3x + 2, so its slope is k1 = 3. Let the slope of the required
perpendicular line be k2 . Since k1 · k2 = −1, we have 3 · k2 = −1 =⇒ k2 = − 13 . Using the
point-slope form with P (1, 2) and k2 = − 13 :

1
y − 2 = − (x − 1)
3
Multiplying by 3 gives: 3y − 6 = −x + 1 =⇒ x + 3y − 7 = 0.

7.4 Distance from a Point to a Line

In a rectangular coordinate system, the shortest distance from a given point P (x0 , y0 ) to a given
line l : Ax + By + C = 0 is the length of the perpendicular segment dropped from the point to
the line.

The Distance Formula from a Point to a Line is:

|Ax0 + By0 + C|
d= √ (4)
A2 + B 2

Example 4: Find the distance from the point P (3, −2) to the line 4x − 3y + 2 = 0.

Solution: Here x0 = 3, y0 = −2, and the line coefficients are A = 4, B = −3, C = 2. Using the
distance formula:
|4(3) − 3(−2) + 2| |12 + 6 + 2| 20 20
d= p = √ =√ = =4
42 + (−3)2 16 + 9 25 5
Therefore, the distance from point P to the line is 4.

Exercises 7.3 & 7.4

1. Fill in the blanks or calculate:

(1) The intersection point of the lines x + y − 3 = 0 and x − y + 1 = 0 is .

(2) Given line l1 : 2x + 4y − 5 = 0 and line l2 : x + 2y + 3 = 0. The positional relationship

between l1 and l2 is .

(3) Find the distance from the origin O(0, 0) to the line 3x + 4y − 10 = 0.

Self-Test 7

1. Multiple Choice Questions (Choose the single correct answer from the options provided).
(6) The equation of the line passing through the two points A(4, 0) and B(0, −3) is ( ).

A. 3x − 4y − 12 = 0
B. 3x + 4y − 12 = 0
C. 4x − 3y + 12 = 0
D. 4x + 3y + 12 = 0

x y x y
Hint: Using the intercept form a + b = 1, we have 4 + −3 = 1. Multiplying both sides by
12 gives 3x − 4y = 12 =⇒ 3x − 4y − 12 = 0. Correct answer: A.

(7) The equation of the line with an angle of inclination of 135◦ and a y-intercept of −1 is ( ).

A. x − y + 1 = 0
B. x − y − 1 = 0
C. x + y − 1 = 0
D. x + y + 1 = 0

Hint: The slope is k = tan 135◦ = −1. The y-intercept is b = −1. The slope-intercept
form is y = −1 · x − 1. Rearranging into general form gives x + y + 1 = 0. Correct answer:
D.

(8) The positional relationship between the lines x + 3y − 5 = 0 and 3x − y − 1 = 0 is ( ).

A. Coincident
B. Parallel
C. Perpendicular
D. Intersecting but not perpendicular

Hint: For A1 x + B1 y + C1 = 0 and A2 x + B2 y + C2 = 0, if A1 A2 + B1 B2 = 0, they are

perpendicular. Here, 1(3) + 3(−1) = 3 − 3 = 0. Thus, they are perpendicular. Correct
answer: C.

(9) The positional relationship between the lines 2x − y + 1 = 0 and 4x − 2y + 3 = 0 is ( ).

A. Coincident
B. Parallel
C. Perpendicular
D. Intersecting but not perpendicular

2 −1
Hint: Comparing the coefficients, 4 = −2 6= 13 . Since the ratios of the x and y coefficients
are equal but differ from the constant term ratio, the lines are parallel. Correct answer:
B.
2. Fill in the Blanks.

(1) The x-intercept of the line 12 x + 3y − 3 = 0 is .

1
Hint: To find the x-intercept, set y = 0. 2x − 3 = 0 =⇒ x = 6.

(2) Given line l1 : 2x+3y −2 = 0 and line l2 : x−y +4 = 0, the coordinates of their intersection
point are .
Hint: Solve the system 2x + 3y = 2 and x − y = −4. Multiply the second by 3: 3x − 3y =
−12. Adding them gives 5x = −10 =⇒ x = −2. Substitute back to get y = 2. The point
is (−2, 2).
 Chapter 8: Conic Sections (Part 1)

Translated and Typeset from Original Text

8 Conic Sections

8.1 The Circle

8.1.1 I. Standard Equation of a Circle

Definition 1: In a plane, the locus of a moving point whose distance from a fixed point is
equal to a constant length is called a circle. The fixed point is the center of the circle, and the
constant length is the radius.

The equation
(x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = r2 (1)

is called the standard equation of a circle. Here, (a, b) are the coordinates of the center of
the circle, and r is the radius of the circle (as shown in Figure 8.1-1).

(x, y)
r

(a, b)

x
O

Figure 1: Standard Equation of a Circle

Example 1: What are the coordinates of the center and the radius of the circle (x − 1)2 + (y −
2)2 = 25?
Solution: From the standard equation of a circle, the center coordinates are (1, 2), and the radius
√
is r = 25 = 5.

Example 2: What are the coordinates of the center and the radius of the circle (x + 3)2 + (y −
5)2 = 16?

Solution: From the standard equation of a circle, the center coordinates are (−3, 5), and the
radius is r = 4.

Example 3: What are the coordinates of the center and the radius of the circle (x + 2)2 + (y +
3)2 = 5?

Solution: From the standard equation of a circle, the center coordinates are (−2, −3), and the
√
radius is r = 5.

8.1.2 II. General Equation of a Circle

Definition 2: The equation

x2 + y 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 (D2 + E 2 − 4F > 0) (2)

is called the general equation of a circle.

By completing the square, we can convert the general equation into the standard equation:

D 2 E 2 D2 + E 2 − 4F
   
x+ + y+ =
2 2 4

From this, we can see that the general equation represents a circle with its center at − D E


2 ,− 2
√
and a radius of r = 12 D2 + E 2 − 4F .

Example 4: Find the center and radius of the circle x2 + y 2 − 4x + 6y − 12 = 0.

Solution: Comparing this with the general equation of a circle, we have D = −4, E = 6, and
F = −12. The x-coordinate of the center is − D
2 = − 2 = 2. The y-coordinate of the center is
−4
√ √
− E2 = − 62 = −3. The radius is r = 12 (−4)2 + 62 − 4(−12) = 12 16 + 36 + 48 = 12 100 = 5.
p

Therefore, the center of the circle is (2, −3) and the radius is r = 5.

Exercises 8.1

1. Fill in the blanks:

 (1) The center of the circle (x−3)2 +(y+4)2 = 36 is , and its radius is .

(2) The center of the circle x2 + y 2 = 9 is , and its radius is .

2. Find the coordinates of the center and the radius for the following circles given
by their general equations:

(1) x2 + y 2 − 2x + 4y − 4 = 0

(2) x2 + y 2 + 6x − 8y = 0

8.2 The Ellipse

8.2.1 I. Definition of an Ellipse

Definition 3: In a plane, the locus of a moving point whose sum of distances to two fixed
points F1 and F2 is equal to a constant (greater than |F1 F2 |) is called an ellipse. The two fixed
points F1 and F2 are called the foci (or focal points) of the ellipse, and the distance between
the two foci |F1 F2 | is called the focal length.

Let the moving point be P . According to the definition, the equation representing the locus is:

|P F1 | + |P F2 | = 2a (2a > |F1 F2 |)

8.2.2 II. Standard Equation of an Ellipse

By establishing an appropriate rectangular coordinate system, we can derive the standard equa-
tion of an ellipse.

1. Foci on the x-axis If we place the center of the ellipse at the origin and its foci on the
x-axis (with coordinates F1 (−c, 0) and F2 (c, 0)), the standard equation of the ellipse is:

x2 y 2
+ 2 =1 (a > b > 0) (3)
a2 b
where b2 = a2 − c2 .

2. Foci on the y-axis If we place the center of the ellipse at the origin and its foci on the
y-axis (with coordinates F1 (0, −c) and F2 (0, c)), the standard equation of the ellipse is:

y 2 x2
+ 2 =1 (a > b > 0) (4)
a2 b
 y

b P (x, y)

x
−a F1 O F2 a

−b

Figure 2: Ellipse with Foci on the x-axis

where b2 = a2 − c2 .

Properties of the Ellipse:

• 2a is called the length of the major axis.

• 2b is called the length of the minor axis.

• 2c is the focal length.

• The relationship a2 = b2 + c2 always holds for an ellipse. The largest denominator in the
standard equation is always a2 , and the axis under which a2 appears determines the axis
on which the foci lie.

x2 y2
Example 1: Given the ellipse 25 + 9 = 1, find the lengths of the major and minor axes, the
focal length, and the coordinates of the foci.
2
x2
Solution: The equation is in the form a2
+ yb2 = 1. Since 25 > 9, the foci are on the x-axis.
We have a2 = 25 =⇒ a = 5, and b2 = 9 =⇒ b = 3. The length of the major axis is
2a = 10. The length of the minor axis is 2b = 6. Using the relation c2 = a2 − b2 , we get
c2 = 25 − 9 = 16 =⇒ c = 4. The focal length is 2c = 8. The coordinates of the foci are (±c, 0),
which are (±4, 0).

y2 x2
Example 2: Given the ellipse 16 + 7 = 1, find the lengths of the major and minor axes, the
focal length, and the coordinates of the foci.

Solution: Since 16 > 7 and 16 is under the y 2 term, the foci are on the y-axis. We have
√
a2 = 16 =⇒ a = 4, and b2 = 7 =⇒ b = 7. The length of the major axis is 2a = 8. The
 √
length of the minor axis is 2b = 2 7. Using c2 = a2 − b2 = 16 − 7 = 9 =⇒ c = 3. The focal
length is 2c = 6. The coordinates of the foci are (0, ±c), which are (0, ±3).

Exercises 8.2

1. Find the lengths of the major axis, minor axis, focal length, and the coordinates
of the foci for the following ellipses:

x2 y2
(1) 100 + 64 =1

y2 x2
(2) 25 + 16 =1

(3) 9x2 + 25y 2 = 225 (Hint: Divide the entire equation by 225 to rewrite it in standard
form.)
 Chapter 8: Conic Sections (Part 2)

Translated and Typeset from Original Text

8.3 The Hyperbola

8.3.1 I. Definition of a Hyperbola

Definition 4: In a plane, the locus of a moving point whose absolute difference of distances
to two fixed points F1 and F2 is equal to a constant (less than |F1 F2 |) is called a hyperbola.
The two fixed points F1 and F2 are called the foci (or focal points) of the hyperbola, and the
distance between the two foci |F1 F2 | is called the focal length.

Let the moving point be P . According to the definition, the equation representing the locus is:

||P F1 | − |P F2 || = 2a (2a < |F1 F2 |)

8.3.2 II. Standard Equation of a Hyperbola

Similar to the ellipse, by establishing an appropriate rectangular coordinate system, we can

derive the standard equation of a hyperbola.

1. Foci on the x-axis If we place the center of the hyperbola at the origin and its foci on the
x-axis (with coordinates F1 (−c, 0) and F2 (c, 0)), the standard equation of the hyperbola is:

x2 y 2
− 2 =1 (a > 0, b > 0) (1)
a2 b
where c2 = a2 + b2 .

2. Foci on the y-axis If we place the center of the hyperbola at the origin and its foci on the
y-axis (with coordinates F1 (0, −c) and F2 (0, c)), the standard equation of the hyperbola is:

y 2 x2
− 2 =1 (a > 0, b > 0) (2)
a2 b
where c2 = a2 + b2 .
 y

x
−a
F1 O aF2

Figure 1: Hyperbola with Foci on the x-axis

Properties of the Hyperbola:

• 2a is called the length of the transverse axis ().

• 2b is called the length of the conjugate axis ().

• 2c is the focal length.

• The relationship c2 = a2 + b2 always holds for a hyperbola. The positive term in the
standard equation determines the axis on which the foci lie.

2
x2
Example 1: Given the hyperbola 16 − y9 = 1, find the lengths of the transverse and conjugate
axes, the focal length, and the coordinates of the foci.

Solution: The equation has the positive term with x2 , so the foci are on the x-axis. We have
a2 = 16 =⇒ a = 4, and b2 = 9 =⇒ b = 3. The length of the transverse axis is 2a = 8. The
length of the conjugate axis is 2b = 6. Using the relation c2 = a2 + b2 , we get c2 = 16 + 9 =
25 =⇒ c = 5. The focal length is 2c = 10. The coordinates of the foci are (±c, 0), which are
(±5, 0).

y2 2
Example 2: Given the hyperbola 4 − x5 = 1, find the lengths of the transverse and conjugate
axes, the focal length, and the coordinates of the foci.

Solution: Since the y 2 term is positive, the foci are on the y-axis. We have a2 = 4 =⇒ a = 2,
√
and b2 = 5 =⇒ b = 5. The length of the transverse axis is 2a = 4. The length of the
√
conjugate axis is 2b = 2 5. Using c2 = a2 + b2 = 4 + 5 = 9 =⇒ c = 3. The focal length is
2c = 6. The coordinates of the foci are (0, ±c), which are (0, ±3).
Exercises 8.3

1. Find the lengths of the transverse axis, conjugate axis, focal length, and the
coordinates of the foci for the following hyperbolas:

x2 y2
(1) 144 − 25 =1

y2 x2
(2) 64 − 36 =1

8.4 The Parabola

8.4.1 I. Definition of a Parabola

Definition 5: In a plane, the locus of a moving point whose distance to a fixed point F is equal
to its distance to a fixed straight line l (where F is not on l) is called a parabola. The fixed
point F is called the focus of the parabola, and the fixed line l is called the directrix of the
parabola.

8.4.2 II. Standard Equation of a Parabola

We usually place the vertex of the parabola at the origin and its axis of symmetry along one of
the coordinate axes. Let the distance from the focus to the directrix be p (p > 0).

1. Parabola opening to the right Axis of symmetry is the x-axis. Standard equation:

y 2 = 2px (p > 0) (3)

p

Focus coordinates: F 2, 0 . Directrix equation: x = − p2 .

2. Parabola opening to the left Axis of symmetry is the x-axis. Standard equation:

y 2 = −2px (p > 0) (4)

Focus coordinates: F − p2 , 0 . Directrix equation: x = p2 .

3. Parabola opening upwards Axis of symmetry is the y-axis. Standard equation:

x2 = 2py (p > 0) (5)

Focus coordinates: F 0, p2 . Directrix equation: y = − p2 .

 x = − p2 y
P (x, y)
M

x
O F ( p2 , 0)

Figure 2: Parabola opening to the right

4. Parabola opening downwards Axis of symmetry is the y-axis. Standard equation:

x2 = −2py (p > 0) (6)

Focus coordinates: F 0, − p2 . Directrix equation: y = p2 .

Example 3: Given the parabola y 2 = 8x, find the coordinates of the focus and the equation of
the directrix.

Solution: The equation is in the form y 2 = 2px. The parabola opens to the right. We have
2p = 8 =⇒ p = 4. The coordinates of the focus are p2 , 0 = (2, 0). The equation of the

directrix is x = − p2 , which is x = −2.

Example 4: Given the parabola x2 = −12y, find the coordinates of the focus and the equation
of the directrix.

Solution: The equation is in the form x2 = −2py. The parabola opens downwards. We have
2p = 12 =⇒ p = 6. The coordinates of the focus are 0, − p2 = (0, −3). The equation of the

directrix is y = p2 , which is y = 3.

Exercises 8.4

1. Find the coordinates of the focus and the equation of the directrix for the
following parabolas:

(1) y 2 = 16x
 (2) y 2 = −4x

(3) x2 = 24y

(4) x2 = −8y

Self-Test 8

1. Multiple Choice Questions (Choose the single correct answer from the four options
provided).

(1) The center coordinates of the circle x2 + y 2 − 4x − 6y + 1 = 0 are ( ).

A. (2, 3)
B. (−2, −3)
C. (−2, 3)
D. (2, −3)

−4 −6
Hint: Using the formula − D E



2 , − 2 , we get − 2 , − 2 = (2, 3). Option A.

x2 y2
(2) The focus coordinates of the ellipse 4 + 3 = 1 are ( ).

A. (0, ±1)
B. (±1, 0)
C. (0, ±2)
D. (±2, 0)

Hint: Since 4 > 3, the foci are on the x-axis. c2 = a2 − b2 = 4 − 3 = 1 =⇒ c = 1. The

foci are (±1, 0). Option B.

x2 y2
(3) The focus coordinates of the hyperbola 16 − 20 = 1 are ( ).

A. (0, ±4)
B. (±4, 0)
C. (0, ±6)
D. (±6, 0)

Hint: The positive term is x2 , so the foci are on the x-axis. c2 = a2 + b2 = 16 + 20 =

36 =⇒ c = 6. The foci are (±6, 0). Option D.
2. Fill in the Blanks.

(4) The focus coordinates of the parabola y 2 = 12x are , and its directrix equation
is .
p

Hint: 2p = 12 =⇒ p = 6. Focus is 2, 0 = (3, 0). Directrix is x = − p2 =⇒ x = −3.

(5) The focus coordinates of the parabola x2 = −16y are , and its directrix equa-
tion is .
Hint: 2p = 16 =⇒ p = 8. Focus is 0, − p2 = (0, −4). Directrix is y = p


2 =⇒ y = 4.

3. Calculation Question.

x2 y2
(1) Given the ellipse 25 + 16 = 1:

i. Find the lengths of its major and minor axes.

ii. Find the distance between its foci (focal length).

iii. Find the coordinates of its foci.

Solution: a2 = 25 =⇒ a = 5, b2 = 16 =⇒ b = 4. i. Major axis = 2a = 10, Minor axis

= 2b = 8. ii. c2 = a2 − b2 = 9 =⇒ c = 3. Focal length = 2c = 6. iii. Foci are on the
x-axis, so coordinates are (±3, 0).
 Chapter 9: Space Vectors (Part 2)

Translated and Typeset from Original Text

9.3 Dot Product of Space Vectors

In physics, the work done by a constant force F moving an object through a displacement s is
given by W = |F||s| cos θ, where θ is the angle between the force and the displacement. This
concept is abstracted in mathematics as the dot product (or inner product) of two vectors.

9.3.1 I. The Angle Between Two Vectors

Given two non-zero vectors a and b in space, if we translate them such that their initial points
coincide at a point O (i.e., OA
~ = a and OB
~ = b), then the angle ∠AOB is called the angle
between vectors a and b, denoted as ha, bi. The range of the angle between two vectors is:

0 ≤ ha, bi ≤ π (1)

If ha, bi = π2 , we say that the two vectors are perpendicular (or orthogonal), denoted as a ⊥ b.

9.3.2 II. Definition of the Dot Product

Definition: The product of the magnitudes of two non-zero vectors a and b and the cosine of
the angle between them is called the dot product (or scalar product, inner product) of a and
b, denoted as a · b.
a · b = |a||b| cosha, bi (2)

Note: The result of a dot product is a scalar (a real number), not a vector. It can be positive,
negative, or zero.

9.3.3 III. Properties of the Dot Product

For any space vectors a, b, c and any real number λ:

 1. Perpendicularity Condition: Two non-zero vectors are perpendicular if and only if
their dot product is zero.
a ⊥ b ⇐⇒ a · b = 0 (3)

2. Self Dot Product (Square of Modulus):

√
a · a = |a|2 =⇒ |a| = a·a (4)

3. Commutative Property: a · b = b · a

4. Scalar Multiplication: (λa) · b = λ(a · b) = a · (λb)

5. Distributive Property: a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c

√
Example 1: Given |a| = 2, and a · b = −3, find the value of a · (4a − 5b).

Solution: Using the properties of the dot product:

a · (4a − 5b) = 4(a · a) − 5(a · b)

= 4|a|2 − 5(a · b)
√
= 4( 2)2 − 5(−3)

= 4(2) + 15 = 8 + 15 = 23

9.3.4 IV. Coordinate Representation of the Dot Product

If we represent the vectors in the space rectangular coordinate system Oxyz, let a = (x1 , y1 , z1 )
and b = (x2 , y2 , z2 ).

1. Coordinate Formula for Dot Product:

a · b = x1 x2 + y1 y2 + z1 z2 (5)

2. Vector Magnitude (Modulus) Formula:

√ q
|a| = a · a = x21 + y12 + z12 (6)

3. Angle Between Two Vectors Formula:

a·b x1 x2 + y1 y2 + z1 z2
cosha, bi = =p 2 p (7)
|a||b| x1 + y12 + z12 x22 + y22 + z22

4. Conditions for Parallel and Perpendicular Vectors in Coordinates:

 • a ⊥ b ⇐⇒ x1 x2 + y1 y2 + z1 z2 = 0

y1
• a k b ⇐⇒ x1
x2 = y2 = z1
z2 =λ (provided coordinates of b are non-zero).

Example 2: Given a = (3, −1, 2) and b = (−2, 4, 5), calculate a · b and the magnitudes |a| and
|b|.

Solution: a · b = (3)(−2) + (−1)(4) + (2)(5) = −6 − 4 + 10 = 0. Since a · b = 0, we know that

a ⊥ b. The magnitudes are:
p √ √
|a| = 32 + (−1)2 + 22 = 9 + 1 + 4 = 14
p √ √ √
|b| = (−2)2 + 42 + 52 = 4 + 16 + 25 = 45 = 3 5

Exercises 9.3

1. Calculation based on Modulus and Dot Product:

√ √
(1) Given |a| = 3, |b| = 6, and a · b = −3. Find the values of |2a + b| and |a − 3b|. (Hint:
p
Square the expressions. For example, |2a + b| = 4|a|2 + 4a · b + |b|2 .)

(2) Given |a| = 1, |b| = 6, and a · b = 3. Find the angle ha, bi between the two vectors.
√ √
(3) Given |a| = 5, |b| = 2 5, and a · b = −5. Find the angle ha, bi between the two vectors.

2. Given the coordinates of vectors a and b, calculate a · b, |a|, |b|, and cosha, bi:

(1) a = (−1, 2, 1), b = (2, −1, 3)

(2) a = (4, 0, 1), b = (0, −1, 3)

(3) a = (−2, −1, 0), b = (3, −2, 1)

(4) a = (−2, 1, 4), b = (1, 3, −1)

3. Determine whether the following pairs of vectors are perpendicular:

(1) a = (−1, 1, 0), b = (−2, −2, 3)

(2) a = (−3, 1, 5), b = (2, 6, 1)

 (3) a = (3, −10, 2), b = (10, 2, −5)

(4) a = (−1, 2, 4), b = (5, 1, 1)

Self-Test 9

1. Fill in the blanks:

(1) The distance from the point P (−4, 1, 2) to the xOy plane is ; its distance to
the yOz plane is ; its distance to the xOz plane is .
Hint: The distance from point (x, y, z) to the xOy plane is |z|, to the yOz plane is |x|,
and to the xOz plane is |y|. Thus, the distances are 2, 4, and 1 respectively.

(2) Given a = (2, −1, 3) and b = (1, 2, 0), then a · b = . Therefore, the positional
relationship between vectors a and b is .
Hint: a · b = (2)(1) + (−1)(2) + (3)(0) = 2 − 2 + 0 = 0. Since the dot product is 0, they
are perpendicular (a ⊥ b).

2. Calculation Questions:

(1) Given points A(1, 0, −1), B(2, 1, 1), and C(0, 2, 3).

i. Find the coordinates of vectors AB

~ and AC.
~

ii. Calculate AB
~ · AC.
~

iii. Find the cosine of the angle ∠BAC.

Solution: i. AB
~ = (2−1, 1−0, 1−(−1)) = (1, 1, 2). AC~ = (0−1, 2−0, 3−(−1)) = (−1, 2, 4).
√ √
ii. AB ~ = (1)(−1) + (1)(2) + (2)(4) = −1 + 2 + 8 = 9. iii. |AB|
~ · AC ~ = 12 + 12 + 22 = 6.
√ ~ AC~
√
14 .
~ = (−1)2 + 22 + 42 = 21. cos ∠BAC = AB· 3 14
p
|AC| = √ 9√ = √9 = √9 =
~ ~
|AB||AC| 6 21 126 3 14

(2) Given vectors u = (k, 2, 4) and v = (3, −1, 2). If u is perpendicular to v, find the value of
the constant k.
Solution: Since u ⊥ v, their dot product must be 0. u·v = 3k +2(−1)+4(2) = 3k −2+8 =
3k + 6 = 0 =⇒ k = −2.
 Chapter 10: Space Planes and Space Lines (Part 1)

Translated and Typeset from Original Text

10 Space Planes and Space Lines

In solid geometry, planes and straight lines are the most fundamental geometric figures. In this
chapter, we will use the knowledge of space vectors learned in the previous chapter to study
planes and lines in a space rectangular coordinate system. By establishing equations for planes
and lines, we can transform geometric problems regarding their positional relationships into
algebraic problems.

10.1 Equations of Space Planes

Definition 1: In space, if the coordinates (x, y, z) of any point on a plane satisfy the equa-
tion F (x, y, z) = 0, and conversely, any point (x, y, z) whose coordinates satisfy the equation
F (x, y, z) = 0 lies on that plane, then F (x, y, z) = 0 is called the equation of the plane, and
the plane is called the graph of the equation F (x, y, z) = 0.

10.1.1 I. Normal Vector of a Plane

Definition 2: If a non-zero vector n is perpendicular to a plane Π, then n is called a normal

vector () of plane Π.

Note 1: A plane has infinitely many normal vectors. If vector n is a normal vector of plane
Π, then any non-zero scalar multiple λn (λ ∈ R and λ 6= 0) is also a normal vector of Π. For
example, if n = ( 12 , 32 , −1) is a normal vector of plane Π, then 2n = (1, 3, −2) is also a normal
vector of Π.
 n = (A, B, C)

M (x, y, z)
M~0 M
M
Π0 (x0 , y0 , z0 )

Figure 1: Normal vector and the Point-Normal equation of a plane

10.1.2 II. Point-Normal Equation of a Plane

Let a plane pass through a given point M0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ), and let its normal vector be the non-zero
vector n = (A, B, C). We want to find the equation of this plane.

Let M (x, y, z) be any point on the plane. The vector M~0 M lies entirely in the plane. Since the
normal vector n is perpendicular to the plane, it must be perpendicular to any vector in the
plane. Thus, n ⊥ M~0 M , which implies their dot product is zero:

n · M~0 M = 0 (1)

Since n = (A, B, C) and M~0 M = (x − x0 , y − y0 , z − z0 ), expanding the dot product gives:

A(x − x0 ) + B(y − y0 ) + C(z − z0 ) = 0 (2)

This equation is called the point-normal equation () of a plane.

Example 1: Find the equation of the plane passing through the point M0 (2, −1, 3) with a
normal vector n = (1, 2, −2).

Solution: Using the point-normal equation of a plane, we substitute x0 = 2, y0 = −1, z0 = 3 and

A = 1, B = 2, C = −2:

1 · (x − 2) + 2 · (y − (−1)) − 2 · (z − 3) = 0

Simplifying the equation:

(x − 2) + 2(y + 1) − 2(z − 3) = 0

x + 2y − 2z + 6 = 0

Thus, the equation of the plane is x + 2y − 2z + 6 = 0.

10.1.3 III. General Equation of a Plane

Notice that the point-normal equation A(x − x0 ) + B(y − y0 ) + C(z − z0 ) = 0 can be expanded
and rearranged as Ax + By + Cz − (Ax0 + By0 + Cz0 ) = 0. Let D = −(Ax0 + By0 + Cz0 ). The
equation takes the form of a linear equation in three variables:

Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 (where A, B, C are not all zero) (3)

This is called the general equation () of a space plane. The coefficients of x, y, and z in the
general equation precisely form the coordinates of a normal vector to the plane: n = (A, B, C).

Example 2: Given the plane equation 3x − 4y + 5z − 6 = 0, what is a normal vector to this

plane?
Solution: From the general equation, the coefficients are A = 3, B = −4, C = 5. Therefore, a
normal vector is n = (3, −4, 5).

Exercises 10.1

1. Find the equation of the plane satisfying the given conditions (express the final
answer in general form):

(1) Passing through the point P (1, 2, −1) with normal vector n = (2, −3, 4).

(2) Passing through the point Q(−2, 0, 3) and perpendicular to the vector v = (1, 1, −1).

(3) Passing through the origin O(0, 0, 0) and parallel to the plane 3x − 2y + 4z − 5 = 0.

10.2 Equations of Space Lines

A straight line in space can be determined by a point it passes through and its direction.

10.2.1 I. Direction Vector of a Line

Definition 3: If a non-zero vector s is parallel to a known straight line L (or lies on the line
L), then vector s is called a direction vector () of the line L.
Note 2: A straight line has infinitely many direction vectors. If s is a direction vector of line L,
then λs (λ 6= 0) is also a direction vector of L.

10.2.2 II. Symmetric Equations (Point-Direction Equations) of a Line

Let a straight line L pass through a given point M0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ), and let its direction vector be
the non-zero vector s = (m, n, p).

Let M (x, y, z) be any point on the line L. The vector M~0 M lies on the line, so it must be parallel
to the direction vector s. Therefore, the coordinates of M~0 M and s must be proportional:
x − x0 y − y0 z − z0
= = (4)
m n p
These equations are called the symmetric equations () or the point-direction equations of a
space line.

M (x, y, z)

M0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) M~0 M k s
s = (m, n, p)

Figure 2: Direction vector and Symmetric equations of a line

10.2.3 III. Parametric Equations of a Line

In the symmetric equations, if we set the equal ratios to a parameter t:

x − x0 y − y0 z − z0
= = =t
m n p
We can express x, y, z in terms of t:




 x = x0 + mt

y = y0 + nt (t ∈ R) (5)




z = z + pt
0

This system is called the parametric equations () of a space line.

Example 3: Find the symmetric equations and parametric equations of the straight line passing
through the point M0 (1, −2, 4) with direction vector s = (2, 3, −1).
Solution: Given the point M0 (1, −2, 4) and direction vector s = (2, 3, −1), we can directly write
the symmetric equations:

x−1 y − (−2) z−4 x−1 y+2 z−4

= = =⇒ = =
2 3 −1 2 3 −1

Setting this equal to t, the parametric equations are:


x = 1 + 2t




 y = −2 + 3t


z = 4 − t


Exercises 10.2

1. Find the symmetric equations and parametric equations of the straight line for
each of the following cases:

(1) Passing through the point P (3, −1, 2) with direction vector s = (1, −4, 2).

x−2 y+1 z−3

(2) Passing through the point Q(0, 5, −3) and parallel to the line 4 = −2 = 1 .

2. Extract a point M0 and a direction vector s from the following line equation:

x+4 y−2 z
= =
3 −1 5
 Chapter 10: Space Planes and Space Lines (Part 2)

Translated and Typeset from Original Text

10.3 Positional Relationships Between Planes and Lines

The positional relationships (parallelism, perpendicularity, and the angle of intersection) between
two planes, two lines, or a line and a plane in space can be elegantly determined by calculating
the angles between their normal vectors and direction vectors.

10.3.1 I. The Angle Between Two Planes

Let the general equations of two planes Π1 and Π2 be:

Π1 : A1 x + B1 y + C1 z + D1 = 0

Π2 : A2 x + B2 y + C2 z + D2 = 0

Their respective normal vectors are n1 = (A1 , B1 , C1 ) and n2 = (A2 , B2 , C2 ).

The acute or right angle θ between the two planes is equal to the acute or right angle between
their normal vectors. Thus, the formula for the angle between two planes is:
|n1 · n2 | |A1 A2 + B1 B2 + C1 C2 |
cos θ = =p 2 p (1)
|n1 ||n2 | A1 + B12 + C12 A22 + B22 + C22

From this, we can derive the conditions for parallelism and perpendicularity:

• Perpendicular (Π1 ⊥ Π2 ): n1 ⊥ n2 ⇐⇒ A1 A2 + B1 B2 + C1 C2 = 0.

• Parallel (Π1 k Π2 ): n1 k n2 ⇐⇒ A1
A2 = B1
B2 = C1
C2 (assuming denominators are non-zero).

Example 1: Determine the positional relationship between the planes Π1 : 2x − y + 3z − 5 = 0

and Π2 : x + 2y + z + 1 = 0.
Solution: The normal vectors are n1 = (2, −1, 3) and n2 = (1, 2, 1). Calculate their dot product:
n1 · n2 = (2)(1) + (−1)(2) + (3)(1) = 2 − 2 + 3 = 3 6= 0. Since they are not proportional and
their dot product is not zero, they intersect but are not perpendicular.
10.3.2 II. The Angle Between Two Lines

Let the symmetric equations of two lines L1 and L2 be:

x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x − x2 y − y2 z − z2
L1 : = = and L2 : = =
m1 n1 p1 m2 n2 p2
Their direction vectors are s1 = (m1 , n1 , p1 ) and s2 = (m2 , n2 , p2 ).

The acute or right angle θ between the two lines satisfies:

|s1 · s2 | |m1 m2 + n1 n2 + p1 p2 |
cos θ = =p 2 p (2)
|s1 ||s2 | m1 + n21 + p21 m22 + n22 + p22

Conditions for parallelism and perpendicularity:

• Perpendicular (L1 ⊥ L2 ): s1 ⊥ s2 ⇐⇒ m1 m2 + n1 n2 + p1 p2 = 0.
p1
• Parallel (L1 k L2 ): s1 k s2 ⇐⇒ m1
m2 = n1
n2 = p2 .

10.3.3 III. The Angle Between a Line and a Plane

Let a line L have a direction vector s = (m, n, p) and a plane Π have a normal vector n =
(A, B, C). The angle θ between the line L and the plane Π is defined as the acute angle between
the line and its projection on the plane. The angle between the direction vector s and the normal
vector n is π2 − θ (or π2 + θ). Therefore, cos π2 − θ = sin θ.

L(vector s)
π
2 −θ

θ
Projection
M
Π

Figure 1: Angle θ between a line and a plane

The formula for the angle between a line and a plane is:
|s · n| |Am + Bn + Cp|
sin θ = =√ p (3)
|s||n| A2 + B 2 + C 2 m2 + n2 + p2

Conditions for parallelism and perpendicularity (Note: these are reversed compared to line-line
or plane-plane):
 • Perpendicular (L ⊥ Π): The line’s direction vector is parallel to the plane’s normal
p
vector. s k n ⇐⇒ m
A = n
B = C.

• Parallel (L k Π): The line’s direction vector is perpendicular to the plane’s normal vector.
s ⊥ n ⇐⇒ Am + Bn + Cp = 0.

Exercises 10.3

1. Calculate the sine of the angle between the given line and plane:

y+3
(1) L : x−1
1 = −2 = z+1
−2 and Π : x + y − 3z − 5 = 0

y+1
(2) L : x−6
2 = 0 = z+2
−1 and Π:x−y+3=0

Self-Test 10

1. Calculation Questions: Find the sine of the angle between the following lines
and planes.

y+3
(1) Line L : x−1
1 = −2 = −2 ,
z+1
Plane Π : x + y − 3z − 5 = 0.
Solution: The direction vector of L is s = (1, −2, −2). The normal vector of Π is n =
(1, 1, −3).
The dot product is s · n = (1)(1) + (−2)(1) + (−2)(−3) = 1 − 2 + 6 = 5.
√
The magnitudes are |s| = 12 + (−2)2 + (−2)2 = 9 = 3, and |n| = 12 + 12 + (−3)2 =
p p
√
11.
√
|s·n|
Thus, sin θ = |s||n| = √5
3 11
= 33 .
5 11

y−4
(2) Line L : x+2
−1 = 2 = 0 ,
z+5
Plane Π : 2x − z − 1 = 0.
Solution: s = (−1, 2, 0), n = (2, 0, −1).
s · n = (−1)(2) + (2)(0) + (0)(−1) = −2.
√ √ √ √
|s| = 1 + 4 + 0 = 5, |n| = 4 + 0 + 1 = 5.
|−2|
sin θ = √ √
5 5
= 25 .
 y+1
(3) Line L : x−6
2 = 0 = −1 ,
z+2
Plane Π : x − y + 3 = 0.
Solution: s = (2, 0, −1), n = (1, −1, 0).
s · n = (2)(1) + (0)(−1) + (−1)(0) = 2.
√ √ √ √
|s| = 4 + 0 + 1 = 5, |n| = 1 + 1 + 0 = 2.
√
5 .
√ 2√ √2 10
sin θ = 5 2
= 10
=

y−3
√
(4) Line L : x+5
0 = 2 = −1 ,
Plane Π : 2x − y − z + 1 = 0.
z+1
√
Solution: s = (0, 2, −1), n = ( 2, −1, −1).
√
s · n = (0)( 2) + (2)(−1) + (−1)(−1) = −2 + 1 = −1.
√ √ √ √
|s| = 0 + 4 + 1 = 5, |n| = 2 + 1 + 1 = 4 = 2.
√
|−1|
10 .
5
sin θ = √
2 5
=

2. Calculation Question: Find the exact angle between the line and the plane.

y−3
(5) Line L : x−6
2 = 1 = −1 ,
z+1
Plane Π : 3x + 6y + 3z − 5 = 0.
Solution: The direction vector of L is s = (2, 1, −1).
The normal vector of Π is n = (3, 6, 3).
Calculate the dot product: s · n = (2)(3) + (1)(6) + (−1)(3) = 6 + 6 − 3 = 9.
√
Calculate the magnitudes: |s| = 22 + 12 + (−1)2 = 6.
p
√ √ √ √
|n| = 32 + 62 + 32 = 9 + 36 + 9 = 54 = 3 6.
Use the sine formula for the angle between a line and a plane:

|s · n| 9 9 9 1
sin θ = =√ √ = = =
|s||n| 6×3 6 3×6 18 2

Since θ must be an acute or right angle (0 ≤ θ ≤ π2 ) and sin θ = 12 , the angle is:

π
θ= (or 30◦ )
6