Discovery of Subatomic Particles

Atomic Structure — Discovery & Evolution

Cathode & Canal Ray Experiments • Electron & Proton • Atomic Models

Part 1 — Cathode Ray Discharge Tube Experiment (J. J. Thomson)

Figure 1: Production of Cathode Rays in a Discharge Tube

Brief Description
1. A glass discharge tube is fitted with two metal electrodes — the cathode (–), a negative electrode, and the
anode (+), a positive electrode.
2. The tube contains air (or gas) at very low pressure, created using a vacuum pump.
3. A high voltage (10,000–20,000 V) is applied across the electrodes.
4. Under high voltage, electrons are emitted from the cathode.
5. These electrons travel in straight lines from the cathode toward the anode and are called cathode rays.
6. When cathode rays strike the glass wall near the anode, they produce a green fluorescence (glow).
7. This glow proves that cathode rays are traveling through the tube.

Observations
• Cathode rays originate from the cathode.
• They travel in straight lines.
• They produce a green glow on the glass screen.
• They are negatively charged particles (electrons).

Conclusion
The experiment demonstrated that cathode rays are streams of electrons, which are negatively charged particles
present in all atoms. This discovery led to the identification of the electron and laid the foundation for modern atomic
theory.

Characteristics of the Electron

8. Electron is a negatively charged particle with a charge of −1.602 × 10⁻¹⁹ C.
9. It was discovered by J. J. Thomson in 1897 using the cathode ray discharge tube experiment.

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10. Electrons are present in all atoms, regardless of the element.

11. They are located outside the nucleus, in shells or energy levels.
12. The mass of an electron is very small — about 9.11 × 10⁻³¹ kg (approximately 1/1836 the mass of a proton).
13. Electrons move rapidly around the nucleus.
14. They can be deflected by electric and magnetic fields, proving they carry a negative charge.
15. Electrons travel in straight lines in the absence of electric and magnetic fields.
16. They produce fluorescence (glow) when they strike certain materials.
17. The number of electrons equals the number of protons in a neutral atom.
18. Electrons are responsible for chemical bonding and most chemical reactions.
19. Electrons carry electric current in conductors.
20. They are fundamental (subatomic) particles and cannot be divided into smaller particles by ordinary chemical
means.

Quick Facts — Electron

Charge Mass
−1.602 × 10⁻¹⁹ C 9.11 × 10⁻³¹ kg

Symbol Location
e⁻ Outside the nucleus (electron cloud / shells)

Part 2 — Goldstein's Canal Ray (Positive Ray) Experiment

Figure 2: Production of Canal Rays (Positive Rays) in a Discharge Tube

Experiment — Step by Step

21. A discharge tube containing gas at very low pressure is taken.
22. A high voltage is applied between the anode (+) and the perforated cathode (−).
23. The gas inside the tube gets ionized due to the high voltage.
24. The gas atoms lose electrons and form positively charged ions (positive rays / canal rays).

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25. These positive ions are attracted towards the cathode (−).
26. Since the cathode has small holes (perforations), some positive ions pass through these holes.
27. The rays emerging behind the cathode are called Canal Rays (Positive Rays).
28. These rays strike the glass wall behind the cathode and produce a red glow.
29. Goldstein concluded that these rays consist of positively charged particles.
30. This experiment proved the existence of positive particles (protons) in atoms, although the proton was
identified later by Rutherford.

Result
• Canal rays are positively charged.
• They travel in a straight line.
• Their properties depend on the gas present in the tube.
• They are also called Anode Rays or Positive Rays.

Characteristics of the Proton

31. Positively Charged — a proton carries a +1 elementary charge (+1.602 × 10⁻¹⁹ C).
32. Located in the Nucleus — protons are present in the nucleus of an atom.
33. Mass — the mass of a proton is 1.67 × 10⁻²⁷ kg (about 1 atomic mass unit, 1 u).
34. Symbol — a proton is represented by p⁺.
35. Determines Atomic Number — the number of protons in an atom determines its atomic number and the
identity of the element.
36. Equal to Electrons (in a Neutral Atom) — in a neutral atom, the number of protons equals the number of
electrons.
37. Stable Particle — a proton is a stable subatomic particle and does not decay under normal conditions.
38. Contributes to Atomic Mass — along with neutrons, protons make up almost all the mass of an atom.
39. Repel Each Other — since all protons are positively charged, they repel one another, but the strong nuclear
force holds them together in the nucleus.
40. Discovered by — the proton was identified by Ernest Rutherford (1917).

Quick Facts — Proton

Charge Mass
+1.602 × 10⁻¹⁹ C 1.67 × 10⁻²⁷ kg (≈ 1 u)

Symbol Location
p⁺ Nucleus of the atom

At a Glance — Electron vs. Proton

Property Electron Proton

Charge −1.602 × 10⁻¹⁹ C +1.602 × 10⁻¹⁹ C

Mass 9.11 × 10⁻³¹ kg 1.67 × 10⁻²⁷ kg

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Symbol e⁻ p⁺

Location Outside nucleus (shells) Inside the nucleus

Discovered by J. J. Thomson (1897) Ernest Rutherford (1917)

Part 3 — Evolution of Atomic Models

The following five models trace how scientific understanding of atomic structure developed, from Dalton's indivisible
sphere to the modern quantum mechanical picture.

1. Dalton's Atomic Model (1803)

Main Postulates
41. All matter is made up of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms.
42. Atoms of the same element are identical in mass and properties.
43. Atoms of different elements differ in mass and properties.
44. Atoms cannot be created, destroyed, or divided during a chemical reaction.
45. Compounds are formed when atoms combine in simple whole-number ratios.
46. Chemical reactions involve only the rearrangement of atoms.

Merits Demerits
• First scientific atomic theory. • Atoms are divisible (they contain electrons,
• Explained the laws of chemical combination. protons, and neutrons).
• Could not explain isotopes and isobars.

2. Thomson's Atomic Model (1904)

Main Postulates
47. The atom is a sphere of positive charge.
48. Electrons are embedded throughout the positive sphere.
49. Positive and negative charges balance each other.
50. Therefore, the atom is electrically neutral.
51. There is no nucleus in the atom.

Merits Demerits
• First model to include electrons. • Could not explain Rutherford's Gold Foil
• Explained the electrical neutrality of atoms. Experiment.
• Failed to explain the existence of the nucleus.

3. Rutherford's Atomic Model (1911)

Main Postulates
52. Most of the atom is empty space.
53. A tiny, dense, positively charged nucleus is present at the centre.

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54. Nearly all the mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus.
55. Electrons revolve around the nucleus.
56. The nucleus occupies a very small volume compared to the entire atom.

Merits Demerits
• Discovered the nucleus. • Could not explain why electrons do not lose
• Explained the results of the Gold Foil energy and fall into the nucleus.
Experiment. • Could not explain atomic spectra.

4. Bohr's Atomic Model (1913)

Main Postulates
57. Electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed circular paths called shells or energy levels.
58. Electrons do not lose energy while moving in these fixed orbits.
59. Electrons absorb energy to move to a higher energy level.
60. Electrons emit energy when they return to a lower energy level.
61. Each orbit has a fixed amount of energy.

Merits Demerits
• Explained the stability of atoms. • Applicable only to hydrogen and hydrogen-like
• Successfully explained the spectrum of the atoms.
hydrogen atom. • Could not explain spectra of multi-electron
atoms.

5. Modern Quantum Mechanical Model (1926 onwards)

Main Postulates
62. Electrons do not move in fixed circular paths.
63. Electrons are found in regions of high probability called orbitals.
64. The exact position and momentum of an electron cannot be known simultaneously.
65. The model is based on quantum mechanics.

Merits Demerits
• Explains the behaviour of all atoms accurately. • Complex and based on advanced mathematics.
• Explains chemical bonding and atomic spectra. • Difficult for beginners to visualise.

Summary Table
Scientist Year Model Key Idea

Dalton 1803 Solid Sphere Model Atom is an indivisible

solid sphere.

Thomson 1904 Plum Pudding Model Electrons are embedded

in a positively charged
sphere.

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Rutherford 1911 Nuclear Model Atom has a small, dense,

positively charged
nucleus.

Bohr 1913 Bohr Model Electrons move in fixed

energy levels around the
nucleus.

Quantum Mechanical 1926 Quantum Mechanical Electrons exist in

Model probability regions called
orbitals.

This sequence — Dalton → Thomson → Rutherford → Bohr → Quantum Mechanical Model — shows how our
understanding of the atom evolved over time.

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