LECTURE NOTE 4: TRIBOLOGY: MEE 302 BELLS UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, OTA

Wear refers to the progressive loss or removal of material from the surfaces of interacting components in a mechanical
system due to relative motion, contact pressure, and surface interactions. Wear is the damage and gradual removal
of material from one or both the contacting surfaces in relative motion. It is a system response and not a material
property. In general wear is related to hardness of a material and higher hardness usually mean lower wear. The
traditional means of measuring wear is by the weight loss suffered by the component. However, with advancement in
instrumentation, wear is also represented in terms of depth. Wear is normally undesired as it leads to shortening ofthe
service life of components. However, in some cases viz. machining, polishing, shearing, etc. wear is deliberately
inflicted in a controlled manner.

Wear is a complex phenomenon influenced by factors such as material properties, surface conditions, operating
conditions, and environmental factors. It can occur through various mechanisms, including abrasion, adhesion, fatigue,
erosion, and corrosion, depending on the specific tribological environment. Wear can lead to degradation of
component performance, increased friction, loss of dimensional accuracy, and ultimately, failure of mechanical
systems. Understanding and mitigating wear are essential aspects of tribological research and engineering practice to
improve the reliability, efficiency, and longevity of machinery and equipment.

WEAR AS A SYSTEM PROPERTY

Wear is considered a system property rather than a material property because it emerges from the interaction and
interplay of multiple factors within a tribological system, rather than being solely determined by the intrinsic
properties of the materials involved. Several key reasons support this perspective:

1. Complex Interactions: Wear is influenced by a multitude of factors such as surface roughness, lubrication,
temperature, contact pressure, sliding velocity, and environmental conditions. These factors interact in a
complex manner to determine the wear behavior of a system.

2. Dependence on Operating Conditions: The wear behavior of a material can vary significantly depending on
the specific operating conditions experienced by the system. For example, the wear rate may change with
changes in load, speed, temperature, or the presence of contaminants.

3. Surface Interactions: Wear often involves complex surface interactions, including adhesion, abrasion, fatigue,
and erosion. These interactions are influenced by factors such as surface chemistry, microstructure, and
mechanical properties, which can vary between different materials and system configurations.

4. Effect of Lubrication: Lubricants play a crucial role in reducing wear by minimizing direct contact between
surfaces, dissipating heat, and preventing surface damage. The effectiveness of lubrication depends on factors
such as lubricant type, viscosity, and film formation, as well as the compatibility with the materials and
operating conditions.

5. Feedback Mechanisms: Wear can lead to changes in surface topography, material properties, and operating
conditions, which in turn can affect the wear behavior of the system. This feedback loop between wear and
system parameters highlights the dynamic and interactive nature of wear in tribological systems.

6. System-Level Optimization: Effective management of wear requires considering the entire tribological
system, including material selection, surface treatments, lubrication strategies, and operational parameters.
By optimizing the system as a whole, rather than focusing solely on individual material properties, it is possible
to achieve better wear resistance and extended component life.

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POSITIVE WEAR

Beneficial wear refers to wear phenomena that have positive effects on the performance or functionality of
mechanical systems. While wear is often associated with material loss and degradation, certain types of wear can
actually be advantageous under specific conditions. Two common examples of beneficial wear are "run-in wear" and
"zero wear".

Both run-in wear and zero wear demonstrate how wear phenomena, when properly managed and controlled, can
contribute to the improved performance, efficiency, and longevity of mechanical systems. Understanding these
beneficial wear mechanisms is essential for optimizing the design, operation, and maintenance of tribological systems
in various engineering applications.

1. Run-In Wear:

 Run-in wear, also known as break-in wear or initial wear, refers to the wear that occurs during the
early stages of operation when two mating surfaces are brought into contact for the first time.
 Mechanism: During the initial stages of operation, mating surfaces undergo adjustments and
conformations to achieve optimal contact and load distribution. Asperities on the surfaces
undergo plastic deformation, smoothing, and conditioning, which leads to improved surface
conformity and reduced friction.

 Benefits:

 Enhanced Surface Conformity: Run-in wear helps mating surfaces to conform more closely
to each other, reducing the likelihood of high contact stresses and surface irregularities.
 Reduced Friction and Wear: By smoothing out surface roughness and removing surface
imperfections, run-in wear can lead to decreased friction and wear rates over time.
 Improved Performance: Proper run-in wear can improve the performance, efficiency, and
longevity of mechanical components by promoting optimal surface contact and reducing
wear-related issues during operation.

2. Zero Wear:

 Zero wear, also known as self-polishing wear, refers to a wear regime where two mating surfaces
exhibit minimal or no net material loss during sliding contact.
 Mechanism: In certain lubricated or hydrodynamic contact conditions, such as in well-designed
journal bearings or fluid film lubrication systems, the formation of a lubricating film between
sliding surfaces can effectively prevent direct metal-to-metal contact and material removal.
Instead, the lubricating film acts as a protective barrier, allowing for smooth sliding with minimal
wear.

 Benefits:

 Extended Component Life: Zero wear conditions can significantly prolong the service life
of mechanical components by minimizing material loss and surface damage during
operation.
 Improved Efficiency: By maintaining low friction and minimal wear, zero wear conditions
can enhance the efficiency, reliability, and performance of mechanical systems, reducing
energy consumption and maintenance requirements.
 Enhanced Reliability: Components operating under zero wear conditions are less prone to
wear-related failures, surface degradation, and performance deterioration, resulting in
increased system reliability and uptime.

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Each wear mechanism can contribute to material loss and degradation in mechanical systems, and understanding
these mechanisms is essential for designing effective wear-resistant materials, coatings, and lubrication strategies to
mitigate wear and prolong the service life of components.

1. Adhesive Wear:

 Adhesive wear occurs when two surfaces in contact experience bonding and subsequent material
transfer during sliding motion.
 Mechanism: Asperities on the surfaces come into contact and adhere due to intermolecular forces. As
sliding occurs, these bonds are broken, resulting in material transfer from one surface to the other.
 Example: Scuffing between contacting gears or metal-to-metal contact in bearings can lead to
adhesive wear, characterized by the formation of wear debris and surface damage.
Each contact supports a normal load
W = πa2H
where H is the hardness of the soft material.
If there are n number of contacts, then the total normal load W = nπa2H or

nπa2 = W/H

During sliding, the opposing surface will pass over the asperity for a sliding distance 2a.

It is assumed that the wear fragment produced from each asperity is hemispherical in shape and of
volume

Then the wear volume δQ produced by one asperity contact in unit sliding distance is given by

The total wear volume Q per unit sliding distance is

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 where n is the total number of contacts. By Substitution, we get

This equation suggests that:

 Wear volume is proportional to the load.

 Wear volume is inversely proportional to the hardness of the softer material.
 Wear volume is proportional to the sliding distance.

2. Abrasive Wear:

 Abrasive wear results from the mechanical removal of material from a surface due to the presence
of hard particles or abrasive contaminants.
 Mechanism: Hard particles or abrasive contaminants trapped between sliding surfaces plow into the
softer material, causing localized abrasion and material removal.
 Example: Sand particles causing wear on the surface of a piston or valve in an engine, resulting in
grooving and surface roughening.

In traversing unit distance, it displaces a volume of material

The total volume of material displaced in unit sliding distance

where n is the number of asperity contacts.

For simplicity, we assume that the softer material has yielded due to normal load alone. Therefore,
the abrasive wear particle transmits a normal load of

where H is the hardness of the softer material. Thus, if there are n asperity contacts, the normal load

Substituting

Similar to adhesive wear, it is found that not all abrasive particles produce loose wear debris.

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 3. Delamination Wear:

 Delamination wear involves the progressive separation or spalling of layers from a material's surface.
 Mechanism: Delamination occurs due to repeated cyclic loading, thermal cycling, or chemical
degradation, leading to crack propagation and separation of surface layers.
 Example: Delamination of coatings or surface layers on mechanical components, such as peeling
paint on a metal surface or spalling of a ceramic coating on a cutting tool.

4. Erosive Wear:

 Erosive wear occurs when solid particles or liquid droplets impact a surface at high velocities, leading
to material removal.
 Mechanism: High-velocity impingement of particles or droplets on the surface causes localized
deformation, fracture, and erosion of material.
 Example: Erosive wear of turbine blades in gas turbines due to the impact of airborne dust or sand
particles, leading to surface pitting and degradation.

5. Fretting Wear:

 Fretting wear occurs in regions of slight relative motion or vibration between two contacting
surfaces.
 Mechanism: Microscopic oscillations or fretting motion at the contact interface lead to surface
damage, including abrasion, adhesion, and fatigue-induced cracking.
 Example: Fretting wear at the interface of bolted joints, where slight relative motion between the
mating surfaces results in surface scoring, galling, and material loss.

6. Fatigue Wear:

 Fatigue wear occurs as a result of repeated cyclic loading or stress-induced fatigue cracking of a
material.
 Mechanism: Fatigue cracks initiate and propagate under cyclic loading conditions, leading to
progressive material loss and surface degradation.
 Example: Fatigue wear in rotating machinery components subjected to cyclic loading, such as rolling
contact fatigue in bearings or spalling of gear teeth due to repeated loading.

7. Corrosive/Oxidative Wear:

 Corrosive or oxidative wear occurs due to the combined action of chemical corrosion or oxidation and
mechanical wear.
 Mechanism: Corrosive or oxidative attack weakens the material surface, making it more susceptible
to mechanical wear processes such as abrasion, adhesion, or fatigue.
 Example: Corrosive wear of metal components exposed to corrosive environments, such as rusting of
steel structures or pitting corrosion on metal surfaces exposed to acidic solutions.

FACTORS AFFECTING WEAR

Understanding how various factors interact to influence wear is pivotal for accurately predicting and effectively
managing wear behavior in a wide array of tribological applications. This comprehensive understanding is
indispensable for tasks ranging from the development of durable wear-resistant materials and coatings to the
optimization of operating conditions and lubrication strategies. By grasping the intricate interplay among these

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factors, it becomes possible to minimize wear and enhance the longevity of mechanical components. Herein are some
of the factors that affects wear:

1. Normal Load:

 Normal load, or the force pressing surfaces together perpendicular to the contact area, influences wear
by affecting the contact pressure and the extent of material deformation and interfacial interactions.
 Higher normal loads can increase contact pressure and material deformation, leading to greater wear
rates due to increased adhesion, abrasion, and fatigue processes.

2. Sliding Velocity:

 Sliding velocity affects wear by influencing factors such as contact time, contact stress, and surface
temperature rise.
 Higher sliding velocities can lead to increased wear rates due to more frequent surface interactions,
increased heat generation, and changes in wear mechanisms, such as increased abrasion and adhesion.

3. Temperature:

 Temperature influences wear by altering material properties, surface reactions, and lubrication
effectiveness.
 Elevated temperatures can accelerate wear by softening materials, increasing chemical reactivity,
promoting oxidation, and reducing lubricant viscosity, leading to increased friction and wear rates.

4. Environment:

 Environmental factors, such as humidity, atmospheric gases, and chemical contaminants, can
significantly affect wear behavior.
 Corrosive environments can promote chemical wear mechanisms, such as corrosion or oxidation wear,
while abrasive contaminants can increase abrasive wear rates and surface damage.

5. Elastic Modulus:

 Elastic modulus, or the stiffness of a material, affects wear resistance by influencing material
deformation and surface contact mechanics.
 Materials with higher elastic moduli tend to resist deformation and exhibit greater wear resistance, as
they can better withstand contact stresses and surface loading without undergoing excessive plastic
deformation.

6. Hardness:

 Hardness, a measure of a material's resistance to indentation or scratching, strongly influences wear

resistance.
 Harder materials typically exhibit higher wear resistance due to their ability to resist abrasive wear
and deformation under contact loading.

7. Fracture Toughness:

 Fracture toughness, a measure of a material's resistance to crack propagation, affects wear behavior
by influencing resistance to surface damage and wear particle generation.
 Materials with higher fracture toughness may exhibit better resistance to wear-induced cracking and
spalling, leading to improved wear performance.

8. Crystal Structure:

 Crystal structure influences wear behavior by affecting material properties such as hardness, strength,
and deformation mechanisms.

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  Materials with different crystal structures may exhibit varied wear resistance due to differences in slip
systems, grain orientations, and surface reactivity.

9. Thermal Diffusivity:

 Thermal diffusivity, a measure of a material's ability to conduct heat, can affect wear by influencing
temperature distribution and heat dissipation at the contact interface.
 Materials with higher thermal diffusivity may exhibit better resistance to thermal damage and wear-
induced surface degradation due to improved heat dissipation capabilities.

WEAR OF MATERIALS

The wear behavior of materials varies depending on their composition, structure, and mechanical properties.
Understanding the specific wear mechanisms and employing appropriate mitigation strategies are essential for
designing durable and reliable components for various tribological applications.

1. Metals and Alloys:

 Metals and alloys are commonly used in engineering applications due to their excellent mechanical
properties, including high strength, ductility, and toughness.
 Wear Mechanisms: The wear behavior of metals and alloys is influenced by factors such as hardness,
surface roughness, microstructure, and the presence of alloying elements.
 Adhesive Wear: Metal-to-metal contact can lead to adhesive wear, where material transfer
occurs between sliding surfaces due to bonding and subsequent detachment.
 Abrasive Wear: Hard particles or abrasive contaminants can cause abrasive wear by plowing
into the softer metal surface and causing material removal.
 Fatigue Wear: Repeated cyclic loading can induce fatigue wear by initiating and propagating
cracks, leading to surface spalling and material loss.

 Mitigation Strategies: Techniques such as surface hardening (e.g., heat treatment, surface coating),
lubrication, and material selection (e.g., using wear-resistant alloys) are employed to mitigate wear in
metal components.

2. Ceramics:

 Ceramics are characterized by their high hardness, stiffness, and wear resistance, making them
suitable for applications requiring excellent wear performance.
 Wear Mechanisms: Ceramic wear behavior is influenced by factors such as crystal structure, grain size,
porosity, and surface finish.
 Abrasive Wear: Ceramics exhibit exceptional resistance to abrasive wear due to their high
hardness and wear resistance, making them suitable for applications involving abrasive
particles or harsh environments.
 Adhesive Wear: While ceramics typically exhibit low adhesion to metals, adhesive wear can
still occur under certain conditions, particularly at high temperatures or in the presence of
reactive gases.
 Thermal Shock Wear: Rapid temperature changes can induce thermal shock wear in
ceramics, leading to surface cracking and spalling.

 Mitigation Strategies: Surface treatments (e.g., polishing, coating), controlling grain size and porosity,
and selecting appropriate ceramic compositions can help mitigate wear in ceramic components.

3. Polymers:

 Polymers are characterized by their lightweight, flexibility, and low friction properties, making them
suitable for various tribological applications.
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  Wear Mechanisms: Polymer wear behavior is influenced by factors such as polymer type, molecular
structure, surface roughness, and environmental conditions.
 Abrasive Wear: Polymers can experience abrasive wear when subjected to abrasive particles
or rough surfaces, leading to material removal and surface damage.
 Adhesive Wear: Polymer surfaces can exhibit high adhesion to metals and other materials,
leading to adhesive wear and material transfer between sliding surfaces.
 Fatigue Wear: Repeated cyclic loading can induce fatigue wear in polymers, causing surface
cracking, delamination, and material loss.

 Mitigation Strategies: Incorporating fillers or reinforcing agents (e.g., fibers, nanoparticles), surface
treatments (e.g., coatings, plasma treatment), and selecting polymers with appropriate mechanical
properties can help mitigate wear in polymer components.

CORRELATION BETWEEN FRICTION AND WEAR

The correlation between friction and wear is a fundamental aspect of tribology, the science of friction, wear, and
lubrication. While friction and wear are distinct phenomena, they are closely related and often exhibit a strong
correlation in tribological systems. Understanding this correlation is essential for comprehensively analyzing and
managing tribological behavior. Here's how friction and wear are correlated:

1. Mechanisms of Friction and Wear:

 Friction is the resistance to motion when two surfaces are in contact, while wear is the progressive
loss of material from these surfaces due to relative motion. Both phenomena arise from the complex
interactions between contacting surfaces, including adhesion, abrasion, and deformation.

2. Influence of Surface Interactions:

 Frictional forces directly influence the magnitude of contact stresses and the severity of surface
interactions, which, in turn, affect wear rates. Higher friction typically leads to increased material
removal and accelerated wear.

3. Feedback Loop:

 Friction and wear often form a feedback loop, where changes in one parameter can influence the
other. For example, as wear progresses and surface roughness increases, frictional forces may rise due
to greater asperity interactions, leading to further material removal and wear.

4. Effect of Lubrication:

 Lubricants play a crucial role in both reducing friction and mitigating wear. Effective lubrication can
minimize direct surface contact, reduce frictional forces, and prevent wear-related damage by forming
protective films or reducing surface adhesion.

5. Wear Debris as Abrasives:

 Wear debris generated during sliding or rubbing can act as abrasives, exacerbating wear and
increasing frictional forces. This phenomenon, known as third-body wear, highlights the
interdependence between friction and wear.

6. Surface Damage and Roughness:

 Surface damage and roughening caused by wear can alter the topography and contact mechanics of
sliding surfaces, influencing frictional behavior. Increased surface roughness can enhance adhesion
and friction, leading to accelerated wear rates.

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 7. Experimental Observations:

 Experimental studies often reveal a correlation between friction and wear behavior. Changes in
frictional coefficients are frequently observed alongside variations in wear rates, providing empirical
evidence of their interrelationship.

8. Analytical Models:

 Analytical models and simulations in tribology often incorporate correlations between friction and
wear to predict system behavior accurately. These models consider factors such as contact mechanics,
material properties, and lubrication regimes to provide insights into the complex interactions between
friction and wear.

MEASUREMENT OF WEAR

Measuring wear is essential for understanding the performance of materials and components in various engineering
applications. Several techniques and methods are available to measure wear accurately, each with its advantages and
limitations. Here are some common methods used to measure wear:

1. Weight Loss Method:

 This is one of the simplest and oldest methods for measuring wear. It involves weighing the specimen
before and after the wear test and calculating the difference in weight.

 The weight loss method is suitable for measuring wear in bulk materials and simple geometries.
However, it may not be suitable for measuring wear in complex shapes or small components.

2. Linear Measurement:

 This method involves measuring the change in dimensions (e.g., length, width, thickness) of the
specimen before and after the wear test using calipers or micrometers.

 Linear measurement is useful for quantifying wear in components with linear wear patterns, such as
shafts, pins, and gears. However, it may not capture wear in non-linear or irregular wear patterns.

3. Surface Profilometry:

 Surface profilometry techniques, such as optical profilometry, stylus profilometry, and atomic force
microscopy (AFM), are used to measure surface roughness and quantify wear scars.

 Profilometry provides detailed information about the surface topography and wear mechanisms,
making it suitable for analyzing wear in fine-scale features and complex geometries.

4. Wear Particle Analysis:

 Wear particles generated during the wear process can be collected and analyzed using techniques
such as microscopy, spectroscopy, and elemental analysis.

 Wear particle analysis can provide insights into wear mechanisms, wear rates, and the nature of
surface damage. It is particularly useful for understanding abrasive and adhesive wear processes.

5. Microhardness Testing:

 Microhardness testing involves measuring the hardness of the worn surface using techniques such as
Vickers or Knoop microhardness testing.

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  Changes in microhardness can indicate material deformation, work hardening, and wear resistance.
Microhardness testing is suitable for localized wear measurements and characterizing wear
mechanisms.

6. Wear Rate Calculation:

 Wear rate can be calculated based on the amount of material lost or removed during the wear test,
normalized by the sliding distance, time, or number of cycles.

 Wear rate calculation provides a quantitative measure of wear performance and allows for
comparison between different materials and test conditions.

7. Simulation and Modeling:

 Computational methods, such as finite element analysis (FEA) and wear simulation software, can be
used to predict wear behavior and estimate wear rates based on material properties, contact
conditions, and operating parameters.

 Simulation and modeling techniques complement experimental measurements and provide insights
into wear mechanisms and performance under different scenarios.

PROBLEMS

1. A steel ball is slid against an aluminum flat surface at two different normal loads. At low normal load, the coefficient
of friction is 0.40 and the groove width is 0.4 mm. At high load, the coefficient of friction is 0.6 and the groove width
is 0.8 mm. Calculate the adhesive component of friction. Given: μtotal = μadhesion + μplowing.

2. A hard steel ball of 3 mm diameter slid against a soft aluminum surface,

produces a groove of 1.5 mm width. Calculate the adhesive component of friction when coefficient of friction is
recorded 0.4. Given: μtotal = μadhesion + μplowing.

3. A steel surface with conical asperities of an average semi-angle of 60o slides against a soft aluminum surface of
hardness, H =100 MPa under a constant normal load of 20 N. Calculate the volume of aluminum displaced in unit slid
distance.

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