PR2

Module 1 (An overview of quantitative research)

Research - is generally a word used to describe an activity that involves a systematic method of
finding out things that either you do not know or no one else knows.

"systematic, objective analysis, and recording if controlled observation that may lead to the
development of generalizations, principles, and theories, resulting in predictions and ultimate
control of many events that may be consequences or causes of specific activities"

Types of research:

Quantitative - is concerned with data that are quantifiable or measurable. In other words, it deals
with numbers. (e.g. measurable data to formulate facts and uncover patterns.) i.e. systematic
investigation, gathering material, statistical computations

Qualitative - regards measurable data, emphasizes quality of information that can be used to
gather insights about a phenomenon from the perspectives of those who experience it.

Characteristics of quantitative research :

1. Large sample size - the results are based on a large sample size that is representative
of the population.

2. Structured research methods - All aspects of quantitative research are carefully planned
and designed before they are implemented. Uses structured research methods such as
surveys and questionnaires.

3. Highly reliable outcome - the use of research gathers specific and measurable
responses from the sample or population makes quantitative research quite reliable.

4. Reusable outcome - The outcome of quantitative research can be used several times.
So , the data collected for a particular study can be used in succeeding studies of
another related research problem.

5. Close ended questions - clearly defined research questions to which objective answers
are sought.

6. Numerical outcome - it must always be in a numerical form. The data must be

manageable and presentable using frequencies, percentages, ranges, etc..
 7. Generalization of outcome - Involves many representative sample taken from a
population of interest. Data obtained can be used to predict future results or establish
casual relationships.

8. Prior study - Many researchers that employ quantitative research methods review and
analyze the outcomes or results of previous related studies to provide a strong
framework or support for their research problem. i.e. justifies the need to investigate
current research

Types of quantitative research designs :

Descriptive research design - answers who, what, where, when, & how in relation to a research
problem. prefers population sizes as large as possible, subjects are usually only measured once
(no manipulation, describes and quantifies phenomena)
*types of descriptive research design :

1. observational study - in quantitative research, emphasis is placed on a specific quantifiable

factor or behavior. (from the word observation)

2. correlational research - explores association/relationship between

two or more quantifiable variables in a single group using statistical
analyses. It does not look for cause and effect but instead; correlation.

3. Survey research - a popular design of collecting primary data from a

large or small population by selecting samples from the desired
population to answer your research questions.

4. Cross sectional survey - An observational study that collects data

from a population at a single point in time. It functions as a "snapshot"
to estimate the prevalence of a condition or compare different groups at
once, but it cannot establish cause-and-effect.

5. longitudinal survey - A broad research design where data is

collected from subjects repeatedly over an extended period. This allows
researchers to track individual change, establish a sequence of events,
and determine causality.

6. Cohort study - A specific type of longitudinal study that follows a

group of individuals who share a common defining characteristic or
experience (e.g., birth year, a specific profession, or a shared
diagnosis) over time. The defining trait is shared, though the specific
individuals sampled can change at each time point.

7. Panel study - A highly rigorous form of longitudinal study where

researchers repeatedly survey the exact same sample of individuals at
 multiple time points. This allows researchers to track net and gross
changes exactly within the same subjects over time.

Experimental design - The experimental design is widely regarded as the gold standard for
establishing causation. At its core, the researcher deliberately manipulates an independent
variable (the presumed cause) and then measures its effect on a dependent variable (the
outcome).

Hypothesis testing - the process of determining if the result will support or reject the hypothesis.

3 types of experimental design :

1. Pre experimental design - without intervention, considered the weakest, most

researchers don't recommend this design

2. True experimental - with intervention & randomization, considered as the most accurate,
primarily relies on statistical analysis to support or reject a hypothesis.
 3. Quasi experimental - with intervention, key element it lacks is the random assignment of
subjects.

Types of sampling -

Probability sampling - every individual has a known, equal chance of selection

types of probability sampling :
1. Simple Random Sampling: Every member of the population has an equal, randomized
chance of being chosen, similar to a lottery draw. [1]
2. Systematic Sampling: Selecting individuals at fixed, regular intervals (e.g., every 10th person)
after picking a random starting point. [1]
3. Stratified Sampling: The population is divided into subgroups (strata) based on shared traits
(like age or income), and random samples are drawn proportionally from each group. [1, 2]
4. Cluster Sampling: The population is divided into naturally occurring groups (e.g., geographic
regions or schools), and entire clusters are randomly selected for the study. [1]

Non probability sampling - where selection is based on convenience, judgment, or specific non-
random criteria
types of non probability sampling :
1. Convenience Sampling: Selecting participants who are easiest to reach or most readily
available. [1]
2. Purposive (Judgmental) Sampling: The researcher uses their own expertise to select a
specific sample of individuals who meet the study's unique criteria. [1]
3. Snowball Sampling: Existing participants recruit future participants from among their
acquaintances, which is useful for studying hard-to-reach or hidden populations. [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
4. - Quota Sampling: Selecting a set number of people from specific subgroups until a
predetermined quota is met, ensuring diversity without strict randomization. [1]

Variable - is a construct or attribute that can assume different values.

Types of variables based on :

1
Value : Categorical ( qualitative) - non numerical, observation varies in kind but not degree (e.g.
sex, religion, civil status)
Continuous (quantitative) - numerical, observations vary in magnitude (e.g. income, children,
height)
Types of continuous variable :
1. Discrete - is countable and takes on distinct, separate values
2. Continuous- is measurable and can assume an infinite number of values within any given
range, including decimals and fractions
2
Measurement : Nominal - data is non numerically labelled i.e no significant order or ranking
Ordinal - order is present, no measurable distance between categories
Interval - data values are ranged in a real interval, ranges from negative to positive (e.g.
temperature in celsius or farenheit)
Ratio - has a a true zero point, indicating an absolute absence of the variable (key : always
positive e.g. temp in kelvin)
3
Relationship : Independent - manipulated & affects/changes other variables
Dependent - the outcome of the independent variable
Intervening - also called "test variable" or "control variable", increases or decreases the effect of
IV to DV
Extraneous - also called the "cofounding variable" is an unwanted variable, may introduce bias,
can't be manipulated

Module 2 (Identifying and stating the problem)

Writing the problem statement -

4 A problem statement clearly defines the research focus by articulating the issue or gap that the
study aims to address.

General area of interest: A broad field that captures the researcher's attention and expertise.

Specific research question: a focused inquiry that narrows down the general issue down to a
particular issue

Writing the research problem

general statement
specific problem statements
found in the statement of the problem

Ensure your research questions are well defined for these reasons

1. a research question defines an investigation

2. a research questions sets boundaries

3. A research question provides direction

4. a research question acts as a frame of reference

Null vs Alternative hypothesis

null = no
alternative = positive
scope & delimitation
scope - reach what is doable
delimitation - restrictions

Defining the terms of our study

Lexical definitions
Operational definitions - based on context

definition of terms is ALWAYS alphabetical

Significance of the study is an explanation of why the research is important and who will benefit
from it

General contributions is the broad implications of the research findings

Specific contributions is the detailed benefits to particular stakeholders or groups

background of the study: contextual information that explains the relevance and necessity of the
research.

caRS model : a framework structuring the background consisting of:

1. Establish the territory (setting the context)

2. Establishing the niche ( Identifying the research gap)

3. Occupying the niche (presenting the research problem)

Writing of the Rationale

coverage is MODULE 1 (up to variables)