Chapter 1: Introduction to TCP/IP Networking —

Study Notes

Exam Topics Covered

1.0 Network Fundamentals

1.3 Compare physical interface and cabling types

1.3.a Single-mode fiber, multimode fiber, copper

1.3.b Connections (Ethernet shared media and point-to-point)

1. Perspectives on Networking
Most people first experience networks as end users (home internet), not as
engineers who build them.

Home internet examples:

Cable Internet: PC → Ethernet → cable modem → coaxial cable → CATV wall

outlet

DSL: router uses DSL to reach the Internet

Wi-Fi (Wireless LAN): tablet connects to router without cables

Enterprise network: a network built by one company/organization so employees

can communicate.

SOHO (Small Office/Home Office): smaller networks used for business purposes
at home.

In network diagrams, a cloud symbol = a part of the network whose internal details
don’t matter for that diagram.

Bottom line: the job of a network is simply to move data from one device to
another.
2. TCP/IP Networking Model

What is a “networking model”?

Also called a networking architecture or blueprint.

A comprehensive set of documents that together define everything needed for a

network to work.

Documents may define:

Protocols — logical rules devices follow to communicate

Physical specs — e.g., voltage/current levels on a cable

Analogy: a networking model is like an architectural blueprint for a house — many

different specialists (framers, electricians, etc. = network vendors/engineers) follow
it so everything works together.

History Leading to TCP/IP

Early networking = proprietary, vendor-specific (no interoperability).

Example: IBM’s SNA (Systems Network Architecture), published 1974.

Companies using multiple vendors needed multiple separate networks —

complex.

ISO (International Organization for Standardization) began creating an open,

vendor-neutral model in the late 1970s → became the OSI (Open Systems
Interconnection) model.

Goal: worldwide standardized networking.

TCP/IP arose separately from a U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) contract;

developed further by university researchers.

1990s: companies used OSI, TCP/IP, or both.

By end of 1990s: TCP/IP won; OSI faded away commercially (OSI’s formal, slow
standardization process hurt it).

Today: TCP/IP dominates; OSI terminology still used even though OSI itself isn’t
implemented.

TCP/IP defines protocols via RFCs (Requests For Comments).

TCP/IP doesn’t reinvent everything — it references external standards, e.g., IEEE

 defines Ethernet; TCP/IP just points to it.

The TCP/IP Model — 5 Layers (top to bottom)

Layer Focus

Application Services for applications (top layer)

Transport End-to-end delivery between applications

Network Delivery across the entire path (source to destination)

Data Link Delivery over ONE physical link/network type

Physical Transmitting raw bits over a link

Note: RFC 1122 defines an older 4-layer version of TCP/IP (merges Data Link +
Physical). CCNA uses the 5-layer model.

Table 1-2 — TCP/IP Layers & Example Protocols

Layer Example Protocols

Application HTTP, POP3, SMTP

Transport TCP, UDP

Internet (Network) IP, ICMP

Data Link & Physical Ethernet, 802.11 (Wi-Fi)

3. TCP/IP Application Layer

Provides services to applications, not the application itself.

Example: HTTP lets a web browser pull a web page from a web server.

HTTP Example (Bob = browser, Larry = server)

1. Bob’s browser sends: “Give me your web page” (HTTP GET request)

2. Larry’s server responds: “Here is the file [Link]”

 [Link] = default/home page filename.

HTTP created by Tim Berners-Lee in the early 1990s.

URLs/URIs starting with http indicate HTTP is used to transfer the page.

HTTP Protocol Mechanics (Step by step)

1. Bob sends a message with an HTTP header → GET [Link]

2. Larry replies with an HTTP header containing a return code:

200 = OK

404 = Not Found

3. Larry sends additional messages with just data, no HTTP header (to avoid
repeating info) — file may be split across multiple messages.

4. TCP/IP Transport Layer

Fewer protocols than Application layer — mainly:

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)

UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

Transport layer provides services to the Application layer above it.

TCP Error Recovery (Key Concept)

TCP guarantees delivery using acknowledgments and sequence numbers (SEQ).

Example: Larry sends 3 TCP segments (SEQ 1, 2, 3) to Bob.

Segment 2 is lost in the network.

Bob receives 1 and 3 but notices 2 is missing.

Bob asks Larry to resend segment 2.

This is TCP’s error-recovery feature.

Same-Layer vs. Adjacent-Layer Interaction (IMPORTANT — tested

concept)

Concept Definition
 Same-layer
Two computers use a protocol/header to communicate with the
interaction
same layer on the other device (e.g., TCP sequence numbers
(different
between Larry’s TCP and Bob’s TCP)
computers)

Adjacent-layer
A layer provides a service to the layer directly above it on the same
interaction
computer (e.g., HTTP asks TCP to send data reliably)
(same computer)

HTTP asking TCP for error recovery = adjacent-layer interaction

TCP segment numbering + acknowledgment between two computers = same-layer

interaction (also relates to data encapsulation)

5. TCP/IP Network Layer

Only one major protocol: IP (Internet Protocol)

Name “TCP/IP” = TCP + IP, the two most common protocols.

IP provides two key features:

1. Addressing

2. Routing

Postal Service Analogy

Postal Service TCP/IP Network Layer

Addresses on envelopes IP addresses

ZIP codes group addresses IP address grouping

Post offices routing mail Routers forwarding packets

Sender doesn’t know the Upper layers (App/Transport) don’t worry about the
path path

Upper layers (Application, Transport) act like the person mailing a letter — they
don’t care about the path.

Lower layers (Network, Data Link, Physical) act like the postal service — they must
 know the physical network and choose paths.

IP Addressing Basics
Every device using TCP/IP = a host, and needs a unique IP address.

IP addresses use dotted-decimal notation (DDN) — four numbers separated by

periods.

Example: [Link]

IP also groups addresses (like ZIP codes group mail addresses).

IP Routing Basics (Key Example — Larry to Bob through R1, R2, R3)
Router = device that forwards (routes) IP packets toward their destination, based on
destination IP address — similar to a post office.

IP host = any device (any size) with an IP address connected to a TCP/IP network.

Routing Example Steps (Figure 1-10):

1. Larry ([Link]) sends the packet to a nearby router (R1) — doesn’t need to know the
whole topology.

2. R1 checks the destination address ([Link]) against its known routes → forwards to
R2.

3. R2 checks destination again → forwards to Bob ([Link]).

This forwarding process = IP routing (or simply routing).

The IP header contains:

Source IP address

Destination IP address

6. TCP/IP Data-Link and Physical Layers

Work closely together; some standards define both layers at once.

Physical layer: cabling + energy/electrical signals used to transmit data.

Data-link layer: the rules/conventions for sending data over that cable (framing,
media access, etc.)
 Data-link layer provides a service to the Network layer above it.

4-Step Example: Larry Sending an IP Packet to R1 via Ethernet (Figure 1-

11)
1. Encapsulate: Larry wraps the IP packet with an Ethernet header and trailer →
creates an Ethernet frame.

2. Transmit: Larry sends the bits electrically over the Ethernet cable.

3. Receive: R1 physically receives the electrical signal and reconstructs the bits.

4. De-encapsulate: R1 removes/discards the Ethernet header and trailer to get the IP

packet back.

Note: Data-link protocols use both a header AND a trailer (unlike upper layers,
which typically use only headers).

Data-link layer includes many protocols: various types of Ethernet, wireless LAN
(Wi-Fi) protocols, etc.

7. Data Encapsulation Terminology

Encapsulation = wrapping data with headers (and sometimes trailers) as it passes
down through the layers.

Each layer’s header carries info needed for that layer to do its job.

The 5-Step Encapsulation Process (sending a message)

Step Action

Create & encapsulate application data with an application layer header (e.g.,
1
HTTP)

2 Encapsulate that data inside a transport layer header (TCP or UDP)

3 Encapsulate that data inside a network layer (IP) header

4 Encapsulate that data inside a data-link header AND trailer

5 Transmit the bits (physical layer encodes signal onto the medium)

Names for Messages at Each Layer (VERY IMPORTANT — commonly

tested)

Layer Term for the Message (PDU)

Transport Segment

Network Packet

Data Link Frame

Whatever comes after the layer’s own header is usually just referred to generically
as “data” when discussing that specific layer.

Example: When discussing IP, everything after the IP header (TCP header + HTTP
header + web page data) is just called “data.”

8. OSI Networking Model and Terminology

OSI lost the competition to TCP/IP and is not actually used today.

Why learn it? Because OSI terminology (especially layer numbers/names) is still
used constantly in modern networking, even on TCP/IP networks.

OSI 7-Layer Model vs. TCP/IP Models (Figure 1-14)

OSI Layer # OSI Layer Name Maps to TCP/IP (5-layer)

7 Application Application

6 Presentation Application

5 Session Application

4 Transport Transport

3 Network Network

2 Data Link Data Link

1 Physical Physical

Bottom 4 layers (Transport, Network, Data Link, Physical) match in name, number,
and meaning between OSI and TCP/IP.
 TCP/IP’s single Application layer = OSI’s Session + Presentation + Application
(Layers 5–7).

Common jargon: people still call an app-layer protocol a “Layer 7 protocol”, or

refer to “Layer 5–7 protocols” using OSI numbering — even in TCP/IP networks.

OSI Encapsulation Terminology

OSI uses a generic term instead of segment/packet/frame: PDU (Protocol Data
Unit).

Format: Layer x PDU (LxPDU)

Example: An IP packet = L3PDU (Layer 3 PDU), since IP is a Layer 3 protocol.

A frame = L2PDU (Layer 2 PDU)

HTTP data = L7PDU

Key Terms You Should Know (from chapter)

Adjacent-layer interaction

De-encapsulation

Encapsulation

Frame

Networking model

Packet

Protocol data unit (PDU)

Same-layer interaction

Segment

Quick-Reference Summary Table

Concept Answer

TCP/IP transport layer protocols TCP, UDP

 TCP/IP data-link layer protocols Ethernet, PPP

HTTP asking TCP for reliable delivery Adjacent-layer interaction

TCP sequence numbers between 2 hosts Same-layer interaction

Web server adding TCP → IP → data-link

Data encapsulation
headers

Term for data-link layer PDU Frame

OSI term for a frame Layer 2 PDU (L2PDU)

Term for network layer PDU Packet

Term for transport layer PDU Segment

Main network-layer protocol IP

Devices that route IP packets Routers

Notation used for IP addresses Dotted-decimal notation (DDN)

Body that created OSI ISO

U.S. DoD contract / university

Origin of TCP/IP
researchers

IBM’s proprietary model (1974) SNA (Systems Network Architecture)

“Do I Know This Already?” Quiz Answers (from chapter)

1. D and F (UDP, TCP — transport layer)

2. A and G (Ethernet, PPP — data-link layer)

3. B (Adjacent-layer interaction)

4. B (Same-layer interaction)

5. A (Data encapsulation)

6. D (Frame)

7. B (Layer 2 PDU)