Engine Development
Engine Development
History of Aircraft Reciprocating Engines
Introduction
Aviation progress has historically been dependent on the development of suitable
powerplants.
The Wright Brothers
Development Process: Approached flight systematically, solving lift (kites) and control
(gliders) before attempting powered flight by 1902.
Engine Requirements: Sought a gasoline engine producing 8–9 brake horsepower and
weighing no more than 180 lbs.
Solution: Due to a lack of manufacturers willing or able to provide such an engine, they
designed and built their own with Mr. Charles Taylor.
Engine Specifications:
Configuration: Four cylinders in-line, laid on its side.
Power: 12–16 horsepower at 1,090 RPM.
Weight: 179 lbs.
Propulsion: Drove two 8½-foot wooden propellers via chain drives.
Milestone: On December 17, 1903, this engine powered the Wright Flyer for 59
seconds, covering 852 feet at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina.
Dr. Langley’s Challenges
The U.S. government contracted Dr. Langley to build a full-scale, man-carrying machine
due to his previous success with model Aerodromes.
Powerplant Issue: Existing steam engines used in models could not be effectively
scaled up, necessitating a better means of propulsion.
Search Results: Assistant Charles Manly searched the U.S. and Europe, finding only a
three-cylinder rotary radial automobile engine built by Stephen Balzer as the best
available option.
The Manly-Balzer Engine
Charles Manly built upon Stephen Balzer’s initial work to create a suitable powerplant for
Dr. Langley’s Aerodrome.
Specifications: Five-cylinder, water-cooled static radial engine.
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Engine Development
Performance: Produced 52.4 hp at 950 RPM and weighed 207.5 lbs complete with
water.
Flight Attempt: On October 7, 1903, the Aerodrome failed to achieve powered flight due
to snagging on the launching mechanism; however, the engine functioned properly.
Glenn Curtiss and the Curtiss-Wright Corporation
Glenn Curtiss, a motorcycle builder, entered aviation after using his engines in a 1907
dirigible.
He supplied engines for Dr. Alexander Graham Bell’s Aerial Experiment Association,
which produced several successful aircraft.
His company built significant engines through World War I, eventually merging with the
Wright Aeronautical Corporation in 1929 to form the Curtiss-Wright Corporation.
World War I Era Developments (1914–1918)
Rotary Radial Engines:
Configuration: Crankshaft was fixed to the airframe, while the crankcase, cylinders,
and propeller rotated.
Manufacturers: Included Clerget, Gnome, Rhone (France); Bentley (Britain); Thulin
(Sweden); and Oberursel, BMW, Goebel, and Siemens-Halske (Germany).
Output: Featured 5, 7, 9, 11, or 14 cylinders and produced 80–230 hp.
In-line Engines: Germany utilized efficient 6-cylinder, water-cooled engines from
companies such as Mercedes, Maybach, BMW, Benz, and Austro-Daimler, some
producing up to 300 hp.
V-Engines:
French-built 150–300 hp Hispano-Suiza V-8 engines were popular and produced
under license in the U.S. and Great Britain.
U.S. Production: Primarily two V-engine types were built in quantity: the 90 hp
water-cooled V-8 Curtiss OX-5 and the 400 hp water-cooled V-12 Liberty engine.
The Golden Years (Post-WWI)
Market Surplus: Post-1918, the aviation industry was saturated with surplus Curtiss
Jennies, Standard J-1s, and DeHavilland DH-4s using Curtiss OX-5 and Liberty V-12
engines. The abundance and low cost of these engines hindered new development.
Breakthrough: Dependable aviation transport became viable around 1923 with the
introduction of radial engines.
Wright J-5 Whirlwind:
Developer: Charles Lawrance (built by Wright Aeronautical Corporation).
Specifications: 9-cylinder radial, 220 hp.
Significance: Powered Charles Lindbergh’s Spirit of St. Louis (1927 NYC to Paris)
and Clarence Chamberlain’s flight from NYC to Germany.
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Engine Development
Radial Engine Evolution (1930s–WWII)
Light Aircraft: Utilized small 3-, 5-, and 7-cylinder radial engines.
Fast/Heavy Aircraft: Utilized 7-, 9-, and 14-cylinder radial engines.
WWII Dominance: The radial engine was the most popular U.S. configuration. While
some fighters used liquid-cooled V-12s, most aircraft used 9-, 14-, and 18-cylinder
radials, eventually reaching 28 cylinders.
Limit of Development: The point of diminishing returns was reached with the Lycoming
XR-7755 (5,000 hp, 36-cylinder, liquid-cooled radial engine). Gas turbines became
functional around this time.
Rise of Horizontally Opposed Engines
Origin: Initially popular for very light aircraft (2- and 4-cylinder models, <40 hp).
Advantages: Smooth operation, small frontal area, light weight, and high dependability.
Modern Status:
Widely produced in 4-, 6-, and 8-cylinder configurations with outputs exceeding 520
hp.
Replaced radial engines for nearly all private reciprocating-powered airplanes.
By the mid-1990s, they became the only FAA-certificated reciprocating engine
configuration produced in the United States.
Impact of Liability and Regulation (1960s–1990s)
Economic Shift: Private aircraft ownership costs increased significantly due to product
liability lawsuits, leading to a near-halt in production by commercial manufacturers in the
1980s.
Recovery: By the mid-1990s, tort reform laws encouraged manufacturers to re-enter the
private market.
Amateur-Built Aircraft
Growth: High demand for flight led to a dramatic increase in homebuilt aircraft.
Technological Shift: Emphasis moved from simple, low-cost machines to cutting-edge
technology, leveraging composite construction to circumvent some FAA production
constraints.
Engine Trends:
No requirement for FAA-certificated engines allows for the conversion of automobile
engines.
Converted engines often feature advanced electronic ignition and fuel injection,
maintaining an excellent safety record.
Future Outlook for Aero Engines
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Engine Development
Gasoline Reciprocating Engines: While inefficient, they remain in use but face stiff
competition.
Turbine Dominance: Airline and military sectors are almost exclusively turbine-powered.
Emerging Technologies:
Cooling: Continued utilization of air-cooled, horizontally opposed engines with
further exploitation of liquid-cooling advantages.
Rotating Combustion (RC): Continued development based on the Wankel engine
design.
Cam Engines: FAA-certificated engines utilizing pistons in axial cylinders driving a
crankshaft via rollers on a sinusoidal cam.
Diesel: Renewed research into fuel-efficient diesel reciprocating engines following
years of previous unsuccessful attempts.
Historical Development of Aircraft Turbine Engines
Early Turbine Principles
The concept of utilizing a turbine as a power source dates back over 400 years to the era
of Leonardo da Vinci.
Common historical applications include wind-driven turbines (windmills) and water-driven
turbines for hydroelectric power and steam-powered applications.
Initial Aviation Application: The Turbosupercharger
Developer: Dr. Sanford Moss during World War I.
Mechanism: Exhaust gases drive a turbine, which in turn spins a centrifugal compressor
to increase air pressure entering the engine cylinders.
Function: Enables reciprocating engines to maintain sea-level performance at high
altitudes.
Evolution to the Gas-Turbine Engine
The gas-turbine engine is considered a logical evolution of the turbosupercharger
system.
Configuration: A combustion chamber is positioned between the compressor and the
turbine wheel.
Operating Principle:
1. Compressed air flows into the combustion chamber.
2. Fuel is injected and burned.
3. The resulting expanding gases drive the turbine.
4. The turbine powers the compressor, with excess energy available to provide torque
or thrust.
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Engine Development
Frank Whittle and the Turbojet Concept
In 1929, Frank Whittle (British Royal Air Force) filed the first patent for a turbojet engine.
His first jet engine became operational in 1937.
While some contemporaries viewed turbines only as propeller drivers, Whittle theorized
that jet engines could produce efficient, high-speed, high-altitude thrust by delivering a
large change in momentum to a smaller mass of air.
The design utilized a turbine-driven centrifugal compressor to move air, which was then
mixed with fuel, burned, and accelerated to produce thrust.
Industrial Adoption and WWII
Despite initial government disinterest, Whittle's team at Power Jets, Ltd. proved the
turbojet's feasibility.
In 1941, General Electric (GE) was licensed to build the Whittle engine in the U.S..
GE was selected due to their turbosupercharger expertise and because primary
manufacturers (Pratt & Whitney, Wright Aeronautical) were fully committed to
reciprocating engine production for the war effort.
Significant turbine development remained limited until the war concluded.
Post-War Transition
Post-war surplus of reciprocating engines discouraged new piston engine development.
Pratt & Whitney successfully transitioned toward turbine engine development, whereas
Wright Aeronautical ceased producing its own aviation engines after a brief period of
building British models under license.
Turbine engines provide greater versatility than reciprocating engines by functioning as
either thrust producers (turbojet/turbofan) or torque producers (turboprop/turboshaft).
Comparison of Turbine and Reciprocating Engines
Thrust Horsepower Calculation
There is no direct comparison between turbine and reciprocating engines, but they can
be evaluated by converting thrust into thrust horsepower.
Thrust horsepower is calculated using the following formula:
Net thrust (pounds) ⋅ Aircraf t speed (miles per hour)
Thrust horsepower =
375 mile-pound / hour
Performance Comparison
Reciprocating Engine Example: The Pratt & Whitney R-1830 used on the Douglas DC-
3 weighs approximately 1,500 pounds and produces 1,200 brake horsepower, resulting
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Engine Development
in a power-to-weight ratio of 0.8 horsepower per pound.
Turbine Engine Example: The Pratt & Whitney JT9D used on the Boeing 747 weighs
approximately 9,000 pounds and produces up to 56,000 pounds of thrust.
At a cruise speed of 550 mph, the JT9D produces over 82,000 thrust horsepower,
equating to a power-to-weight ratio of more than 9 horsepower per pound.
Turboprop Advantage: When comparing the R-1830 (on the Douglas DC-3) to the Pratt
& Whitney of Canada PT-6 turboprop (on the Beech 1900D), the turboprop engine
achieves a power-to-weight ratio 3.5 times higher than the reciprocating engine.
Evolution of Modern Gas Turbine Engines
Advancement in Turbine Technology
Turbofan engines have nearly completely replaced turbojet engines.
A new generation of ultra-high-bypass (UHB) engines is emerging, creating a niche
between turboprops and turbofans.
UHB Engine Characteristics
UHB engines utilize short, multiblade, contrarotating propellers.
These engines offer several performance advantages:
High propulsive efficiency.
Low noise levels.
Low thrust specific fuel consumption.
A high power-to-weight ratio.
Types of Aero Heat Engines
The Fundamental Principle
All powered aircraft utilize a heat engine.
Process: Chemical energy stored in fuel is released as heat → air expands →
expansion performs useful work by driving either a piston or a turbine.
1. External-Combustion Engines
Definition: Engines where the energy source (coal, gas, nuclear) is used to heat a
working fluid (usually water/steam) outside of the main power-producing component.
Operation: Heat transfers to water → generates steam → steam expansion drives a
piston or turbine.
Aviation History:
Dr. Samuel Langley (Late 1800s): Used small steam engines for his
"Aerodromes." His most successful model (1896) had a 14-foot wingspan, weighed
26 lbs, and flew for 90 seconds (traveling > 0.5 miles) using a 1-hp steam engine.
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Engine Development
Besler Brothers (1933): Developed a 150-hp oil-fired steam engine (weighing
~500 lbs) for a Travel Air 2000 biplane.
Conclusion: While technically successful, steam engines are generally considered
impractical for widespread aviation due to weight and complexity.
Types of Aero Heat Engines (Internal-Combustion)
2. Internal-Combustion Engines
Definition: Engines where fuel energy is released directly inside the engine chamber to
heat and expand the air, which then drives either a reciprocating piston or a spinning
turbine.
Historical Milestones:
Early Experiments: Various substances like coal dust, gunpowder, and turpentine
were tested in cylinders to generate explosive force.
Etienne Lenoir (1860): Built the first practical internal-combustion engine, which
utilized illuminating gas as fuel.
Dr. Nikolaus Otto (1876): Developed the "four-stroke cycle" engine. This design
became the foundational technology for nearly all modern aircraft reciprocating
engines.
Summary of Engine Applications
Reciprocating Engines: Operate primarily on the Otto four-stroke cycle (detailed further
in the study of piston engine energy transformation).
Gas Turbine Engines: Function based on continuous internal combustion and include:
Turbojet: Pure jet thrust.
Turbofan: Combines jet thrust with ducted fan air.
Turboprop: Drives a propeller via a turbine.
Turboshaft: Drives non-propeller loads (like helicopter rotors or generators).
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