ASEXUAL

16.1 REPRODUCTION

CHAPTER 16
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.1 - Asexual reproduction

CONTENTS

13 Excretion in humans
13.1 Excretion in humans

14 Coordination and response

14.1 Coordination and response
14.2 Sense organs
14.3 Hormones
14.4 Homeostasis
14.5 Tropic responses

15 Drugs
15.1 Drugs

16 Reproduction
16.1 Asexual reproduction
16.2 Sexual reproduction
16.3 Sexual reproduction in plants
16.4 Sexual reproduction in humans
16.5 Sexual hormones in humans
16.6 Sexually transmitted diseases

17 Inheritance
17.1 Chromosomes, genes and proteins
17.2 Mitosis
17.3 Meiosis
17.4 Monohybrid inheritance
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.1 - Asexual reproduction

CORE
Reproduction
Reproduction is the process of making more of the same kind of organism

• Some organisms reproduce sexually, others reproduce asexually

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

1 parent offspring 2 parents offspring

Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.1 - Asexual reproduction

CORE
Asexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction
• a process resulting in the production of genetically identical offspring from one parent

⚬ No gametes (sex cells) are produced

⚬ No mixing of genetic information
⚬ Offspring are genetic clones of the parent

genetically
identical

1 parent offspring
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.1 - Asexual reproduction

CORE
Examples of asexual reproduction
Bacteria
• reproduce by cell division (binary fission)
• bacterium divides producing two exact genetic copies

Fungi
• release spores
• spores develop hyphae when they land on a suitable substrate

bacterial cells divide by binary fission, producing two fungal spores are dispersed by the wind
exact genetic copies
 CORE

Bacteria reproduce asexually by binary fission

 CORE

Hypha (pl. hyphae)

Hyphae are the branching filaments that make up the mycelium (structural tissue) of a fungus
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.1 - Asexual reproduction

CORE
Examples of asexual reproduction
Vegetative propagation
• the formation and growth of a new plant from a fragment of another

Stolons
• horizontal stems that remain above ground
• offspring grow from buds on the stolons
• the stolon dies leaving an independent plant

Parent plant

STOLON Daughter plant

New stolon
CORE
CORE
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.1 - Asexual reproduction

CORE
Examples of asexual reproduction
Vegetative propagation
• the formation and growth of a new plant from a fragment of another

Rhizomes
• horizontal stems that grow below the ground
• offspring grow from buds on the rhizomes
• the rhizome dies leaving an independent plant

Parent plant

Daughter plant

RHIZOME
 CORE

Rhizomes enable
TEXT plants like grasses and ferns to reproduce asexually
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.1 - Asexual reproduction

CORE
Examples of asexual reproduction
Vegetative propagation
• the formation and growth of a new plant from a fragment of another

Tubers
• rhizomes swell up forming tubers
• new shoots and roots grow from the tubers

If a tuber is left in the ground, new shoots and roots grow from its buds using food stored inside the tuber.
 CORE

rhizome

tuber (containing
stored starch)
CORE
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.1 - Asexual reproduction

CORE
Examples of asexual reproduction
Vegetative propagation
• the formation and growth of a new plant from a fragment of another

Bulbs
• a lateral bud develops alongside the parent bulb
• grows into an independent plant during the next growing season

Garlic, onions, daffodils and tulips all reproduce When the time is right, new plants grow quickly
asexually using bulbs using food stored inside the bulb
CORE
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.1 - Asexual reproduction

CORE
Examples of asexual reproduction
Hydra
• tentacles grow outwards from the central stem and develop into new hydra
• offspring detach from the central stem

Parent

Daughter separates from

parent

Daughter hydra are genetic clones of the parent

The pond-dwelling hydra is an example of an animal that reproduces asexually

CORE
 EXTENDED
Core

You need to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of asexual reproduction

Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.1 - Asexual reproduction

EXTENDED
Asexual reproduction
Advantages
• no mate or gametes needed (quicker, more energy efficient)
• all desirable characteristics are passed on (e.g. disease resistance)
• uniform crop production
• offspring grow in the same favourable environment as the parent (if no dispersal)
• rapid growth (due to availability of stored food)

Speed and energy efficiency results in bigger yields Species can quickly establish large populations in
of crop plants and profits for farmers the wild, dominating resources
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.1 - Asexual reproduction

EXTENDED
Asexual reproduction
Advantages
• no mate or gametes needed (quicker, more energy efficient)
• all desirable characteristics are passed on (e.g. disease resistance)
• uniform crop production
• offspring grow in the same favourable environment as the parent (if no dispersal)
• rapid growth (due to availability of stored food)

Organisms can reproduce when mates or pollinators Genetically identical crops with the same desirable
are scarce features
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.1 - Asexual reproduction

EXTENDED
Asexual reproduction
Advantages
• no mate or gametes needed (quicker, more energy efficient)
• all desirable characteristics are passed on (e.g. disease resistance)
• uniform crop production
• offspring grow in the same favourable environment as the parent (if no dispersal)
• rapid growth (due to availability of stored food)

If the parent is well adapted to their environment, Food stored in tubers and bulbs allows plants to
the offspring will be too grow rapidly before it needs to compete with other
plants for resources
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.1 - Asexual reproduction

EXTENDED
Asexual reproduction
Disadvantages
• little variation (adaptation to a changing environment is unlikely)
• offspring inherit unfavourable characteristics (e.g. disease susceptibility)
• excessive competition for resources (due to lack of dispersal)

If conditions change, a genetically identical A disease or parasite that affects one individual is
population may be unable to adapt likely to spread throughout the entire population
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.1 - Asexual reproduction

EXTENDED
Asexual reproduction
Disadvantages
• little variation (adaptation to a changing environment is unlikely)
• offspring inherit unfavourable characteristics (e.g. disease susceptibility)
• excessive competition for resources (due to lack of dispersal)

plants that reproduce asexually often compete with as the population grows, demand for resources may
one another for water, light and nutrients exceed supply
 SEXUAL
16.2 REPRODUCTION

CHAPTER 16
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.2 - Sexual reproduction

CONTENTS

13 Excretion in humans
13.1 Excretion in humans

14 Coordination and response

14.1 Coordination and response
14.2 Sense organs
14.3 Hormones
14.4 Homeostasis
14.5 Tropic responses

15 Drugs
15.1 Drugs

16 Reproduction
16.1 Asexual reproduction
16.2 Sexual reproduction
16.3 Sexual reproduction in plants
16.4 Sexual reproduction in humans
16.5 Sexual hormones in humans
16.6 Sexually transmitted diseases

17 Inheritance
17.1 Chromosomes, genes and proteins
17.2 Mitosis
17.3 Meiosis
17.4 Monohybrid inheritance
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.2 - Sexual reproduction

CORE
Sexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction
• a process involving the fusion of the nuclei of two gametes to form a zygote and the
production of offspring that are genetically different from each other

Fertilisation
• the fusion of the nuclei of gametes

GAMETE GAMETE ZYGOTE

fertilisation

gametes are sex cells

 CORE

The gametes are sperm and eggs (ova) in humans and

pollen grains and ovules in flowering plants (see 16.3-16.4)
 CORE

The gametes are sperm and eggs (ova) in humans and

pollen grains and ovules in flowering plants (see 16.3-16.4)
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.2 - Sexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction EXTENDED

Haploid
• a haploid nucleus is one that contains a single set of chromosomes
• the nuclei of gametes are haploid

Diploid
• a diploid nucleus is one that contains two sets of chromosomes
• the nucleus of a zygote is diploid

HAPLOID HAPLOID DIPLOID

GAMETE GAMETE ZYGOTE

fertilisation

23 chromosomes 23 chromosomes 46 chromosomes

 EXTENDED

Chromosomes are the structures within the nuclei of cells

that contain the organism’s genetic information (see ch 17)
 EXTENDED

Normal human cells have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs). Some

organisms have more and others have less.
 EXTENDED

When gametes are produced (see meiosis, ch 17), the number of chromosomes
in the nucleus of each sex cell is halved. These cells are known as haploid cells.
 EXTENDED

During fertilisation, two haploid gametes fuse to form a diploid zygote

 EXTENDED

The zygote contains two complete sets of chromosomes (one from the mother and one from the father)
 EXTENDED
Core

You need to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of sexual reproduction

Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.2 - Sexual reproduction

EXTENDED
Sexual reproduction
Advantages
• higher genetic variability
• better adaptation to a changing or fluctuating environment
• dispersal of seeds in plants reduces competition and allows plants to colonise new areas
• new crop varieties are produced by selective breeding

Genetic variability increases the likelihood that a population of a species will adapt and survive in a new or
changing environment (e.g. drought, flooding, new disease, new predator)
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.2 - Sexual reproduction

EXTENDED
Sexual reproduction
Advantages
• higher genetic variability
• better adaptation to a changing or fluctuating environment
• dispersal of seeds in plants reduces competition and allows plants to colonise new areas
• new crop varieties are produced by selective breeding

A new disease is less likely to infect an entire population (due to variation)

Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.2 - Sexual reproduction

EXTENDED
Sexual reproduction
Advantages
• higher genetic variability
• better adaptation to a changing or fluctuating environment
• dispersal of seeds in plants reduces competition and allows plants to colonise new areas
• new crop varieties are produced by selective breeding

The seeds produced by sexual reproduction are This allows plants to colonise new habitats and
often dispersed over a wide area reduces competition for resources
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.2 - Sexual reproduction

EXTENDED
Sexual reproduction
Advantages
• higher genetic variability
• better adaptation to a changing or fluctuating environment
• dispersal of seeds in plants reduces competition and allows plants to colonise new areas
• new crop varieties are produced by selective breeding

Sexual reproduction enables a practice called Two organisms with different characteristics are
selective breeding (see 18.3) cross-bred to produce offspring with a new and
desirable combination of traits
 EXTENDED

Selective breeding is used to produce crop plants with desirable

characteristics (e.g. yield, flavour, appearance, disease-resistance)
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.2 - Sexual reproduction

EXTENDED
Sexual reproduction
Disadvantages
• energetically costly
• time to locate mating partner
• there may be no available mates or pollinators nearby
• growth of plants from a seed to maturity is slow

The production of gametes is both energetically Pollination of flowing plants and mating by animals
costly and time consuming takes time
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.2 - Sexual reproduction

EXTENDED
Sexual reproduction
Disadvantages
• energetically costly
• time to locate mating partner
• there may be no available mates or pollinators nearby
• growth of plants from a seed to maturity is slow

Mating options may be limited, restricting Many flowering plants rely on pollinators to
population growth reproduce sexually
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.2 - Sexual reproduction

EXTENDED
Sexual reproduction
Disadvantages
• energetically costly
• time to locate mating partner
• there may be no available mates or pollinators nearby
• growth of plants from a seed to maturity is slow

Vegetative propagation (asexual reproduction) Seeds contain only a small amount of stored food,
is a quicker, more energy efficient way of producing reducing chances of survival in the wild
crop plants
 SEXUAL
16.3 IN PLANTS REPRODUCTION

CHAPTER 16
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

CONTENTS

13 Excretion in humans
13.1 Excretion in humans

14 Coordination and response

14.1 Coordination and response
14.2 Sense organs
14.3 Hormones
14.4 Homeostasis
14.5 Tropic responses

15 Drugs
15.1 Drugs

16 Reproduction
16.1 Asexual reproduction
16.2 Sexual reproduction
16.3 Sexual reproduction in plants
16.4 Sexual reproduction in humans
16.5 Sexual hormones in humans
16.6 Sexually transmitted diseases

17 Inheritance
17.1 Chromosomes, genes and proteins
17.2 Mitosis
17.3 Meiosis
17.4 Monohybrid inheritance
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

CORE
Sexual reproduction in flowering plants
• Male gametes are present in pollen grains and female gametes in ovules

POLLINATION
pollen is transferred from the male parts of a flower
to the female reproductive organs

POLLEN

OVULE

ovule zygote
FERTILISATION pollen
the nuclei of the male and female sex
cells fuse to form a zygote (which
develops into a seed)
 CORE

You need to identify in diagrams and images and draw

the parts of an insect-pollinated flower
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

Parts of an insect-pollinated flower CORE

Petals
• attract insects for pollination
Sepals
• enclose and protect the developing flower
Stamens
• male reproductive organs
• each stamen consists of an anther and filament
Anthers
• produce pollen grains (male gametes)
Filaments
• support anthers
Carpels
• female reproductive organs
• each carpel consists of a stigma, style and ovary
Stigma
• catches pollen during pollination
Style
• connects stigma to ovary
Ovary
• contains one or more ovules
Ovules
• contain female gametes
• develop into seeds when fertilised
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

CORE
Parts of an insect-pollinated flower

PETALS
Attract insects for
pollination

SEPALS
Protect unopened
flower bud
 CORE

Sepals protect the developing bud

Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

CORE
Parts of an insect-pollinated flower

ANTHER
Produces pollen
STAMEN
FILAMENT
Supports anther

STAMENS

The stamens are the male reproductive organs of a flower

 CORE

Each stamen consists of a long, slender stalk called a filament with an anther at the tip
 CORE

Each anther is made of four sac-like structures in which pollen grains are produced.
When the anther is ripe, the sacs split open exposing the grains
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

CORE
Parts of an insect-pollinated flower

STIGMA
Catches pollen

CARPEL STYLE
Connects
stigma to ovary

OVARY OVULE
Contains ovules Contains female
gametes

Carpels are the female reproductive organs of a flower

 CORE

The stigma is a sticky surface that catches pollen from passing insects
 CORE

Ovules develop into seeds when fertilised and the ovary that surrounds them becomes a fruit
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

Parts of a wind-pollinated flower CORE

Stamens
• long filaments with anthers that hang loosely outside the flowers
• exposed anthers swing freely in the wind, releasing large quantities of pollen

Stigmas
• hang outside the flower
• feathery, with a large surface area to catch pollen grains carried by the wind
CORE
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

CORE
Pollination and fertilisation
Pollination
• the transfer of pollen grains from an anther to a stigma

WIND POLLINATED INSECT POLLINATED

Some flowers rely on insects to transfer their pollen, while others use the wind
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

CORE
Pollination and fertilisation
Fertilisation
• occurs when a pollen nucleus fuses with a nucleus in an ovule

ovule zygote
POLLEN pollen

Cell divides forming an

embryo (seed)

OVULE

Pollen travels down the style to the ovary where it fertilises an ovule
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

CORE
Pollen grains
Insect-pollinated flowers
• produce relatively small quantities
• grains are large
• grains are sticky or spiky to adhere to the bodies of insects

Anthers of insect-pollinated flowers produce smaller Sticky or spiky grains stick to the bodies of passing
quantities of larger pollen grains. insects.
Fewer grains are produced due to the relative efficiency of insect pollination CORE
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

CORE
Pollen grains
Wind-pollinated flowers
• produce large quantities
• grains are small, light and smooth
• grains are easily carried by the wind

Large quantities of grains are produced due to the Small, light grains stay suspended in the air.
inefficiency of wind-pollination.
 CORE

The feathery stigmas of other flowers catch pollen grains suspended in the air
 CORE

You need to describe the structural adaptations of insect-pollinated and wind-pollinated flowers
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

CORE
Structural adaptations
Insect-pollinated flowers
Petals
• large, coloured and scented to attract insects
• guidelines to guide insects towards nectar source

Nectar
• attracts insects into flower (bringing them into contact with stamens and stigma)
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

CORE
Structural adaptations
Insect-pollinated flowers
Stamens
• inside flower

Stigma
• inside flower
• sticky surface catches pollen from passing insects
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

CORE
Structural adaptations
Wind-pollinated flowers
Petals
• absent, or small and green

Nectar
• absent

Wind-pollinated flowers do not produce nectar as For the same reason, petals are either absent or
they have no need to attract insects. small and inconspicuous.
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

CORE
Structural adaptations
Wind-pollinated flowers
Stamens
• long, flexible filaments
• anthers hang outside the flower (pollen exposed to wind)

Stigma
• hang outside the flower
• feathery, with a large surface area to catch pollen grains
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

CORE
Germination
Germination is the process of development of a plant from a seed
• Environmental conditions that affect germination of seeds include temperature, water
and oxygen

Temperature
• affects enzyme activity

Water
• triggers seed expansion
• activates enzymes

Oxygen
• needed for respiration
 CORE

You need to investigate the environmental conditions that affect germination of seeds
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

CORE
Environmental conditions that affect germination
Temperature
Method
• Add moist cotton wool to three containers
• Place an equal number of soaked seeds in each container
• Place container A in a refrigerator (~4°C)
• Keep container B at room temperature (~20°C)
• Place container C in an incubator (~30-35°C)
• Close containers and leave for several days
• Measure the length of the roots and shoots

Refrigerator Room temp. Incubator

A B C
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

CORE
Environmental conditions that affect germination
Temperature
Results
• Seedlings in container C are more developed than seedlings in container B
• Seeds in container A do not germinate

Interpretation
• Seeds do not germinate below certain temperatures
• Rate of germination increases as temperature increases (up to ~35°C)

A B C

Appropriate temperature conditions enable enzymes to function optimally

Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

CORE
Environmental conditions that affect germination
Water
Method
• Add cotton wool to three containers
• Place an equal number of soaked seeds in each container
• Keep the cotton wool in container A dry
• Dampen cotton wool in container B
• Submerge seeds in container C
• Close containers and leave at room temperature for several days
• Measure the length of the roots and shoots

Dry Damp Submerged

A B C
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

CORE
Environmental conditions that affect germination
Water
Results
• Seeds in container A do not germinate
• Seeds in container B germinate normally
• Limited germination of seeds in container C

Interpretation
• Water is needed for germination
• Too much water cuts oxygen supply to seed

A B C
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

CORE
Environmental conditions that affect germination
Oxygen
Method
• Add moist cotton wool to two containers
• Place an equal number of soaked seeds in each container
• Place a test tube containing water in container A
• Place a test tube containing alkaline pyrogallol solution in container B
• Close containers and leave at room temperature for several days
• Measure the length of the roots and shoots

alkaline pyrogallol
water (control) solution (removes oxygen)

A B

Alkaline pyrogallol solution absorbs oxygen, creating a low-oxygen environment

Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

CORE
Environmental conditions that affect germination
Oxygen
Results
• Seeds in container A germinate normally
• Seeds in container B do not germinate

Interpretation
• Oxygen is needed for germination

A B

Germinating seeds require oxygen to produce energy via respiration

Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

EXTENDED
Self and cross pollination
Self pollination
• the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of the same flower
or a different flower on the same plant

Cross pollination
• the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of a flower on a
different plant of the same species

CROSS-POLLINATION SELF-POLLINATION
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

EXTENDED
Self and cross pollination
The potential effects of self-pollination and cross-pollination on a population

Self pollination
• less genetic variation
• less likely to adapt to changing environmental conditions
• not reliant on pollinators

Lack of variation reduces a population’s capacity to Self-pollination allows populations to survive in the
respond to changes in the environment. absence of pollinators.
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

EXTENDED
Self and cross pollination
The potential effects of self-pollination and cross-pollination on a population

Cross pollination
• more genetic variation
• more likely to adapt to changing environmental conditions
• reliant on pollinators

More variation increases a population’s capacity to If pollinator numbers decrease, rate of reproduction
respond to changes in the environment. decreases.
Chapter 16 - Reproduction 16.3 - Sexual reproduction in plants

EXTENDED
Fertilisation
Describe the growth of the pollen tube and its entry into the ovule followed by fertilisation
1) pollen grain lands on stigma
2) pollen tube grows from grain to ovary
3) pollen tube enters ovule through micropyle
4) pollen nucleus moves through pollen tube
5) pollen nucleus fertilises female nucleus

Stigma
Nucleus enters ovule through a
Pollen tube grows from
tiny hole called a micropyle
pollen grain Style

Pollen tube Pollen nucleus moves

down the pollen tube

Ovary Ovule

Male and female nuclei fuse to

form a zygote