International

Climate-smart agricultural practices Journal of Climate

and its implication in Ethiopia: Change Strategies
and Management
a systematic review
Getasew Daru Tariku and Sinkie Alemu Kebede 3
Department of Rural Development and Agricultural Extension,
Received 22 January 2024
Mekdela Amba University, Tulu Awlya, Ethiopia Revised 2 May 2024
19 May 2024
Accepted 5 August 2024

Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to assess the adoption of climate-smart agriculture (CSA) and its
implication on improving the farming household food security status, their resilience and livelihood risk
management of farmers.
Design/methodology/approach – This systematic review has followed procedures to accomplish the
review, including literature searches, screening studies, data extraction, synthesis and presentation of the data.
Findings – Based on the result of the review, the determinants of CSA adoption can be categorized into five
categories, including demographic factors (age, sex, family size, dependency ratio, education), economic
factors (land size, household income, livestock ownership), institutional factors (extension services, training
access, credit services, farm input, market distance), environmental factors (agroecology, change in
precipitation, slope of land) and social factors (cooperatives membership, farmers perception). The result also
shows that applying CSA practices has an indispensable role on increasing productivity, food security, income,
building resilient livelihoods, minimizing production risk and alleviating poverty. This concluded CSA
practice has a multidimensional role in the livelihood of agrarian population like Ethiopia, yet its adoption was
constrained by several factors.
Originality/value – This review mainly emphasizes on the most commonly practiced CSA strategies that are
examined by different scholars.
Keywords Climate change, Climate-smart, Adoption, Food security, Resilience, Livelihood
Paper type General review

1. Introduction
The issue of climate change is one of the recent global problems that has been recognized as
a major environmental risk of the 21st century. It is the major cause of food insecurity and
poverty throughout Sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries. The rise of temperatures,
cyclones, floods, droughts and sea level rise has had a critical impact on impeding food
production and distribution (Alemu and Mengistu, 2019; Baptista et al., 2022). Especially in
2022, 12% of the population was malnourished and unable to achieve their daily food

© Getasew Daru Tariku and Sinkie Alemu Kebede. Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This
article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may
reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and
International Journal of Climate
non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full Change Strategies and
terms of this licence may be seen at [Link] Management
Vol. 17 No. 1, 2025
Funding: The authors received no direct funding for this research. pp. 3-22
Declaration of competing interest: The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest. Emerald Publishing Limited
1756-8692
Authors’ contributions: All authors write, read and approved the manuscript equally. DOI 10.1108/IJCCSM-01-2024-0012

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 IJCCSM requirements due to the impact of this problem. The events of climate change cause several
17,1 peoples to die and have a long-term negative impact on early childhood development,
educational success and economic capacity. The increased food insecurity has had a
multidimensional threat to income, education and health outcomes across SSA (Serdeczny
et al., 2017; FAO, 2020; Alexandridis et al., 2023).
Agriculture is the primary source of income for the majority of Ethiopia’s population and an
4 important part of the nation’s economy. It generates 80% of Ethiopia’s employment, produces
33.3% of the GDP and accounts for 75% of the country’s exports of goods (Tesso, 2020; CGIAR,
2018). Smallholder farmers in Ethiopia cultivate more than 90% of the country’s cropland and
produce more than 97% of the nation’s agricultural output using a traditional production system
that is extremely vulnerable to natural disasters and climate change (Mekonnen et al., 2020).
Climate change in Ethiopia has been making it even harder to supply the country’s
expanding population with the food they need (Solomon et al., 2021). The sector is unable to
feed more than 115 million people in Ethiopia because of the stagnant growth of agriculture
as a result of the interactional effects of climate change (such as recurrent droughts, floods,
heat waves and rainfall failure) social and institutional factors that lead to low production and
productivity (Thomas et al., 2019; Ogola, 2021).
More than 87% of the poor reside in rural areas, where they depend on rain-fed
agriculture, which is highly vulnerable to a variety of climate-related hazards. Droughts,
rising temperatures and floods are major threats to agricultural productivity, food systems
and the livelihoods of farming households (MOA, 2018). For instance, between 2015 and
2016, the nation faced a drought that caused the worst famine in the nation’s history and left
over ten million people in need of immediate food aid assistance. Ethiopia also ranks 157th
out of 181 nations in terms of its susceptibility to climate change and willingness to increase
resilience, making it the 20th most vulnerable nation (Ogola, 2021; Omotoso et al., 2023).
As a pressing concern for the nation, Ethiopia’s government has been constructing
resilience in response to climate change stressors. In reality, the government introduced
the Climate Resilient and Green Economy Strategy (CRGE) in 2011 to address concerns about
climate change (FDRE, 2011), and the National Adaptation Plan (NAP) in 2019 to incorporate
climate change adaptation strategies with current development efforts (FDRE, 2019).
Without the execution of improved farm technology, such as climate-smart agriculture
(CSA) practices and technologies that offset production losses, it is difficult for developing
nations, such as Ethiopia, to achieve agricultural productivity, food security and resilient
livelihoods. To address the food desires of the global population while preserving the
environment and adapting to climate change, CSA has been advocated for farming practice
(Wakweya, 2023; Quarshie et al., 2023).
The adoption status and effects of CSA practices on farm productivity, food security and
the resilience of farming households’ livelihoods has been the subject of various research
findings in Ethiopia. Previous research suggests that smallholder farmers adopted CSA
techniques singly or in combination in different regions of the nation. To examine the factors
influencing the adoption of CSA practices and their implications on household food security,
livelihood resilience and risk minimization among smallholder farmers in Ethiopia, a
systematic study was conducted.

2. Climate change and climate-smart agriculture practice in Ethiopia

2.1 Trend of climate change and its impacts on agriculture and food security in Ethiopia
In Ethiopia, agriculture is the most vulnerable sector to the impacts of climate change, as it is
dominated by rain-fed smallholder farmers, who produce 97% of the annual total gross
agricultural output (Mekonnen et al., 2020).

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 Since the 1980s, Ethiopia has been highly impacted by the erratic nature of rainfall as a International
result of climate change (raising average temperatures and droughts), thus leading to Journal of Climate
increased crop failures and reducing agricultural production by 21%, which led to a 9.7% fall Change Strategies
in the GDP (DFID, 2012). Similarly, during the period 1991–2008, Ethiopia lost 13%–40%
and Management
of its agricultural output due to climate change, making it more challenging to produce
sufficient food for the growing population (Bekele et al., 2020).
More recently, the country experienced a drought between 2015 and 2016, which resulted 5
in the worst famine in the country’s history and left over ten million people in need of urgent
food relief assistance (Ogola, 2021). Moreover, it is estimated that due to climate change
impacts, Ethiopia will lose more than 6% of its agricultural output each year and also reduce
8%–10% of its GDP by mid-century (USAID, 2020). As shown in Figure 1, the trend of
temperature change in Ethiopia from 1993 to 2021. Similarly, Figure 2 also revealed the
mean annual rainfall pattern from 1980 to 2016.
As shown in Table 1, previous studies have found that erratic climatic circumstances
coupled with a lack of essential resources negatively and significantly influence agricultural

Figure 1. Temperature change from 1993–2021, in Ethiopia

Figure 2. Mean annual rainfall of Ethiopia

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 IJCCSM Table 1. Impact of climate change in agriculture production in Ethiopia (impact model result)
17,1 Climate Impact of climate change on crop in
change percent (%) Analysis model Source

Water stress 35% decline in maize yield Process-based crop model Yang et al.
(DSSAT) (2023)
25.4%, 21.8% and 25.2% teff, maize and Dynamic computable general Solomon
6 sorghum decline, respectively equilibrium model et al. (2021)
28.3%, 30.9%, 28.5% and 34.6% of teff, Pearson correlation Adunya and
wheat, barley and maize, declined, coefficient. drought index Benti (2020)
correspondingly
6.9% of 2015 barley, 96% of 2017 sorghum NDVI, Dev-NDVI and SPI Eze et al.
yield declined index (2022)
79%, 81%, 79% and 0.83% for teff, maize, Hadley Centre Coupled Evangelista
sorghum and barley, respectively Model v3 et al. (2013)
Heat stress 50% crop failure Descriptive statistics Singh (2019)
20% maize yield will decrease in 2050 Centre Coupled Model Kassie (2014)
Version3
(1981–2010) 14% cereal failed sIMulator (APSIM) model Araya et al.
(2020)
18.1%, 13.2%, of sorghum and wheat Climate models Kassaye et al.
decline (UQAM_CRCM5 and (2021)
SMHI_RCA4)
Other climate- 1,228,352 in Orommia, 1,026,132 Somalia Critical review analysis Demem
related stress and 843,241 quintals of cereal crops decline (2023)
in Tigray regions in 2020 production year
36 to 40% reduction in wheat yield by 2050 Multi-model ensemble Rettie et al.
(2022)

Source: Own summary (2023)

crop production in Ethiopia. Previous literature indicates a long-run relationship between

cereal crop production and climate change variables in Ethiopia (Gemechu et al., 2016;
Asfew and Bedemo, 2022).
Table 2 reveals the impact of climate change on four dimensions of food security (food
availability, food accessibility, food utilization and food stability). Ensuring the food security
status of the household necessitates focus on reducing climate shocks and enhancing
families’ access to fundamental infrastructural services and amenities (Mekonnen, 2022;
Ayinu et al., 2022).

2.2 Climate-smart agriculture in Ethiopia

Table 3 shows that in Ethiopia, the major CSA practices that were implemented by
smallholder farmers include mulching, intercropping, conservation agriculture, crop
rotation, integrated crop and livestock management, agroforestry, improved grazing and
improved water management. Moreover, CSA also comprises innovative practices such
as improved weather forecasting, early warning systems and climate risk insurance
(FAO, 2016).

3. Review methodology
An article review is undertaken by conducting document analysis through an in-depth review
of related literature from a different source (Albore, 2018). In this article review, a systematic

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 Table 2. Potential impacts of climate change on food security dimensions International
Journal of Climate
Impact on food security outcomes
Climate-induced Change Strategies
hazards Food availability Food accessibility Food utilization Food stability and Management
Increase in Reduced crops and Impacts incomes, Dehydration and Higher cost for
temperatures livestock products and prices affordability illness from eating storing grain and
effect on local and changes in spoiled food perishable
7
markets preference products
Incidences of Declines in Increase in food Dietary adjustments Greater
drought production, wild prices, decline income and inability of body instability of food
foods, decrease in and preferred foods to process food due to supply, prices and
food exports/increase not available or too diseases based incomes
imports and increased costly
need for food aid
Changes in Some local losses Full-cost pricing for Greater
precipitation virtually certain, but water may cause food instability of food
(timing, location distribution is prices to rise supply
and amount) unknown
Incidence high Decrease surplus Increase in food prices Food safety is decline
wind, storm and production and and possible loss of and inability of body
floods increase emergency farm income and non- to process food due to
food distribution farm employment diseases

Source: Authors’ own summary (2016)

method was used, starting with the process of searching using online databases. The data
were collected from previously published materials, like books, research articles, reports
from national and international organizations, policy briefs and other indexed scholarly
materials, that are related to the topic of this review’s research. The search was carried out
from June 2022 until May 2023.

3.1 Literature search technique

The literature search was conducted systematically using Google Scholar, Science Direct
and AGORA sources. The search criteria included the literature published in reputable
journals starting from 2015 up to the current year 2023. The search of the literature’s
study area is limited to Ethiopia or studies that comprise Ethiopia. The studies were
identified using keywords such as the adoption of CSA practices, food security, resilience
and livelihood risk management, the impact of climate change, the effect of SCA practices
and Ethiopia.

3.2 Screening the literature (inclusion and exclusion criteria)

As shown in Table 4, the literature inclusion and exclusion criteria were established by
considering different criteria that assure the relevance of literature to achieve the review
objectives.
3.2.1 PRISMA flow diagram. Figure 3 displays the overall literature selection process of
this systematic review by using PRISMA flow diagram. In the first stage, a total of 1,243
online materials were identified through databases using various keywords and titles. Then
after, in the second stage, 486 duplicates were deleted, remains a total of 757 papers. In the

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 IJCCSM Table 3. Summary of some common CSA practices in Ethiopia
17,1 CSA practice Components Why it is climate smart

Integrated soil fertility • Reduced tillage • Carbon sequestration

management • Cropresidue management and mulching • Reduce existing emission
• Crop rotation/ intercropping with cereals • Resilience to dry and hot spells
and legumes
8 Small-scale irrigation • Compost and manure management, • Reduce emission of nitrous oxide
including green manure and CH4
• Efficient fertilizer application techniques • Improved soil productivity
(time, method, amount)
Agroforestry • Tree-based conservation agriculture • Trees store large quantities of CO2
• Practiced both traditionally and as • Can support resilience and
improved practice improved productivity of
• Farmer managed natural regeneration agriculture
Crop diversification • Popularization of new crops and crop • Ensuring food security
varieties • Resilience toweather variability
• Pest resistance, high yielding, drought • Alternative livelihoods and
tolerant, short season improved incomes
Improved livestock • Reduced open grazing/zero grazing • Improved livestock productivity
feed and feeding • Forage development and rangeland • GHG reduction
practices management • CH4 reduction
• Feed improvement
• Livestock breed improvement
Others • Water conservation and harvesting • Resilience of agriculture
• Early-warning and weather information • Improved incomes
• Support to alternative energy sources • Reduced emissions
• Crop and livestock insurance • Reduced deforestation
• Livelihoods diversification • Reduced climate risk
• Post-harvest technologies

Source: FAO (2016)

Table 4. Criteria for literatures inclusion and exclusion in the review

Criteria Included Excluded Justification for criteria

Publication 2015 to 2023 Papers before 2015 To examine the recent CSA
date adoption status and their
implication
Country or Studies conducted in Ethiopia or Non-Ethiopian papers To maintain the scope of the
papers comprise Ethiopia review
study area
Publication Papers in English language Papers not written in Easily readability of the
language English language papers
Publication CSA adoption, its implication in food Papers outside climate To keep the main aim of the
theme security, resilience, livelihood risk change, CSA systematic review
management, climate change impact practices and their
implication
Papers Fully available papers Incomplete papers Some papers requiring
availability purchasing or not open access

Source: Authors’ own summary (2023)

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 International
Google scholar Science AGORA and
(n = 657) Direct Journal of Climate
others sources
(n = 334) Change Strategies
(n = 252)
and Management

Identification
Total number of 9
studies identified
(n = 1243)

Selected after Duplicate result excluded

duplication (n = 486)
check (n = 757)
Screening

Included after Excluded by study area

study area check
(n = 516)
(n = 241)

Eligibility
Studies Exclude after
Selected after reading screening Title, abstract and
Title, abstract and keywords (n = 155)
keywords (n = 86)

Included Full text reading and

reviewing studies
d (n = 42)

Source: Created by Author (2023)

Figure 3. Graphic presentation of the literature screening

third stage, 241 materials were selected, while 516 materials were excluded because of
studies were outside Ethiopia. In the fourth stage, 86 materials were included after reading
the title, abstract and keywords, while 155 materials were excluded. Finally, 42 materials
were selected for full reading.

3.3 Data extraction

After a detailed reading of the selected studies, the data was extracted for each study into a
matrix, which was divided into different sections. The sections were: authors and year of
publication; title; study area (location) objectives; analysis; findings; and conclusion about
CSA practices.

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 IJCCSM 4. Results and discussions
17,1 4.1 Determinants of smallholder farmers’ adoption of climate-smart agriculture practice
in Ethiopia
Most CSA practices and technologies have low to medium farm adoption rates in various parts
of Ethiopia. The key determining factors of adoption have been generalized into five categories,
including institutional factors, economic factors, demographic factors, environmental factors
10 and social and human capital factors (Table 5).
4.1.1 Factors influencing the adoption of integrated soil fertility management (ISFM).
Soil fertility management has received the emphasis of the Ministry of Agriculture in
Ethiopia to increase agricultural productivity and overcome the challenges of food insecurity,
but its application at the smallholder level was hampered by different factors. The study by
Tekeste (2021) examined the factors that influence farmers’ adoption of CSA practices and
found that farmers’ income (on-farm and non-farm income) significantly influenced the
adoption of integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) as a component of CSA. This result
is due to the fact that farmers’ income level had a significant influence on their adoption of
farm technologies.
Likewise, the study by Kifle et al. (2022) assured that the adoption of ISFM was
positively and significantly influenced by household income. This implies that households
with a higher annual income had more likely opportunity to adopt new farm technologies.
This could be obvious because farmers who have better incomes can purchase different
agricultural inputs.
Studies by Jafer and Aman (2014), Yibekal et al. (2018) and Ahmed (2019) have also
found that farmers’ access to resources like, farmland, the availability of family labor and
access to weather information has made great contribution to farmers’ adoption of ISFM.
These studies commonly found that lack of resources was the foremost barrier for farmers to
adopt the CSA components. Moreover, the adoption of soil fertility management was also
influenced by inadequate agricultural extension services, an open grazing system, a lack of
credit and scarce agricultural input facilities (FAO, 2016).
The other study also analyzed the adoption of multiple ISFM technologies, and the result
noted that several factors, including land ownership, input market distance, farmers’ access
to credit and agro-ecological zones, strongly affected the adoption of the various ISFM
technologies (Guteta and Abegaz, 2015; Kwadzo and Quayson, 2021).
4.1.2 Factors influencing the adoption of small-scale irrigation (SSI). Studies conducted
by Leta et al. (2018), Natnael (2020) and Solomon (2020) found that farmers’ decision to use
small-scale irrigation (SSI) was significantly influenced by their access to extension services
and the availability of irrigation-related training. Enhancing farmers’ extension contact and
training access was a critical option to help the farmers’ adoption of irrigation agriculture.
Landholding size, access to credit services, extension services, market distance,
household head’s age, proximity to the nearest farm site, livestock ownership, farming
experience, access to irrigation and good health have a significant effect on farmers’
decisions to adopt SSI as CSA practice (Abegunde et al., 2019; Bedeke et al., 2019; Bojago
and Abrham, 2023).
Petros and Yishak (2017) and Natnael (2020) also analyzed farmers’ decisions to use SSI
was significantly influenced by environmental factors such as the terrain of their farmland
and its proximity to a water source. These studies assure that farmers were more likely to use
SSI if their land has a suitable topography, and they are also more likely to do so if their field
is close to a water supply.
Farmers’ educational status and income level have a positive and significant effect on
farmers’ adoption of irrigation farming. In contrast, age of the farmers and the dependency

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 Table 5. Summary of the systematic review for determinate of CSA adoption and its implications

Result of the studies

Authors name and Implication on food security,
year Title and study area CSA practice Determinants of CSA adoption resiliency and risk management

Tekeste (2021) Climate-smart agricultural practices and Conservation, agriculture, Household size, farming system, Found CSA have the potential
its implications to food security in ISFM, irrigation, income, irrigated farm, distance to to alleviate food insecurity
Siyadebrina Wayu District, Ethiopia improved feed market, farm size and access to credit among small-scale farmers
Tsige et al. (2020) Gendered constraints for adopting Comprehensive CSA Access to credit, extension services, Not addressed
climate-smart agriculture amongst study membership in cooperatives, land,
smallholder Ethiopian women farmers training and information
Belay et al. (2023) Determinants of climate-smart Improved crop varieties, Sex, education, livestock holding, Not addressed
agricultural practices in smallholder intercropping, improved access to credit, farm distance,
plots: in Wadla district, northeast livestock breeds and market distance and training
Ethiopia rainwater harvesting
Sertse et al. (2021) Farm households’ perceptions and Crop diversification, Household head’s age, literacy level, Improving CSA practice
adaptation strategies to climate change mulching, SWC, and utilization of credit service, extension adoption had significant effect
risks from Raya Azebo district, Ethiopia improved seed services livelihood resilience
Ali et al. (2022) Impact of climate-smart agriculture Conservation, soil fertility Monthly income, access to extension, Improve food security and
adoption on food security, poverty management, crop access to credit and dependency ratio reducing risk of crop failure
of rural farm households in Rift Valley diversification, irrigation
Ethiopia
Beyene (2018) Adoption of Climate-Smart Agricultural Agroforestry, compost Sex, education, income, livestock, Not addressed
Practices: Determinants and Challenges adoption, mulching knowledge, extension services
in Gerar Jarso Woreda of Oromia organizations membership
Regional State, Ethiopia
Tesfaye et al. Climate-smart Innovations and rural Minimum tillage, cereal- Not addressed CSA practices reduce the depth
(2019) poverty: exploring impacts and pathways legume intercropping of poverty via risk mitigation
in Ethiopia role
Fentie and Beyene Climate-smart agricultural practices and Row planting technology Not addressed Positive and significant impact
(2019) welfare of rural smallholders in Ethiopia: on per capita consumption and
Does planting method matter? on crop income per hectare
(continued)

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17,1
IJCCSM

Table 5. Continued

Result of the studies

Authors name and Implication on food security,
year Title and study area CSA practice Determinants of CSA adoption resiliency and risk management

Negera et al. Determinants of adoption of climate Multiple CSA practices Age, education, land size, household Not addressed
(2022) smart agricultural practices among asset value, extension contacts,
farmers in Bale-Eco region, Ethiopia awareness to climate change and
farmer experience with climatic
shocks
Diro et al. (2022) Determinants of adoption of climate- Applied minimum tillage Participation on field days, education, Improving livelihoods,
smart agricultural technologies (36%), intercropping extension, ownership of economic growth and
and practices in the coffee-based farming (45%), improved forage communication devices (radio) sustainable development in the
system of Ethiopia (19%), SWM (47%) region of Ethiopia
Sisay et al. (2023) Climate-Smart Agriculture Technologies Crop diversification, Age, sex, education, farmland size, Not addressed
and Determinants of Farmers’ Adoption agroforestry, integrated livestock ownership, income, access
Decisions in the Great Rift Valley of soil fertility management to credit, access to climate
Ethiopia information, training and extension
contact
Adamseged and Are farmers’ climate change adaptation Short maturing crop and Sex, age, household size, Not addressed
Kebede (2023) strategies understated? Evidence from irrigation, soil membership of associations
two communities in Northern Ethiopian conservation
Highlands
Amare and Simane Determinants of smallholder farmers’ Small-scale irrigation, Credit access, social capital, Not addressed
(2017) decision to adopt adaptation options to agronomic practices, educational status, farmland size,
climate change and variability in the livelihood diversification, gender, livestock, distance to
Muger Sub basin of the Upper Blue Nile SWC measures marketplace and exposure to early

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basin of Ethiopia warning
Belay et al. (2023) Does climate-smart agriculture improve Multiple CSA practices Extension services, climate services Positive effect on farm income
household income and food security? and subsidies and food security
Evidence in Ethiopia
(continued)
 Table 5. Continued

Result of the studies

Authors name and Implication on food security,
year Title and study area CSA practice Determinants of CSA adoption resiliency and risk management

Tesfaye and Nayak Climate Change Adaptation Measures Agro-forestry, irrigation, Gender, age, family size, farming Not addressed
(2023) by Farm Households in Gedeo Zone, soil conservation, experience, income land size; agro-
Ethiopia: An Application of Multivariate adjusting planting and ecology, soil fertility, land slope,
Analysis Approach crop diversification market distance, extension contact
Mekonnen (2022) The Climate Change-Agriculture Nexus Conservation agriculture, Not addressed Maintain agricultural
in Drylands of Ethiopia grazing land productivity, reduces GHGs
management, crop emission, minimize impact of
rotation, crop residue climate change
Moges and Ayen The effects of climate change adaptation Combination of crop Temperature and rainfall pattern Positive effect on welfare
(2023) strategies on the welfare of rural farm rotation and improved improvement of farmers
households in Ethiopia seed
Asmare et al. The effect of climate change adaptation Crop diversification Not addressed Helps to build a resilient
(2018) strategy on farm households’ welfare in agricultural system and
the Nile basin of Ethiopia improve the well-being of farm
households

Source: Own summary (2023)

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and Management
 IJCCSM ratio have a negative and significant effect on farmers’ adoption to SSI. This is because aged
17,1 farmers are less likely to accept new practices. After all, they are conservative to change. In
contrast, younger farmers are more likely to have formal education or training in agriculture
and have a tendency to be risk-takers. They are more willing to adopt CSA practices as a
result (Mango et al., 2018; Eliyas, 2019).
4.1.3 Factors influencing the adoption of crop diversification and agroforestry
14 practices. Farmers’ access to extension services, education level, livestock ownership,
membership status, market information, soil fertility, training access, climate change
information, perceptions of farmers on land degradation and climate change perception have
a positive and significant effect on farmers adoption, whereas slopes of farmland, road
distance and gender of the household head have a negative and significant effect on farmers
decision to apply crop diversification (CD) and agroforestry practice (Ahmed et al., 2023).
The adoption of CD is positively and significantly determined by farmers’ age, household
income and financing, farmers’ knowledge of climate change and level of training, while,
adoption of agroforestry practice was significantly and positively influenced by the sex of
farmers, livestock ownership and training access (Sisay et al., 2023). In contrast with this
study, the adoption of improved agronomy, drought-tolerant high-yielding crop varieties and
integrated pest management was significantly and negatively affected by the age of the
household head (Belay et al., 2023a and Ayenew et al., 2020).
Similarly, Kifle et al. (2022) revealed that family size, farming system, on-farm income,
access to extension service, distance to market and access to weather information had a
significant influence on the adoption of agro-forestry practices, while the result also shows
that CD was significantly influenced by access to credit services.
Kom et al. (2020) also point out that farm land size has statistically and positively
affected the probability of adoption of CSA technologies among smallholder farmers. The
study implies that, farmers with vast farmlands adopted more CSA technologies than farmers
with smaller farmlands. This is because land is a vital resource in agricultural output and
farmer households that have access to land and other resources will be able to easily adopt
new farming practices.
The finding by Kassa and Abdi (2022) shows that the adoption of CSA by farmers was
statistically influenced by factors like education, household income, how seriously they took
climate change and the amount of their acreage. The level of CSA adoption, however, was
negatively and significantly affected by the distance between the farm and the farmhouse.
As shown in Table 5, most of the previous literature addresses the role of CSA practices
and their adoption determinants in a single study. Most literature works consider multiple
CSA practices, whereas only a pieces of literature focus on a single practice. Comprehensive
CSA literature had a better scope by covering multiple climate-smart practices and being
used for generalization of the results in specific areas. In addition, based on the results, the
researchers indicate that the choice and application of CSA practices can vary from one place
to another because of their appropriateness to the environmental and socioeconomic setup of
the communities. The factors determining the adoption of CSA practices also varied between
climate-smart practices and the location where they are implemented. Entirely, the
synthesized result indicates that the previous authors acknowledged the significant role of
different climate-smart practices in responding to the impact of climate change.

4.2 Role of climate-smart agriculture on household food security status

CSA has a multidimensional role in improving food security, reducing greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions and achieving sustainable agriculture in the face of climate change. Likewise, in the
Amhara and Oromia regions of Ethiopia, the adoption of CSA has substantially correlated

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 with improved household income, a reduction in pre-harvest food insecurity and higher rates International
of primary school enrollment for children (Horner and Wollni, 2021). Journal of Climate
A study by Ahmed et al. (2023) on “Impacts and adaptation extents of climate smart Change Strategies
agricultural practices among smallholder farmers of Ethiopia” found that adoption of CSA
practices had a positive impact on the food and nutritional security status of rural families. This and Management
study implies that adopter households had better dietary intake than non-adopter households.
According to Belay et al. (2023b), smallholder farmers who adopted CSA strategies
improved their food security and earned much more farm revenue than non-adopters.
15
Likewise, the study conducted on “Climate-smart agriculture and gender-differentiated
nutrition outcomes” found a clear link between increased adoption of CSA practices and
household food security. As a result, adopters of CSA practices had better per capita nutrition
consumption and dietary diversification (Teklewold et al., 2019).
The other study by Ali et al. (2022) revealed that the adoption of CSA practices had a
positive and significant impact on households’ food consumption and dietary diversity while
simultaneously lowering households’ multidimensional poverty. The study also demonstrated
how CSA might increase food security by improving crop output and decreasing crop failure
by lowering the effects of climate change.
The study conducted on “climate-smart innovations and rural poverty in Ethiopia” found
that adoption of CSA packages can improve multidimensional poverty by responding to the
impact of climate change on agriculture production. In other words, scaling up the adoption
of CSA practices can reduce the multidimensional face of poverty among stallholder farmers
(Tesfaye et al., 2019).

4.3 Role of climate-smart agriculture on the livelihood resilience and risk management of
smallholder farmers
Climate smart agriculture has been used in conjunction with integrated resource management
to increase production, build resilience, and lower agricultural GHG emissions. Application
of organic fertilizers, drought-resistant crop varieties, integrated pest management and
improved livestock feeding were some of the CSA packages that were applied by the farmers
to cope with changing climatic conditions (Eshete et al., 2020; Asrat and Simane, 2017).
The study in the northern region of Ethiopia revealed that CSA practices have the
potential to boost the well-being and resilience of farming communities. The study examines
the long-term effects of the row planting technology and implies that the application of row
planting with various combinations of CSA packages has a significant effect on the
livelihood resilience of smallholder farmers (Fentie and Beyene, 2019).
Similarly, Bojago and Abrham (2023) reported that SSI has a decisive role in raise
production and productivity by reducing the impact of unpredictable rainfall. Based on
the result of the study, those who used SSI as CSA were able to make more money than those
who did not. This implies that irrigation farming is a promising option to respond to the
impact of climate change on agriculture production and household food security.
Adoption of CSA packages has various effects on households’ ability to cope with the
impact of climate change. The adoption of CSA practices significantly improved food and
feed production, reduced GHG emissions and improved economic performance by
enhancing households’ resilience. Hence, scaling up CSA innovations may increase their
positive effects on increasing the ability of household to cope with climate change related
risks (Teklu et al., 2023).
The study by Acevedo et al. (2020) indicates that farmers adoption of CSA packages
directly increases agricultural productivity, thereby enhancing crop yields and reducing
vulnerability to climate change. Likewise, a study conducted by Yitbarek and Tesfaye (2022)

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 IJCCSM points out that the implementation of CSA considerably improves the welfare and risk
17,1 management capabilities of rural households in a nation like Ethiopia, where markets are
incomplete and institutions are inadequate.
Overall, the adoption of CSA has a crucial role in SSA countries to increase agricultural
output, adapt to climate change, develop resilience and reduce GHG emissions. Hence,
politicians in Africa must commit to supporting CSA and enacting legislation to boost
16 agricultural growth, end hunger and protect the environment. They also need to provide
chances for cooperation to scale up CSA practices at the local, national, regional and
continental levels (Nyasimi et al., 2014).

5. Conclusion and recommendation

Climate change remains a major threat for farm households; particularly, low-income nations
like Ethiopia are affected by the global phenomenon of climate change, which is already
having a detrimental influence on agricultural productivity globally. To mitigate the effects
of climate change and adapt agriculture to it, a new paradigm known as “climate-smart
agriculture” is emerging. Currently, CSA is seen as a successful tool to enhance resilience,
improve food security and reduce emissions. Thus, this systematic review is intended to
identify the factors that affect the adoption of CSA practices, their effects on household food
security, livelihood resilience and risk management among farming households. The
review’s findings showed that ISFM, SSI, agronomic practice and conservation agriculture
(CD, crop rotation, high yield improved seed, crop residue incorporation, integrated pest
management, drought tolerant seed) and agroforestry practices (interplantation) were the
main CSA practices that were primarily adopted in different parts of Ethiopia.
Based on the results of this systematic review, the factors that influence the adoption of
CSA practices can be categorized into five main categories. These include demographic
factors, institutional factors, economic factors, environmental factors and social and human
capital factors. The first factor is demographic factors (such as household head’s age, sex,
family size, dependency ratio and educational status). Among these factors, household head
age, sex and dependence ratio negatively and significantly influenced farmers’ adoption of
the CSA practices, whereas family size and educational attainment had a positive impact on
CSA adoption. Beside this, institutional factors, including access to extension contacts,
training access, credit availability, market distance, access to climatic information and
distance to input supply, were the significant determinants of CSA adoption by farmers. The
review shows that access to extension contacts, training, credit and climatic information
were the significant and positive determinants of adoption of CSA practices, but distance to
markets and the supply of inputs was a negative determinant. In addition, economic factors
such as farm land size, livestock ownership, on farm income, off-farm income, asset
ownership was positive and significant determinant of CSA adoption by farmers.
Environmental factors, such as farm distance, land sloppiness, farm land fertility, exposure to
early warning systems and temperature and rainfall patterns, were the other key factor that
significantly influencing the adoption of CSA practice. The adoption of CSA was also
significantly influenced by the social and human capital, factors including cooperative
membership, awareness of climate change, farmers’ perception, pair influence and
experience with climatic shock.
This systematic review also revealed that the adoption of CSA has an indispensable role
in improving household food security status, livelihood resilience, household risk
management and poverty reduction. According to the results of a comprehensive evaluation
of numerous studies, CSA adopter households on average had better food security status and
experienced less food insecurity than non-adopter households. The results also showed that,

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 compared to non-adopters, the livelihoods of CSA adopter households were more resilient International
toward climatic shock by lowering the multidimensional impact of climate change on Journal of Climate
agriculture production. Change Strategies
According to the result of this review, we can infer that it is necessary to expand the
adoption of CSA practices to promote the benefits of CSA in strengthening resilience and and Management
decreasing vulnerability, especially in low-income countries like Ethiopia. To do this,
considering factors that affect farmers’ adoption of CSA practices is the primary duty.
Therefore, various interested stakeholders should enable and encourage hastening the wider
17
implementation of CSA practice throughout the nation by improving the impediment factors.

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 IJCCSM About the authors
17,1 Getasew Daru Tariku is a full-time Lecturer in the Department of Rural Development and Agricultural
Extension at Mekdela Amba University, Ethiopia. He has an MSc in rural livelihood and food security
from University of Gondar, Ethiopia. His research areas of interest are food security, climate change,
rural livelihood, gender, rural development, agricultural technologies and extension. Getasew Daru
Tariku is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: getasewdaru19@[Link]
Sinkie Alemu Kebede is a full-time Lecturer in the Department of Rural Development and
22 Agricultural Extension at Mekdela Amba University, Ethiopia. She has an MSc in rural development
from Mekelle University, Ethiopia. Her research areas of interest are rural development, climate
change, agriculture extension, gender, agricultural technologies adoption and agricultural economics.

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