The Building

Performance
Modeling Handbook
A Lifelong Resource for Students, Educators,
[Link] EUROPE I NORTH AMERICA I ASIA I AUSTRALIA and Professionals
Foreword Contents
Welcome to the Building Performance Modeling Handbook.
With guidance from the academic industry, our IES experts have Basics What is Building Performance Modeling? .................................... 01
Abbreviations and Acronyms ......................................................... 02
created this handbook to act as a lifelong technical aid to help portray
Fundamentals of Building Heat Transfer ...................................... 03
the technical fundamental concepts of building science with the art Building Energy and Carbon ........................................................... 04
of Building Performance Modeling (BPM). Climate and Weather ...................................................................... 05

Who is the Handbook for? Envelope Building Architecture ...................................................................... 06

Opaque Building Constructions and Assemblies ......................... 07
Students – The BPM Handbook requires a basic knowledge of thermodynamics and heat Glazing – Thermal and Light ........................................................... 08
transfer. If you are learning more about architecture, energy systems or HVAC engineering, Daylight ............................................................................................. 09
this Handbook will help you. Where appropriate, we have included common AEC industry Electric Lighting ............................................................................... 10
abbreviations, formulae and concepts to act as a continuous reminder. We have also included
recommendations for your CV/resume.
Internal Internal Gains – Occupants and Plug Loads ................................. 11
Educators – The BPM Handbook is meant to act as a technical teaching aid. We have Other End Uses and Process Energy ............................................. 12
discovered that over 50% of building performance modeling questions have nothing to do with Occupant Thermal Comfort ........................................................... 13
modeling, but rather are questions about building physics and flows of heat, light, air and water. Ventilation and Indoor Air Quality ................................................ 14
The Handbook is rich with additional free tutorial videos for the student who wishes to learn
more about a specific feature of buildings or who are competing in an industry student
competition. If you have feedback, we’d love to hear it. HVAC Heating and Cooling Loads Calculations ...................................... 15
HVACR Theory .................................................................................. 16
Heating ............................................................................................. 17
Professionals – The BPM Handbook recognizes the continuous learning curve with respect
Cooling and Air Conditioning ......................................................... 18
to buildings and building systems. Whether your current employment requires HVAC design,
BEM analysis or meeting the local energy code requirements, this Handbook aims to maintain
relevance with building technologies and modeling methods.
Energy Building Energy Modeling (BEM) ................................................... 19
Electrification and Decarbonization ............................................. 20
Renewable Energy and Energy Storage ........................................ 21
Building Energy Code Compliance ................................................ 22

Fluids Airflow Simulation (CFD) ................................................................ 23

Water ................................................................................................ 24

Other Appendix A – Psychrometric Charts .............................................. 25

Appendix B – FAQs ........................................................................... 29
Copyright © 2025 by Integrated Environmental Solutions Ltd. All rights reserved.
No part of this Handbook may be reproduced without written permission, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in articles and reviews.
These materials were prepared to be used in conjunction with various international educational programs and are not intended to provide legal advice
or establish legal standards of reasonable behavior. The information in this document is believed to accurately represent the technologies and building
performance parameters described herein and is meant to clarify and illustrate typical situations, which must be appropriately adapted to individual
circumstances. Neither IES Ltd. nor any of its employees (1) make any written or oral warranty, expressed or implied; (2) assumes any legal liability or
responsibility for the accuracy or completeness of any information, apparatus, product, process, method, or policy contained herein.
IES project #: LBJG2025Aca
The Building Performance Modeling Handbook

What is Building Performance Modeling? Abbreviations and Acronyms

AAHP/ASHP – Air-Source (air-to-air) Heat Pump HRV – Heat Recovery Ventilator
Building Performance Modeling (BPM) refers to a number of types of analysis which can be done during ABCH – Absorption Chiller HX – Heat exchanger
the design of a building and/or during a building’s operations. Some types of BPM discussed in this handbook ACB – Active chilled beam IAQ – Indoor Air Quality
include: ACC – Air-cooled chiller IBPSA – International Building Performance & Simulation Association
ACE – Air change effectiveness IDDE – Indirect/Direct evaporative cooler
• Building Energy Modeling ACH – Air changes per hour IES – Integrated Environmental Solutions Ltd.
• Lighting Calculations and Daylight Simulation ACU/ACCU – Air-cooled condensing unit IPLV – Integrated Part Load Value
• HVAC Heating and Cooling Load Calculations AHJ – Authority Having Jurisdiction kW – Kilowatt, unit of power or load
kWh – Kilowatt Hour, unit of Energy
• Airflow Simulation AHU – Air Handling Unit
LAT – Leaving Air Temperature
APACHE – Application for Air Conditioning & Heating Engineers
• Occupant Thermal Comfort Modeling ASE – Annual Sunlight Exposure (%) LEED – Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design
AQI – Air Quality Index LPD – Lighting Power Density (W/ft2, W/m2)
ASHRAE - American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning LWT – Leaving Water Temperature
During early design phases of construction projects, analysis from BPM can have the most impact on the final
Engineers MA – Mixed Air
performance of the building. As such, BPM is a process that requires knowledge of building physics and technical AWHP – Air-to-Water Heat Pump MAT – Mixed Air temperature
skills to analyze the building, or building systems, using physics-based modeling software tools to simulate the BEM – Building Energy Modeling MAU/MUA – Make-up Air Unit/Make-up Air
BHP – Brake Horsepower MBH – Thousand btu per hour
performance of various design scenarios. This Integrated Project Delivery style of design & construction requires
Btu – British Thermal Unit OA/OSA – Outdoor (ventilation) air
many ‘what-if’ scenarios to be considered using BPM, often during a collaborative design team charette. CAV - Constant Air Volume PHC – Pre-heat Coil
CC – Cooling Coil PMV – Predicted Mean Vote
CFM – Cubic Feet per Minute PPD – Percent People Dissatisfied (%)
CFD – Computational Fluid Dynamics PSZ – Packaged Single Zone HVAC unit
Influential BPM Cost to implement CHWR – Chilled Water Return PTAC - Packaged Terminal Air Conditioner
Opportunities BPM Strategies CHWS – Chilled Water Supply PTHP – Packaged Terminal Heat Pump
CHST – Chilled Water Storage Tank PV - Photovoltaics
CIBSE – Chartered Institute of Building Services Engineers PVT Panel – panel which generates both electricity and hot water
CO2e – Carbon Dioxide Equivalent RA – Return Air
COP – Coefficient of Performance RF – Return Fan
CT – Cooling Tower RPM – Revolutions per minute
CU – Condensing Unit RTU – Rooftop Unit
CW – Condenser Water R-value – thermal resistance of assembly/layer (h*ft2*°F/Btu) [(m2*K)/W]
CWR – Condenser Water Return SA – Supply Air
CWS – Condenser Water Supply SDA – Spatial Daylight Autonomy (%)
DA – Daylight Autonomy SEER – Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio
DHW – Domestic Hot Water SF – Supply Fan
DOAS – Dedicated Outdoor Air System (Unit) SHGC – Solar Heat Gain Coefficient
DWH – Domestic Water Heater SHW – Solar Hot Water or Service Hot Water
DV – Displacement Ventilation SWEE - Sanitary Wastewater Energy Exchanger
EA – Exhaust Air TDH – Total Design Head (Pressure)
EAT – Entering Air Temperature TDV – Time Dependant Valuation
EER – Energy Efficiency Ratio TES – Thermal Energy Storage
Careers in BPM will require curiosity, patience, good communication and the ability to solve technical problems, as EF – Exhaust Fan TMY – Typical Meteorological Year
no two buildings are the same. BPM can be frustrating at times but also can also be incredibly rewarding. EPD – Equipment Power Density (plug load) Ton (cooling) – 12,000 Btu/hr
Recommended BPM resources are included below. ESP – External Static Pressure TSP – Total Static Pressure
EUI – Energy Use Intensity (kBtu/ft2/year or kWh/m2/year) TU – terminal unit (sometimes also called a VAV box)
BPM JOB TITLES TO SEARCH FOR: BPM CV AND RESUME SKILLS: EW – Enthalpy Wheel UFAD – Underfloor Air Distribution system
U-Value – Heat Transfer Coefficient of an Assembly, (Btu/h*ft2*°F) [W/(m2*K)]
• Mechanical Engineer • Heating & Cooling Load Calculations EWC – Electric Water-cooled chiller
EWT – Entering Water Temperature VAV – Variable Air Volume
• Building Performance Engineer • ASHRAE 62.1 Ventilation Calculations FC – Fluid Cooler VRF – Variable Refrigerant Flow
• HVAC Engineer • Psychrometric Calculations FCU – Fan-coil Unit VRV – Variable Refrigerant Volume
• Lighting Designer • Sizing HVAC Equipment GPM – Gallons per minute VSD – Variable Speed Drive
GSHP – Ground Source Heat Pump WAHP/WSHP – Water source (Water-to-air) Heat Pump
• Decarbonization Consultant • Fan & Pump HC – Heating Coil WCU – Water-cooled condensing unit
• Chiller, Boiler, Cooling Tower HHWR – Heating hot water return WSE – Waterside Economizer
PROFESSIONAL BPM ORGANIZATIONS TO JOIN: • Building Energy Modeling (BEM) HHWS – Heating hot water supply WWHP – Water Source (water-to-water) Heat Pump
WWR – Window-to-Wall Ratio
• ASHRAE • Daylight Simulation HPWH – Heat Pump Water Heater
ΔT – temperature differential
HRC/HPC – Heat recovery/heat pump chiller
• IBPSA Chapters, e.g. IBPSA-USA • CFD Airflow Simulation ρ – Density (kg/m3, lb/ft3)
• LinkedIn: IESVE Users • Software: IESVE
PAGE 01 PAGE 02
The Building Performance Modeling Handbook

Fundamentals of Building Heat Transfer Building Energy and Carbon

Heat is the primary form of energy used (and wasted) in buildings. How heat is used (or moved) in a Buildings consume 40% of the world’s energy and are responsible for 33% of greenhouse gas emissions
building is often the primary source of its energy consumption and carbon footprint. With some exceptions, (CO2e) globally. They consume double the amount of energy as transportation systems and contribute 50%
heating and cooling a building is responsible for more than half of most building’s energy consumption and energy more to CO2e than transportation systems. In the USA, about 76% of all electricity is consumed by buildings.
cost. To maintain a constant deep tissue temperature of 37.2°C (99°F), our bodies must exchange heat with the Building Energy Modeling (BEM) is the best way to understand how energy is used by new buildings, by
environment by conduction, convection, evaporation and radiation. simulating its annual sub-hourly performance with validated BEM software (e.g. 8,760 hours annually). BEM is
used for building design and to identify cost-effective strategies for reducing energy use, operational utility cost
• Internal Heat Gains (e.g. plug loads): Convective and radiant heat gains from electric and process equipment. and carbon emissions.
• Occupant Gains: Convective and radiant heat transfer by sensible and latent heat gains, dependent on person’s
FUELS:
clothing, activity and metabolic rate.

Electricity
Buildings primarily use electricity and fossil fuels, notably natural gas. Other fuels
• Lighting Gains: Radiative and convective heat gain, may be controlled by illuminance and occupancy sensors.
like propane (or LPG) and renewable energy are sometimes used. Some buildings
• Conductive heat flow through the are connected to a campus or district energy plant, which generate energy off-
Convection Gas
building fabric (walls, glazing, etc.) site in the form of hot/chilled water, or steam. An understanding of the fuel (E.g.
is influenced by the difference electricity) to energy end-use (E.g. Internal Lighting) is a critical component of

Solar
Radiation

PV
Convection between indoor and outdoor understanding BEM-related metrics.
temperatures, indoor air movement
and external wind. METRICS:
• Convective heat transfer due to air • Site Energy Use Intensity (EUISITE) or Building EUI accounts for the net-energy
infiltration and air exfiltration, is used within the site or building(s) boundary. The inefficiencies associated with
LW Radiation mostly uncontrolled flow of air the creation, transportation, and distribution of electricity and fossil fuels are
through cracks and gaps in the not accounted for. [Net Energy = Energy Used – Energy Produced].
building fabric. This is influenced by • Source Energy Use Intensity (EUISOURCE) or Primary Energy Intensity accounts
SW Radiation indoor and outdoor temperatures, for all of the net-energy consumption from the operation of the building(s),
Conduction air buoyancy, wind, number of but this metric accounts for the energy processes to create (E.g. Power plant),
windows and other openings (e.g. transport and distribute (E.g. Grid) the fuels and electricity to the building(s).
Conduction Perimeter Office Space • EUISITE and EUISOURCE metrics are reported as kBtu/ft2/year or kWh/m2/year.
louvres), building height and quality
of construction.
• Direct and Diffuse Solar (short-wave) Radiation passes through glazing and is absorbed by materials inside. Re-
radiated long-wave radiation is mostly trapped inside. Ground reflected radiation is also a factor.
• Transient (non steady-state) heat flow may be stored thermal energy, which is absorbed into and connected
from the building fabric’s thermal mass. Conduction, convection & radiation are all influential dynamic factors.
• Forced Convective heat from Ventilation Air is frequently conditioned by HVAC system components (e.g. coils).

PSYCHROMETRIC (AIR) EQUATIONS: PSYCHROMETRIC PROCESSES: (Charts in App. A)

Sensible Heat (QS):
• QS (Btu/h) = cfm*1.094*ΔT, where T = Temperature °F.
• QS (kW) = L/s*1.2*1.02*ΔT, where T = Temperature °C.
Latent Heat (QL):
• QL (Btu/h) = cfm*4840*ΔW, where W = humidity ratio lb/lb
• QL (Btu/h) = cfm*0.68*Δgrains, where 7,000 grains = 1 lb. H2O
• QL (kW) = L/s*3.0*ΔW, where W = moisture conc. g/kg
Total Heat (QT):
• QT (Btu/h) = cfm*4.5*Δh, where h = Enthalpy Btu/lb. • CO2e – carbon dioxide equivalent measures the total GHG emissions generated within a building site
• QT (kW) = cfm*1.2*1.02*Δh, where h = Enthalpy kJ/kg. boundary. CO2e is reported as kgCO2/ft2/year or kgCO2/m2/year.
• Common BEM metrics include energy, carbon and cost, but there are many more used in industry.

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The Building Performance Modeling Handbook

Climate and Weather Building Architecture

Weather refers to short-term (minutes to months) changes in the atmosphere, with respect to its effects THE VIRTUAL MODEL BUILDING
upon life and human activities. It is often referred to in terms of temperature, humidity, precipitation, cloudiness, A 3-Dimensional (3D) digital version of a building design is often developed in order to consider various design
brightness, visibility, wind, and atmospheric pressure, as in high and low pressure. options. For example, the impact of window shades may be considered to reduce solar gains and subsequently
Climate refers to long-term (e.g. 30 years) pattern of weather in a particular geographical region. Think of reduce cooling demands from the building spaces. The ASHRAE Headquarters building is a good example.
Climate as an average pattern of weather for a region. Weather is what we get in the moment; climate is what we
can expect over time.

ASHRAE Standard 169: Climatic Data for Building Design Standards has classified Climate Zones & Moisture Zones.

CLIMATE ZONES (CZ):

0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8

MOISTURE ZONES:
(A) Humid
(B) Dry The architecture of a building often provides many opportunities to optimize the eventual building
(C) Marine performance. Areas of architectural analysis may include [1] Building Form & Orientation, [2] Window-to-Wall
Ratio (% Glazing), [3] External Shading devices and [4] Optimized Building Envelope (Daylighting).
Designers often consider one, two, or three scenarios of the climate for analyzing the performance of a building.
SOLAR ANALYSIS AND ZONING STRATEGIES LEARN HOW TO CREATE MODEL GEOMETRY FOR
1. Design Weather is often used to calculate the 2. Annual Weather Data (All Hours) is used to
Awareness of solar positions and building self- 1. Schematic Design (SD)
size and capacity of HVAC Systems and Equipment. estimate the typical performance of buildings.
shading can help to influence the thermal/HVAC • And Shoebox Modeling
These types of monthly design conditions are to be Common annual formats are Typical Meteorological
zoning strategies of spaces within the building. 2. Detailed Design (DD)
used for a conservative “worst-case” daily scenario. Year (TMY) or Actual Meteorological Year (AMY).
URL: Creating Model Geometry in IESVE
95
Summer Sun
90

85

80
Temperature (°F)

75

70

65

60

55

50
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Date: Jan to Dec

Dry-bulb temperature: ([Link])

Winter Sun

3. Future Annual Hourly Weather Data refers to morphed weather patterns for a given future scenario. These
Example shown for Northern hemisphere.
datasets are provided in a Typical (TMY) format and represent all 8,760 hours per year for a range of variables.

For any given weather data set, it may be important to analyze the State Frequencies of Air Conditions Meet the AIA 2030 Commitment:
(Psychrometrics), Wind-Rose (direction & speed) Trends, Diurnal swings and Solar angles (Altitude & Azimuth). Midday Sun
Learn how to support the
AIA 2030 Challenge, by
ensuring all new buildings
shall be carbon-neutral by
Morning Sun the year 2030.
Evening Sun
[Link]
- Weather Files are available from: [Link]/support/weatherfiles.

PAGE 05 PAGE 06
The Building Performance Modeling Handbook

Opaque Building Constructions and Assemblies Glazing – Thermal and Light

The thermal performance of the Building Envelope (roof, walls, floor, glazing) plays a significant role in Glazing systems allow heat and light to transmit into and out of a building.
heat flows, and therefore influences the HVAC system size and building energy use. An important balance of
thermal performance must consider thermal inefficiencies such as glazing, in order to provide better visual Thermal Properties of Glazing: Frame
performance, daylight and views for the occupants. The envelope functions as the barrier between the indoor and • Center of glass (CoG) U-value – the U-Value of glazing
outdoor environment. The overall heat transfer coefficient of an envelope assembly is represented by a calculated measuring only the glass itself.
U-value or U-factor. • Assembly U-value – the U-Value of glazing including the
effects of the frame and mullions. Typically, the
• U-value = Heat Transfer Coefficient of an assembly, including for all layers Conc. assembly U-value is worse (higher) than the CoG U-value.
(Btu/h*ft2*Degree F) [W/(m2*K)]. U = (1/RTOTAL). Block Inside
• Solar Heat Gain Coefficient (SHGC) – a measure of how
• RTOTAL = Total thermal resistance of all assembly layers, including air resistance 70°F/21°C effectively glass blocks heat (not light) from the sun. A Center
(h*ft2*Degree F/Btu) [(m2*K)/W].
lower SHGC value means a lower portion of solar heat is of
RTOTAL = (ROUTSIDE AIR + RMATERIAL #1 + RMATERIAL #2 + RMATERIAL #3 + …. + RINSIDE AIR )
transferred through the glazing. Glass
• R = Thermal resistance of heat flow for a material. R = L / k, where:
• Shading Coefficient (SC) – replaced by SHGC in the USA
L = Thickness of a Material (inches) [mm]
but still used in some international locations.
k = Thermal Conductivity of a Material ([Link]/h.ft2.°F) [W/(m*K)].
SHGC = (SC * 0.87)
• Density (ρ) – the mass per unit volume (lb/ft3) [kg/m3]
Outside • Transmitted solar radiation is also a function of external
• Specific Heat Capacity (cp) – amount of heat that must be added to one unit of
21°F/-6°C shading and building self-shading.
mass to raise the temperature one unit (Btu/lb.°F) [J/(kg.K)]
Edge of Glass
• Thermal mass – ability of a material (or assembly) to absorb, store, and release Insulation
heat. Note the non-linear temperature profile through the concrete block layer. Plaster

• Envelope Heat Transfer (Q): Q = U-value * Area of Assembly * ([Link] – [Link])

• Vapor Resistivity – measure of material’s ability to resist permeation of water vapor ([Link])-1 [GN.s/(kg.m)]
• Solar reflective index (SRI) – indicator of the ability of a roof to return solar energy to the atmosphere Visible Light Transmittance (VLT) or Visible OUTSIDE INSIDE
• Emissivity – effectiveness in emitting energy as thermal radiation. Transmittance (VT)
• Infiltration Sensible Heat Transfer due to air leakage: QS = CFM * cp * ([Link] – [Link]), where: • Measure of how much light in the visible SHGC = 0.25: lower
CFM = (ACH*Volume) / 60, making as assumption of ACH due to infiltration. E.g. between 0.05 – 0.25. spectrum passes through glazing (not values mean less solar
heat). A lower VT means less visible light 100 Watts/ft2 25 W/ft2
Air tightness limits may be given for an entire assembly, e.g. 0.04 cfm/ft2 under a specified pressure differential. heat transmitted
• Characteristic Dimension (B’) is an approximation used to calculate the building ground-contact heat transfer. passes through the glazing. Irradiance (heat) through glazing
Characteristic Dimension = Building Area / (0.5* Building Perimeter)
Light to Solar Gain Ratio (LSG)
Thermal Bridging occurs when heat moves across an Condensation will occur interstitially, if the vapor • The ratio of VT to SHGC. A high LSG ratio LSG = VT (0.75) / SHGC (0.25) = 3.0
object that is more conductive than the materials pressure is equal or greater than the saturated vapor indicates better daylight potential.
around it. This causes the assembly R-value to be pressure within a construction. Vapor Barriers like However, this must be balanced against
de-rated as heat will bypass insulation, to DPC or DPM are recommended in such cases. the overall SHGC, orientation of the VT = 0.75: higher values
follow the path of least resistance 1,000 Lux 750 Lux
DPC Skirting glazing, space type, and climate. mean more light passes
thereby increasing the rate through glazing (better
of heat transfer. • “Ideal” glazing properties depend on daylight potential)
Carpet
Steel Frame Wall: orientation, climate, window-to-wall ratio
(WWR), shading, and building use.
Steel Framing Generally, lower SHGC values are desired
Screed Topping
Cavity Insulation in hot climates and lower SHGC values are U-Value denotes
Concrete Slab
desired in cold climates for passive solar conduction of heat
Continuous Damp Proof Course
heating. through
Insulation Compacted Earth glazing/glazing unit
External Cladding Ground Foundation
Concrete Floor
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The Building Performance Modeling Handbook

Daylight Electric Lighting

Useful daylight in buildings can be used to reduce energy consumption, by reducing the number of hours A Luminaire is a lighting fixture. E.g. a Recessed lighting fixture or a Direct/Indirect Pendant Lighting Fixture.
electric lighting systems are energized, which in turn, reduces the sensible lighting heat gains and reduces A Lamp is a component of a luminaire (or light fixture), sometimes referred to as the bulb.
mechanical cooling demands. Views to outdoors and exposure to natural daylight offers health & wellness benefits Different types of lamp technology may be rated in terms of Luminous Efficacy. For example:
to building occupants. A good daylight design can be achieved by optimizing the vertical & horizontal fenestration • L.E.D. technology is the most energy efficient with luminous efficacy of ~100-200+ lumens per watt.
layouts, utilizing a high-VLT glazing specification and giving consideration to the external dynamic sky conditions. • Fluorescent lamps (~90 lumens/watt) or incandescent lamps (~15 lumens/watt) are less efficient.
0.001 100,000+
Fluorescent lamps also require a ballast control device to restrict the amount of electric current to it.
0.0001 1-10 lux 10,000 –
0.01 lux 0.1 lux 100 – 1,000 lux 100 – 100,000 lux Lighting manufacturers will often provide luminous intensity distribution curves for their light fixtures or lamps.
lux lux 100,000 lux lux

Dark Clear Young Full Home/Office Sunny with

These are sometimes referred to as or Polar Curves which are a graphical representation of the light output (or
Street Daytime Sunny sky
Cloudy Night No Moon Moon Lighting Lighting Overcast Sky some clouds mid-day luminous intensity) from a lamp/luminaire.
Night Moon A digital version of a Polar Curve is frequently available as an .ies file, viewed as a Photometric web below.
Units for Light: 1 Lux = 0.0929 [Link] (fc) and 1 fc = 10.7639 lux. 1 Fc = 1 lumen per ft 2.
Fixture Application Considered Polar Curve Reviewed .ies file Photometric web
For dynamic daylight simulation,
Center of Lamp
climate-based daylight modeling
(CBDM), a sky resolution may split the
Up
sky hemisphere
into up to
Down
2,305 sky
patches.
Light Intensity, Angle from
Lux, or candlepower Center

Lighting System design is frequently based on the Point to Point Method (or Lumen Method) to calculate the
horizontal illuminance (lux) on a work plane (e.g. desk) in a space, as well as the uniformity of light distribution.
Sky conditions and exterior obstructions (trees, shades, blinds, overhangs, adjacent structures) will impact indoor
daylight effectiveness and unwanted glare. These factors must be included in daylight model prediction. Room (Day)light Layout is Considered Array of Fixtures are Placed Illuminance & Power is Calculated
Properties of materials (reflectance, specularity, color, transmittance, etc.) should be included to account for useful
& spatial daylighting and lighting effectiveness.

IMPORTANT DAYLIGHT METRICS:

Spatial Daylight Autonomy (sDA) is the annual sufficiency of daylight levels Learn how to simulate daylight,
in a space. sDA examines the percentage of an analysis area (e.g. working glare probability and electric
plane) that meets a minimum illuminance level (e.g. 300 lux) for a specified lighting systems:
fraction of the operating hours per year (e.g. 50% of the annual operational URL: Daylight Simulation,
Glare-Modeling, and Lighting Classroom
hours). 30 fc ≈ 300 lux
Useful Daylight Illuminance (UDI) is the annual occurrence of illuminances Energy Calculations
that is within a “useful” range for occupants. UDI ranges are defined as: Typical recommended lighting levels and Lighting Power Density (LPD) for some space types are shown below.
(1) Insufficient e.g. <100 lux; (2) Supplementary e.g. 100-500 lux. Room Function Lighting Levels Lighting Power Density (LPD) *
(3) Autonomous e.g. 500 – 2,500 lux; (4) Exceedance > 2,500 lux. (values from IESNA) (Foot Candles) (Lux) (Watts per ft2) (Watts per m2)
Daylight Factor (DF %) is the ratio of the illuminance at a point on a plane
in a room due to the light received from a sky of assumed or known Classroom - General 30-50 FC 300-500 lux 0.71 7.64
luminance distribution, to that on a horizontal plane due to an Corridor - General 5-10 FC 50-100 lux 0.41 4.41
unobstructed hemisphere of this sky. Kitchen / Food Prep 30-75 FC 300-750 lux 1.09 11.73
- Definitions of other metrics including Annual Sunlight Exposure (ASE) and Laboratory (Professional) 75-120 FC 750-1200 lux 1.33 14.32
Daylight Glare Probability (DGP) can be reviewed here. Office – Open Plan 30-50 FC 300-500 lux 0.61 6.57
*Lighting Power also generates heat to the space.
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The Building Performance Modeling Handbook

Internal Gains – Occupants and Plug Loads Other End Uses and Process Energy
Occupants Commercial Kitchens are typically very energy intensive due to cooking energy demand from kitchen
With the exception of some mission critical buildings (e.g. data centers) and storage facilities, most buildings exist equipment (fryers, refrigeration, freezers, ovens, etc.); kitchen exhaust hoods and associated make-up air. from
for people to occupy. Each occupant adds both sensible and latent heat to the space depending on their activity Cooking by products (steam, grease & odors) require thorough consideration for air pressurization and filtration.
level, metabolic rate, and age. Occupant heat gains are either calculated per person, or accounted for by Refrigeration Systems include refrigerators, freezers, and ice making equipment.
occupant density, e.g. person per floor area. Energy Star
Vertical Transportation: Multi-story buildings, especially high-rise
INTERNAL GAINS AND LOAD CALCULATIONS multi-story buildings, require elevators and escalators to efficiently The US Department of
• Cooling Loads for Room/Zones – when space cooling loads move people between floors. In addition to the equipment rooms, Energy uses the Energy
are calculated, internal gains are typically conservatively these systems can require pressurization fans. Note that escalators may Star program to rate
considered to be 100% on during the design day calculation. operate continuously if no occupancy sensors exist, whereas elevators equipment in terms of energy
• Cooling System Sizing – in most (but not all) cases, internal typically use energy during times of high occupant movement. E.g. efficiency. A full list of equipment
gains are slightly reduced to account for load diversity. This morning, lunch and evening times in an office building. and associated energy is HERE.
is most commonly achieved by applying a diversity factor to
the heat gains of 10-20%, depending on the gain. Computer Rooms: Most commercial buildings have some
• Heating Loads – internal gains (lighting, plug, occupants) on-site I.T. computer room to house their server/comms
are typically ignored for the heating load calculations so equipment. ASHRAE differentiates a computer room from a
that equipment capacities are not undersized. data hall based on the energy intensity of the equipment
installed. Computer rooms are defined by ASHRAE Standard
90.1 as having design power density of greater than 20 W/ft2
Heat Gain (per/person) Equipment Power Density
Level of Activity Typical (215 W/m2). Computer rooms require continuous
(values from ASHRAE) Sensible
Application Latent Sensible Latent Sensible Data Hall Model, mechanical cooling to maintain setpoints and prevent
(Btu/h) (Btu/h) (Watts) (Watts) Sensible W/ft2 W/m2 3-MW Equipment equipment from failing.
Seated at rest Theater 225 105 66 30 0.5 5.4
Exterior Lighting systems for buildings may be mounted on the external façade and within the site boundary.
Seated, light work Office 245 155 72 45 1.5 16.1
Examples include parking lighting, walkway lighting, retail entrances and lighting for secure ATM areas.
Moderate office work Office 250 200 73 60 1.5 16.1 Process Energy examples may include manufacturing processes in a factory. Other Process Energy examples
Standing, walking slowly Retail Sales 250 250 73 73 0.5 5.4 include snow melt systems, pump energy for water fountain features and Electric Vehicle (EV) charging stations.
Light bench work Factory 275 475 80 140 1.0 10.7 All of these should be accounted for in the energy model if the requirement is for Site Energy.
Athletics/Dancing Nightclub/Gym 350-550 545-870 100-161 160-255 0.5 5.4 Service Hot Water or Domestic Hot Water (DHW) Heating is defined as heating water for domestic (DHW) or
Heavy work Factory Workshop 635 965 185 283 1.0 10.7 commercial purposes, other than space heating or process requirements. Water heating for commercial
Children Classroom 150 105 45 30 1.0 10.7 kitchens, showers, handwashing, cleaning and beauty salons are some examples of service water heating.
Mains/Municipal Solar Hot-Water Hot Water Heating DHW Point
Equipment Gains (Plug Loads) Water Inlet Pre-Heating Storage Tank Equipment of Use, with
Most spaces have equipment that is mixing
2 Screen LDS (+ printer) ASHRAE Handbook
plugged into receptacles (e.g. plug valve.
Laptop Docking Station, ASHRAE Handbook
sockets in a wall) that use electricity
Desktop Computer, ASHRAE Handbook
and also give off heat – computers,
ASHRAE 90.1 U-M Receptacle Loads Pump
televisions, table lamps, etc. Most Recirculation Loop,
frequently, equipment heat gains are ensure temperature is
input by space type in Watts, consistent at the point of use. Preheated ‘cold’ water
Watts/ft2 or (W/m2). It is important Pre-Heating from Drain-
to study the heat gain operation for a Water Heat Recovery
typical occupied weekday separately To avoid scalding, automatic temperature controls for public lavatory faucets/taps may be used to limit the
to weekends or holidays. E.g. a outlet temperature to 110°F (43°C). Designers should be aware that the bacteria that causes Legionnaires’
school’s summer holidays. disease has been found in DHW systems and can colonize in hot water systems maintained below 115°F (46°C).

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The Building Performance Modeling Handbook

Occupant Thermal Comfort Ventilation and Indoor Air Quality

The combinations of measurable indoor thermal environmental factors and personal factors that will Humans require good Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) for health, wellness and productivity. Outdoor air, or
produce thermal environmental conditions acceptable to a majority of the occupants within the space are defined ventilation air, that flows through a building is often used to dilute and remove indoor air contaminants. The
in ASHRAE Standard 55. common relevant phrase in industry is The Solution to Pollution is Dilution!. Ventilation is the intentional
Indoor design conditions of relative Zone thermostatic controls introduction of air from the outside into a building; it is divided into natural ventilation and forced ventilation.
ASHRAE 55 Methods: humidity (RH %) and air are recommended by
1. Analytical Comfort Zone temperature depends upon ASHRAE to provide an air Forced ventilation is the intentional movement of air Natural Ventilation is the intentional flow of air
Method uses Fanger’s the space function, temperature range of at least into and out of a building using fans, and intake & through open windows, doors, grilles, and other
7-point PMV-PPD scale. activity, occupied 5°F, within which the supply exhaust vents; it is also called mechanical ventilation. planned building envelope penetrations, and it is
2. Graphic Comfort Zone period and of heating and cooling energy This ventilation has the greatest potential for control driven by natural and/or artificially produced
3. Elevated Air Speed season. to the zone is shut off or of air exchange when the system is properly pressure differentials.
Comfort Zone. reduced to a minimum. E.g. designed, installed, and operated. It should provide
69°F-76°F or 18°C-24°C. Learn to model Natural Ventilation in Buildings:
Acceptable acceptable IAQ when ASHRAE Standard 62.1
URL: Modeling Natural Ventilation in Buildings
PMV/PPD requirements are followed. Several alternative
Limits procedures may satisfy requirements of the Standard:
Mean Radiant Temperature
1. Ventilation Rate Procedure (VRP)
(MRT) is a measure of the
2. Indoor Air Quality Procedure (IAQP)
average temperature of the
3. Natural Ventilation Procedure (NVP)
surfaces that surround a
Relative The Ventilation Rate Procedure (VRP) is the most
Air particular point, with
Humidity commonly used ventilation calculation method and
Temperature which it will exchange
Clothing Level (Clo) (% RH) states IAQ is assumed to be acceptable if both:
thermal radiation.
is used to express A. The concentrations of six pollutants in the

Measurable Factors
Personal Factors

thermal insulation incoming outdoor air meet the national ambient

provided by clothing Occupant air quality standards. E.g. CO, O3, PM2.5, NO2,
Clothing
and varies depending Thermal Radiant sulfur oxides (SO2, SO3) and Lead.
Level ASHRAE Standard 62.1 VRP Minimum OA rates
on season & gender. Comfort Temperature B. The outdoor air (OA) supply rates meet or exceed
(Clo) Space Type CFM/person L/s/person cfm/ft2 L/s/m2
Typical office Clo Factors values provided in a table, depending on the
Classroom 0.12 5 0.18 0.9
range is 0.5 to 1.1. space type. The minimum outdoor air supply will
maintain an indoor CO2 concentration below 0.1% Office 5 2.5 0.06 0.3
1 Clo = 0.88.ft2h°F/Btu Activity
2 (1,000 parts per million) assuming a typical CO2 Science Lab 10 5 0.18 0.9
& 0.155.m °C/W. Level – Operative Temperature
Air Speed generation rate per occupant. For example, an Bars 7.5 3.8 0.18 0.9
Metabolic is the ~average of the
Rate (Met) office minimum OA ventilation requirement is: Corridors - - 0.06 0.3
Metabolic rate (Met) is MRT & air temperature.
OA = 5 cfm/person + 0.06 cfm/ft2. Kitchen 7.5 3.8 0.12 0.6
the rate of transformation • PMV: 70–76°F, 21–24°C
OA = 2.5 L/s/person + 0.3 L/s/m2. Gym 20 10 0.18 0.9
of chemical energy into • Adaptive: 64–86°F, 18–30°C
heat and mechanical work Some spaces (healthcare, labs, etc.) require minimum air change rates (ACH) for primary, ventilation and
in an organism. Met varies Air Speed is the rate of air exhaust air. ASHRAE Standard 170 provides guidance; E.g. 1 ACH = (CFM*60) / (Room Volume)
depending on occupant movement at a point without
behavior. E.g. regard to direction. 20-50 fpm “To create high-IAQ, low-energy, climate resilient buildings for the future, we need to embrace alternatives to
• Resting Met ≈ 0.8 (0.1-0.25 m/sec) is common. outside air ventilation to maintain healthy indoor environments. Building on key lessons from the COVID-19
• Sporting Met ≈ 8.7 With elevated local control: pandemic about layered air cleaning strategies, the Clean First framework presented in this paper lays out a
• Office Met ≈ 1.0-1.2 • 20-240 fpm well-constructed, system-level approach to achieve Sustainable IAQ. I encourage designers and engineers to
• (0.1-1.2 m/sec) read the paper and consider incorporating its recommendations into future projects.”
SW
Radiation - Former ASHRAE President, William Bahnfleth, Ph.D., P.E., The Pennsylvania State University
Other IAQ Resources include ASHRAE IAQ Position Document, RESET Air Standard and Clean First Framework.
CFD comfort model shows the range/gradient
of PMV & Operative Temperature in a room.
PAGE 13 PAGE 14
The Building Performance Modeling Handbook

Heating and Cooling Loads Calculations HVACR Theory

Calculating Heating Loads and Cooling Loads for rooms and thermal/HVAC zones is required to determine Heating, Ventilation, Air-Conditioning & Refrigeration systems are responsible for generating, rejecting &
the amount of heat that must be added or removed to the spaces in order to maintain design setpoints in those recovering heat by moving fluids, typically air, water and refrigerants. Some HVACR systems require fuels like
spaces at the time of peak design weather conditions outside. Unless there are other requirements (e.g. primary gas (e.g. gas furnace), oil (e.g. boiler), electricity (e.g. air-cooled chiller) or water (e.g. evaporative cooler). The
ACH), room/zone loads calculations is normally the basis of HVAC emitter sizing for the room/zones. E.g. airflow primary purposes of HVACR Systems is to provide:
diffusers, radiators, reheat coils, VAV boxes, etc. There are two predominant loads calculations methods used in • Thermal comfort for occupants of buildings.
industry, defined as the ASHRAE Heat Balance Method and CIBSE Admittance Method; tutorials included below. • Healthy & safe environments for occupants of buildings, and for building equipment.
ASHRAE Heat Balance Method CIBSE Admittance Method AFFINITY LAWS, for Fans and Pumps: Dual-Maximum VAV Control Logic:
• Law #1: Speed (N) is directly related to flow (Q) and diameter:
• CFM2 / CFM1 = (RPM2 / RPM1) … replace GPM for pumps.
• CFM2 / CFM1 = (Dia2 / Dia1)
• Law #2: Pressure changes as the square of the flow (or speed):
• P2 / P1 = (CFM2 / CFM1)2
• P2 / P1 = (RPM2 / RPM1) 2
APACHE Calculation Engine
• Law #3: Power (BHP) varies as the cube of the flow (or speed):
Loads calculation methods in APACHE require validation under ANSI/ASHRAE/ACCA Standard 183 and the ISO • BHP2 / BHP1 = (RPM2 / RPM1)3
52000 Standards series, via locally adopted versions such as the German DIN EN 12831 or U.K. BS EN 12831. • BHP2 / BHP1 = (CFM2 / CFM1)3
Pump Power, BHP = (Flow*Pressure) / (Efficiency of Pump)
Some requirements for Heating & Cooling Loads Calculations include: Pump Motor Power = (Flow*Pressure) / (Efficiency of Pump)*(Efficiency of Pump Motor)
• Design Weather Data and Indoor Design Conditions Mixed Air Temperature (T): Hydronic Load (QWATER):
• Hourly solar radiation through fenestrations for all TMA = (TOA * CFMOA) + (TRA * CFMRA) Btu/h = (gpm) * 500 * ΔT,
building room surfaces, with/without accounting Outdoor Air Mixed Air CFMMA • where T = Temperature °F.
for effects of blinds, shades or drapes.
kW = (m3/s) * cp * ρ * ΔT,
• Opaque building envelope components with
Exhaust Air Return Air Mixed Air Enthalpy (h): • where T = Temperature °C.
thermal mass effects hMA = (hOA * CFMOA) + (hRA * CFMRA) • ρ = 100 kg/m3;
• Sensible & latent heat gains from infiltration CFMMA • cp = 4.2 kJ/kg.K.
• Hourly Internal Heat Gains; including hourly
sensible & latent heat gains, convective & radiative Vapor Compression Cycle / Refrigeration Cycle:
apportionments, number of occupants & activity
levels, diversity load factors and (recessed) lighting
heat gain to a ceiling plenum.
• Heating Load including infiltration, cold processes (e.g. refrigerated cases) and the optional inclusion from
internal heat gains.
• System Cooling and Heating Loads; including ventilation, duct leakage, fan & pump energy, heat transfer
through pipes & ducts, diversity of occupants/equipment/lighting and pyschrometric processes for reheat,
dehumidification, humidification, air-mixing & airside heat-recovery (e.g. ERV).
PRACTITIONER NOTES:
• Compare ASHRAE’s peak Design Day Weather against recent peaks. Profile
• Typical supply-to-room air ΔT is 20°F or 11°C. Saturated
% Occupied

to 100%
• Safety/oversizing factors for peak loads range between 10-15%.
• Peak cooling loads don’t always occur at the hottest summer day/time.
• Replace typical gains profiles (e.g. occupancy) with saturated profiles.
Occupancy
• Heat gains/losses from ventilation is frequently handled by the HVAC Profile Time
system (not room/zone loads). E.g. DOAS system.
• Compare loads results against appropriate rules-of-thumb.
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The Building Performance Modeling Handbook

Heating Cooling and Air Conditioning

Heating systems may be provided for Space Heating or Heat Pumps are mechanical systems that can provide heating and cooling using a reversible Cooling systems may be provided for Space Cooling or
Hot Water Heating (DHW). Systems may consist of distribution refrigeration cycle. Heat pump technology can be air-to-air, air-to-water (VRF), water-to-air, Process Cooling. Tutorials for Airside System setup and
networks, a heating medium (E.g. air or water), a fuel supply, water-to-water and even use the ground, lakes or sewers (SWEE) as heat sources or heat sinks. Waterside/Plant System detail the process for sizing
controls, heat emitters (E.g. coils, panels, beams, radiators, A Heat Pump Water Heater (HPWH) is used for DHW. Heat Pumps encourage all-electric design. cooling coils, fans, chillers, pumps and cooling towers.
baseboard heaters) and heat generators (E.g. boiler, furnace, CHP,
Heat Pump in Heating mode Heat Pump in Cooling mode 2 Cooling Towers
heat recovery chiller and heat pumps).
for Heat Rejection
Space heating is achieved primarily through convection or
2 CW
radiation, with some conduction. Space heating system
→ Pumps
capacities are sized based on heating load calculations and usually
account for backup equipment, heat losses due to distribution and ← 1 Air-
safety (oversizing) factors. Condenser Cooled
OR Water Loop Chiller
Heating Schematic shown using a heat pump &
boiler to heat water. HW pumps distribute water 2 Water-Cooled Chillers
→
to coils, zone panels (radiators) and a DHW loop. ←
3 Primary CHW Pumps
Gas Boiler Heat
(Backup) Pump Primary
Heat Pump COP: CHW Loop
• Air-Source: ~2–5 Cooling Coil
HW Pumps • Water/ground: ~4–6 Secondary
Ground Source or Water Source Heat Pump Chiller Metrics: e.g.
Boiler Efficiency: CHW Loop 1 CHW
- Uses the ground/water as a heat source or heat sink. • EER, COP, kW/ton for AHU
HHWR • Condensing: ~97% Pump
- Unlike air-source, they do not require a defrost cycle. • IPLV, NPLV
Primary HHWS • Non-condensing: ~85% A picture containing text

IPLV = 0.01A+0.42B+0.45C+0.12D.
Description automatically generated

HW Loop
• A,B,C,D = COP @ 100/75/50/25% Load, respectively.
Forced Air Heating systems use
HW Coil convection to warm the space.
(e.g. in AHU) An example is a furnace in a home UFAD:
Underfloor Air
or coil in an AHU. Typical supply
Distribution
Secondary HW air temperatures are 90-95°F (32-
Ceiling Void
Loop & Pump 35°C). Ventilation air from a DOAS
may be delivered at a neutral Occupied Zone
Solar HW Radiant room temperature (~70°F/21°C)
Pre-heat Panel to the space. Heating mode: Cooling mode:
Secondary HW ← Heat moves from

←
Heat moves from
Radiant Heating systems use Plenum
Loop & Pump ground to building building to ground
radiation to warm the space. An HP Displacement &
Air Handling Units are typically Overhead air distribution
example is a floor with hot water UFAD systems
designed to filter, cool and systems are intended to
tubes running through it served by are designed to
Heat Extraction Heat Release dehumidify air. For high latent mix the air in the space.
Secondary HW Loop a water (hydronic) boiler. purge (not mix)
→ ← ← → loads, coil LAT is often below Typical cooling supply air
with Independent Floor surface temperatures should supply air in the
→ ← ← → ~52°F/11°C. Air is commonly temperature (SAT) is ~
Temp. Control DHW Loop not exceed (~78°F/25.5°C), so then re-heated to ~55°F/13°C 55°F/13°C.
space. Typical
requires lower supply water → ← ← → cooling supply
before distribution to the space Integrated or independent
temperature than a traditional air temperature
to minimize risk of condensation cooling may exist at (or in)
HW coil. is ~65°F/18°C.
in supply air network. the zone. E.g. hotel room.
PAGE 17 PAGE 18
The Building Performance Modeling Handbook

Building Energy Modeling (BEM) Electrification and Decarbonization

Building Energy Modeling (BEM) is used as a design process to predict the energy usage of buildings and Buildings account for a significant amount (~40%) of energy consumption and carbon emissions,
sites, peak demands of fuels, operational energy cost, carbon emissions, water consumption and renewable including construction & operation. The theme of Electrification & Decarbonization follows four core principles.
energy production. For efficient and accurate BEM analysis, a validated BEM Software tool is required to create a 1. Energy Conservation is a process to reduce & recover all building energy demands, regardless of fuel. BEM is
virtual representation of the building, sometimes referred to as a Digital Twin. the most effective method used for quantification of Energy Conservation Measure (ECM) scenario analysis.
Predictive BEM outputs are based on assumed inputs and are used to make design decisions about 2. Electrification refers to eliminating non-electric fuels from being used in the building. Typical energy end-
buildings, building systems and optimization strategies. Central to the performance prediction of Building Energy uses that directly consume fossil fuels include Space Heating, Hot Water Heating (DHW), Cooking and some
Model is a physics-based simulation engine. The most popular worldwide simulation engine for BEM is APACHE, Process Load end-uses. The adoption of efficient heat pumps is typically the first task for building designers.
which performs sub-hourly annual simulations for various design scenarios. 3. Renewable Energy Technology installed at the building site will generate electricity to meet the increased
demands for electric heating & cooking equipment. This will further reduce operational carbon emissions
BEM INPUTS: from the building, referred to the CO2e emitted from operating a building
Some BEM inputs may include: 4. Energy Storage is also a common method to decarbonize the building.
• Site location and orientation • Thermal energy storage from hot-or-chilled water tanks being used as heat sources or heat sinks.
• Hourly (8,760) annual weather data Charging the tanks with heat can be done during ‘clean-carbon’ hours of the day and be discharged
with calendar year, holidays, etc. during hours that have higher carbon-emission factors. The local utility provider often determines
• 3-Dimensional (3D) digital model when the high-demands on the electric grid will occur, E.g. 5pm – 9pm.
building & surrounding buildings. • Electricity storage is possible by charging/discharging batteries at the building. Batteries can be
• Local shading & solar calculations controlled for general electricity demands, optimized Time-Of-Use (TOU) control or Demand Response
• Hourly daylight illuminance per (DR). Advanced DR can be triggered from the utility provider to trim peak electricity demand.
room with dynamic sky conditions One case study example of a High-Performance Multi-Family Affordable Housing project demonstrated each of
• Construction & materials properties these four core themes.
• Internal heat gains
• Operating schedules and profiles Natural Gas Heating Heat Pump Heating PV Systems Added
• Ventilation and Infiltration
• Operable windows/louvres
• Domestic Hot Water (DHW) systems
• Thermal Comfort parameters
• HVAC System equipment, controls,
sequences of operation, dynamic
performance curve data &
efficiencies, etc.
• Heat recovery systems
• Energy storage systems
• Renewable Energy Technologies
BEM OUTPUTS: • Utility Tariff Costs
BEM results data can be summarized in reports,
spreadsheets, charts and other graphics that can be used LEARN HOW TO ESTIMATE ENERGY COSTS:
to view, understand, QA/QC and interrogate. There are URL: IESVE Tariff Tool
many BEM output metrics and they can be connected with
other digital platforms.

Decarbonization also includes Embodied Carbon which refers to the carbon needed to create the buildings
materials, transport the materials to the construction site, and construct the building.

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Renewable Energy and Energy Storage Building Energy Code Compliance

A Zero Net Energy (ZNE) building is one in which the sum of all energy that is delivered to the property is Typically, Building Codes, Standards, Regulations & Rating Systems are updated every 3–5 years. With
less than the sum of all energy that is exported from the property. A ZNE building is not possible without every new code-cycle, revised energy-efficiency targets are established. With each new version, there are
incorporating some renewable energy technology on site. Generally, buildings have the opportunity to have solar normally new stringencies for the building designers to consider, namely with requirements for the building
photovoltaic (PV) panels, solar hot water (SHW) and wind energy on site. When renewable energy technologies envelope, lighting systems, DHW, HVAC systems and energy/carbon/cost targets. There are some jurisdictions
are combined with decarbonization strategies, achieving ZNE buildings status is possible. BEM is normally required also requiring minimum renewable energy/carbon measures; E.g. ‘solar-ready’ roof areas. While there have
to estimate how much renewable energy is needed to achieve ZNE on an annual basis. APACHE is one of the most been major technological upgrades within the building envelope, lighting, DHW, HVAC and PV-system industries
common BEM tools used to predict annual energy consumption and energy generation. in recent times, most architectural designers continue to dilute those efficiency upgrades, likely upon
instruction from the project owner, with continuous persistence towards inefficiently heavily-glazed buildings.
Wind Energy can generate limited on-site energy due to Solar Hot Water (SHW) requires a demand of low- In most jurisdictions, there are options for Prescriptive-based Compliance or Performance-based
the requirement of consistent wind speed on site. This temperature hot water E.g. 140°F/60°C. This Carbon Compliance. BEM is usually required for Performance-based Compliance path because it allows trade-offs
information is available in the weather file. Note that Case Study compares model inputs & outputs from a between individual prescriptive requirements; e.g. non-compliant envelope compensated by a high-efficiency
there is also a ‘cut-in speed’, as shown in the power Flat Plate Collector (FPC), Evacuated Tube Collector HVAC system. This performance path compares the ‘as-designed’ (E.g. proposed) building performance to a
curve. The power curve also shows a maximum output. (ETC) and a Parabolic Collectors (PC). manufactured (E.g. baseline/reference/standard/notional) building, which is generated based on, in part, the
proposed design plus rules defined in the appropriate code, standard or regulation. Some programs require
energy cost to be the comparison metric, with identical utility rated being applied. BEM rules-processing tools
maximum like APACHE frequently require certification or validation.
output

cut-in speed

Solar Photovoltaic (PV) technology includes

Monocrystalline Silicon (η=21%), Polycrystalline
Silicon (η=17%) and others. PV panels should be
placed on a model in order to capture the
additional benefit of solar shading to the
building. The ASHRAE Headquarters Building is
a good net zero energy building example, with
a 332 kW PV installation in Atlanta, GA with
three PV sub-arrays.

Electric Storage requires battery charging from PV Thermal Energy Storage Air-Cooled
panels in the model and allows three types of controls: (TES) (e.g. Chilled Water, Chiller
1. Basic: discharges only when the PV system Ice, Hot Water) can also be
production is less than the on-site electrical load. used to store energy as
2. Time-Of-Use (TOU): Discharges during the Utility’s heat and reduce peak Local Authorities Having Jurisdiction (AHJs) continue to mandate the latest versions that must be adhered to:
highest seasonal/daily/hourly prices of TOU rates. heating or cooling loads, or WWHX • [Link]/software/compliance-rating-systems
3. Demand Response (DR): Allows shift the peak load of the
discharging into the building to a time of day Ice-On-Coil
grid upon receiving when the cost of electricity CHW Storage
a demand response may be cheaper or when Tank 90.1 E.g. Part L
signal from a grid the rate of carbon
operator. emissions is cleaner.
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The Building Performance Modeling Handbook

Airflow Simulation (CFD) Water

The Water-Energy Nexus considers the interrelationship between water and energy. E.g. Power plants
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulates how a fluid like air moves in and around objects – including consume water for cooling systems, and Water plants consume power for treatment and distribution.
buildings, spaces within buildings and pedestrian areas outside buildings. Sophisticated CFD software is necessary Calculating water usage for a building accounts for all water used and recovered inside and outside the building.
for modeling detailed air temperature gradients, air velocities, pressure, water vapor, age of air, air change Aside from DHW demands, HVAC systems can use water and can reclaim water from HVAC processes. HVAC
effectiveness (ACE), carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO) and occupant comfort simulation (PPD, PMV, systems can be responsible for up to ~30% of a commercial building’s total annual water use.
Operative Temperature). There are a large number of building-specific applications for CFD.
Cooling Coil Condensate Recovery: A Steam Humidifier produce mist An Evaporative/Spray Cooler sprays
Natural Ventilation is often used to reduce or eliminate the need for mechanical cooling, as well as Latent heat is transferred by by boiling or heating the water, fine water droplets in the air. The air
providing increased ventilation air for occupants. For example, an architect may wish to consider façade design moisture in the air to the coil via along with increasing the humidity temperature decreases and is
options with single-sided ventilation (e.g. low opening and high opening) versus cross ventilation as shown below. the process of levels in the air. The humidified, with a
condensing on warm vapors lost constant enthalpy
the surface of to the air requires (adiabatic)
the cooling coil. makeup water. Psychrometric process.

With an Open Circuit Cooling Tower, air is introduced into the tower and
condenser water (CW) flows directly over the heat transfer surface (the fill) of Drift Loss
the cooling tower. Varying the control strategies can impact the performance. Air Out
Axial Fan
Cooling Tower Water Makeup water is subsequently required due to: Evaporation
1. Evaporation: Occurs as part of the latent heat removal process. Loss Ambient
2. Drift: Occurs when water droplets are entrained in the air-stream and Air In
removed from the tower.
3. Blowdown: Occurs when water is drained, or ‘blown-down’, from the
cooling tower basin. The blowdown water has a higher concentration of
Blowdown Loss
dissolved solids (after some water was evaporated. When the water
Mission Critical Data Centers produce extreme amounts
concentration of dissolved solids is too high (it becomes hard water) it
of heat which frequently require containment to specific
LEARN HOW TO PERFORM CFD SIMULATION FOR needs to be diluted so that scaling will not occur in the basin/pipes. The
aisles, in order to maintain safety of the data equipment.
A HOSPITAL OPERATING ROOM: ‘Cycles of Concentration’ vary by utility water provider and by season.
• Laminar flow Supply diffusers
• Room Pressurization IESVE calculates hourly water losses from cooling towers, evaporative coolers & humidifiers; and simulates
• Operating Room Equipment & Occupants water reclaim from cooling coil condensate. Results can be input into LEED’s water calculators listed below.
• CFD Simulation Particle Tracking
URL: CFD of a Hospital Operating Room • Potable Water is treated to meet state and federal standards for ALTERNATIVE
consumption. WATER Rain Reuse
• Freshwater is sourced from surface/ground water such as lakes & rivers.
• Alternative Water Use includes harvested rainwater, stormwater, sump-
pump water, graywater, condensate, rejected water from water purifiers
and reclaimed wastewater. FRESH
• Water Returned is the amount of water collected from building systems WATER BUILDING
and returned to its original source over a year. SOURCE
• Total Water Use is the amount of water used from all sources.
• LEED calculators are available for Indoor Water & Outdoor Water.
• Total Water Use = Water Returned + Alternative Water Use Water
• A Net Zero Water (NZW) building consumes the same amount of water it Returned Treated Wastewater
generates on site over a year. Green Infrastructure

PAGE 23 PAGE 24
The Building Performance Modeling Handbook

Appendix A – Psychrometric Chart (I-P)

Moisture Content →
Humidity Ratio →
Moisture Content
DBT

Dry Bulb Temperature, DBT →

PAGE 25 PAGE 26
The Building Performance Modeling Handbook

Appendix A – Psychrometric Chart (SI)

Moisture Content →
Humidity Ratio →
Moisture Content
DBT

Dry Bulb Temperature, DBT →

PAGE 27 PAGE 28
The Building Performance Modeling Handbook

Appendix B – FAQs Notes

1) Where can additional technical modeling support be found?
There are a few available resources.
• FAQ Knowledge Base: [Link]
• Forum: [Link] - you are welcome to provide feedback on the BPM Student Handbook.
• Video Library: [Link]

2) Where can useful thermal input data be found (e.g. lighting power densities)?
In most cases, IESVE Compliance tools can be used where regionally appropriate. In each tool, there are 50+
Templates that are automatically imported. This Template data represents minimally compliant code cycle data.

3) How do Green-Building Rating Systems relate to Building Performance Modeling?

Building rating systems are very interweaved with BPM requirements. Some examples include:
• LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) requires BEM within the “Energy and Atmosphere”
credit category and daylight simulation within the “Indoor Environmental Quality” credit category. See:
[Link] Note that LEED cites ASHRAE Standard 90.1 as an energy standard.
• BREEAM (Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method) has an energy category that is
focused heavily on CO2 emissions to meet minimum code (E.g. Part L Building Regulations).
• The Living Building Challenge, created by the International Living Future Institute, is considered the most
rigorous green building rating system and based solely on actual recorded performance. The energy category
requires Zero Net Energy for a 12-month period, so energy metering is required. See [Link]
[Link]/lbc/.
• The WELL Building Standard is focused on Health & Wellness of the building occupant, and while it has no
direct energy impacts, it has many indirect impacts (e.g. outdoor air requirements, daylight, thermal comfort).
See [Link]
• The NABERS Building Standard provides a rating from one to six stars for buildings efficiency across Energy,
Water, Waste and Indoor environment. See [Link]

4) How is Benchmarking achieved with Building Performance Modeling?

First, establish the benchmark value, there are a few useful resources whereby a building can be compared:
• ASHRAE Standard 100 - Energy Efficiency in Existing Buildings
• CBECS (Commercial Building Energy Consumption Survey) Data from the U.S. Energy Information
Administration
• CIBSE Benchmarking Tool
• Performing an energy audit for an an existing building (E.g. ASHRAE Level 1, 2 & 3) may be required.
Alignment tasks for a Building Performance Model may include, but not be limited to:
• Using actual weather data (.AMY), rather than typical weather (.TMY) and use up-to-date utility tariffs.
• Using masterplan-level building geometry imported from OpenStreetMap.
• Use metered data, if available, as hourly scheduled inputs for the Building Performance Model.

5) Are there any useful resources for Title 24 in California?

• The Alternative Compliance Method (ACM) is explained in detail by EnergyCodeAce.
• Title 24 Compliance Modeling training video.

6) Are there any useful resources for ASHRAE 90.1 Compliance modeling?
Yes, videos for modeling various ASHRAE 90.1 code cycles are available here.
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