PHYSICS FOR

ENGINEERS
1 – INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS, NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION,
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
2 – FLUID MECHANICS
3 – HEAT TRANSFER
4 – WAVES, SOUNDS AND VIBRATIONS
5 – ELECTRICITY AND ELECTROMAGNETISM
6 – OPTICS
INTRODUCTION TO
PHYSICS
INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
What is PHYSICS?
Physics is the branch of science
concerned with understanding the
fundamental laws of nature. It explores
the behavior of matter and energy
across different scales, from subatomic
particles to the largest structures in the
universe.
The word “physics” is derived from
the Greek word “phusis”, “physis”,
“physika” which means “natural
things”.
INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
The study of Physics can be
divided into six main areas:
1. Classical Mechanics
2. Relativity
3. Thermodynamics
4. Electromagnetism
5. Optics
6. Quantum Mechanics
INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
MEASUREMENT
Measurement is the act of determining
matter’s size, length, weight, capacity
of other aspect. When you measure,
you compare the material’s basic
properties with the accepted
international standards.
INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
ACCURACY AND PRECISION

ACCURACY PRECISION
Closeness of measurements to the Closeness of repeated
true value measurements to each other
Measures correctness Measures consistency
Affected by systematic error Affected by random error
Comparison to a standard or
Repetition of measurements
reference value
Important for correct computations Important for reliable measurements
INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
ACCURACY AND PRECISION
INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
PHYSICAL QUANTITY
- can be measured and described by
a number
- is a quantity that can be measured
and consists of a numerical
magnitude and a unit.
Examples:
Mass of a person is 50 kg
Height of a pole is 10 meters
Area of a room is 35 square meters
Temperature of a room is 27 degree
Celcius
INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
TWO TYPES OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES DERIVED QUANTITIES

Physical quantities which do Physical quantities which
not depend on other physical depend on one or other
quantities for their physical quantities for their
measurement. measurement.
Example: Example:
Length Area
Mass Volume
Time Speed
Temperature Force
INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
TWO TYPES OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITY DERIVED QUANTITY
Quantity Unit Symbol Quantity Unit Symbol
Length Meter m Volume Cubic meter 𝑚3
Mass Kilogram kg Density Kilograms per kg/𝑚3
cubic meter
Temperature Kelvin K Speed Meter per second m/s
Time Second s Newton kg m / 𝑠 2 N
Amount of Mole mol Energy Joule (kg 𝑚2 /𝑠 2 ) J
Substance
Luminous Candela cd Pressure Pascal (kg/(m𝑠 2 )) Pa
Intensity
Electric Ampere A
Current
 INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
- can also be scalar and vector quantities.
SCALAR VECTOR
• has magnitude • has magnitude
• no direction • has direction
• It can be completely described • Both are necessary to
using a number and a unit. completely describe the
quantity.
Examples: Examples:
Distance – 100 m Acceleration
Mass – 50 kg Velocity
Time – 30 seconds Force
INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
VECTOR
• It is the line whose length indicates to scale the magnitude of
the vector quantity and whose direction indicates the direction
of the quantity.
• The term "vector" comes from Latin "vehere" which means "to
carry".
INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
CLASSIFICATIONS OF VECTORS
1. Free vector - is one whose action is not confined to or
associated with a unique line in space.
2. Sliding vector - is one for which a unique line in space
must be maintained along which the quantity acts.
3. Fixed vector - is one for which a unique point of application
is specified and therefore the vector occupies a particular
position in space.
INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
VECTOR COMPONENTS

Vector’s Magnitude and Angle Formula

Application
Used in:
• statics
• engineering mechanics
 KINEMATICS
Example:
Charles goes for a ride on his bicycle. He decides to travel 10 km to the
North and then 20 km to the East. Find the distance and direction of his
final position.
 KINEMATICS
Example:
A laser beam is aimed 15.95° above the horizontal at a mirror 11,648 m
away. It glances off the mirror and continues for an additional 8570 m at
11.44° above the horizontal until it hits its target. What is the resultant
displacement of the beam to the target?
INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
CONVERSION FACTOR

Conversion factors are important

because they allow us to:
• maintain dimensional consistency
• convert measurements correctly
• avoid computational errors
INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
TRIGONOMETRY IN PHYSICS
Trigonometry is used to:
• resolve vectors,
• analyze inclined forces,
• determine components.

Basic Functions
• sine
• cosine
• tangent
INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
CALCULUS IN PHYSICS
Engineering problems involve: Calculus allows to:
• Changing motion • Determine instantaneous values
• Variable forces • Analyze rates of change
• Compute accumulated quantities
• Curved paths
• Non-uniform acceleration
• Energy transformations
INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
Physics is not only a theoretical science — it is a practical tool used in
solving real-world engineering problems. Through the application of
mathematics, vectors, trigonometry, and calculus, it enables us to analyze
motion, forces, energy, and mechanical systems accurately.

Three major engineering applications:

• Kinematics
• Force and Statics
• Work, Energy and Application
INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
KINEMATICS
Kinematics is a branch of
mechanics that describes the
motion of objects without
considering the forces that cause
the motion. It focuses on key
quantities such as displacement,
velocity, acceleration, and time.
INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT
Distance
It is a length from one point to another usually measured in a
straight line. It is a scalar quantity.

Displacement
It is the change in position specified by a length and a
direction. It is a vector quantity.
INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A SPEED AND VELOCITY
Speed
It is defined as the distance per unit time. Speed is a scalar
quantity.

Velocity
It is defined as the displacement per unit time. Velocity is a
vector quantity.
INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
What is an Acceleration?
Acceleration
It is the change of velocity per unit time.

Instantaneous acceleration
It is the time rate of change of velocity.

Uniformly accelerated motion

It is defined as the motion in a straight line
in which the direction is always the same
and the speed changes at a constant rate.
INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
KINEMATICS EQUATION
 KINEMATICS
Example:
A train moving at 10 m/s accelerates at 2 m/s² for 6 seconds. Find its
displacement.
 KINEMATICS
Example:
A car initially moving at 20 m/s accelerates uniformly at 4 m/s² for
8 seconds. Find the final velocity of the car.
 KINEMATICS
Example:
A cyclist increases speed from 4 m/s to 10 m/s over a distance of 21 m.
Find acceleration.
 KINEMATICS
Example:
A plane has a takeoff speed of 88.3 m/s and requires 1365 m to reach that
speed. Determine the acceleration of the plane and the time required to
reach this speed.
 KINEMATICS
Example:
Car A from rest accelerates at 5 m/s. Car B, 150 m ahead of A, from rest
accelerates at 3 m/s. How long will it take for Car A to overtake Car B?
INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
FREE-FALL
• A free-falling body is any object that
moves solely under the influence of
gravity, meaning no other forces (like
air resistance) affect its motion.
This means:
• air resistance is neglected
• no external force acts on the object
except gravity
Examples:
• a dropped ball
• a falling stone
• objects falling from a height
INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
THREE MAIN CASES OF FREE FALL
Case 1: Dropping an Object (Initial Velocity = 0)
The object starts from rest (vi=0) and accelerates
downward.
Motion follows:

Example: Dropping a rock from a cliff.

INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
THREE MAIN CASES OF FREE FALL
Case 2: Throwing an Object Downward
The object has an initial downward velocity (vi≠0).
Motion follows:

Example: Throwing a ball down from a tower.

INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
THREE MAIN CASES OF FREE FALL
Case 3: Throwing an Object Upward
The object moves against gravity,
slowing down until it momentarily stops
at its highest point.
Motion follows:

The time to reach the highest point:

The total time before returning to the

original position:
KINEMATICS
Example:
A rock is dropped from a 50-meter-high cliff. How long does it take to hit
the ground?
KINEMATICS
Example:
A ball is dropped from a 100-meter-high building.
a) How long does it take to reach the ground?
b) What is its velocity just before impact?
KINEMATICS
Example:
A stone is thrown downward from a height of 80 m with an
initial velocity of 5 m/s.
a) How long does it take to reach the ground?
b) What is its velocity just before the impact?
KINEMATICS
Example:
A ball is thrown vertically upward with a velocity of 30 m/s.
a) How high does it go?
b) How long does it take to reach the highest point?
c) What is the total time before it returns to the ground?
INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
PROJECTILE MOTION
Projectile motion is a two-dimensional motion in
which an object moves under the influence of
gravity after being projected into the air.
Examples:
• thrown ball at an angle
• cannon projectile
• Bullet shot at an angle
In projectile motion:
• horizontal motion and vertical motion occur
simultaneously,
• gravity only affects the vertical motion.
INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
PROJECTILE MOTION
KINEMATICS
Example:
An object is launched at a velocity of 20 m/s in a direction making an
angle of 25 upward with the horizontal.
a) What is the maximum height reached by the object?
b) What is the total flight time?
c) What is the horizontal range?
KINEMATICS
Example:
2. A ball kicked from ground level at 60m/s reaches a horizontal distance
of 200 m.
a) What is the launch angle θ?
b) What is the time of flight?
INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
WHAT IS STATICS?
Statics is the branch of mechanics that studies
bodies that are at rest.

In statics, an object is said to be in equilibrium

when:
• All forces acting on the object are balanced
(net force = 0).
• All moments (torques) acting on the object
are balanced (net torque = 0).
• Therefore, the object has no acceleration and
no angular acceleration.
INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
STATICS
Importance of Statics in Engineering
Statics is important in:
• structural engineering
• bridge analysis
• building stability

Engineers use statics to determine:

• whether structures are stable
• whether supports can withstand loads
• and how forces are distributed
INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
FORCE
Force is a push or pull acting on an object that
may:
• change its motion
• change its direction
• or change its shape

SI Unit of Force
The SI unit of force is:
Newton (N)
One Newton is defined as:
1 N =1 kg⋅m/𝒔𝟐
INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
FORCE
Characteristics of Force

A force has:
• Magnitude
• Direction
• Point of application

Because force has both magnitude and direction:

force is a vector quantity.
INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
TYPES OF FORCE
CONTACT FORCES NON-CONTACT FORCES
1. Applied Force 1. Gravitational Force
2. Normal Force 2. Magnetic Force
3. Frictional Force 3. Electrostatic Force
4. Static Force
5. Kinetic Force
6. Tension Force
7. Spring or Elastic Force
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
In physics and engineering, machines and objects
perform tasks by applying forces and transferring
energy.
The concepts of:
• work
• energy
• and power
Helps us explain and analyze:
• how forces transfer energy
• how motion is produced
• how systems perform mechanical tasks
INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
WORK
Work is the process of transferring energy through
force.
When a force acts on an object and causes
displacement, work is done.

Formula:
W = Fd

This means:
• force supplies energy to the object
• causing motion or mechanical action
INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
WORK
Example of Work

When a person pushes a box across the floor:

• force is applied
• the box moves
• energy is transferred to the box

Thus:
work is performed.
INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
ENERGY
Energy is the capacity or ability to do work.

An object with energy can:

• move objects
• produce motion
• or perform mechanical tasks
INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
TYPES OF MECHANICAL ENERGY
KINETIC ENERGY POTENTIAL ENERGY
Energy due to motion Energy due to position or state
Depends on velocity Depends on height
Has the potential to be converted
Present when an object is moving
into kinetic energy
Examples: Examples:
• Moving car • Water stored in a dam
• Rolling ball • Lifted box
• Running athlete • Stretched spring
INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
ENERGY TRANSFORMATION
Energy can change from one form to another.

Example: Falling Ball

At the top:
potential energy is maximum
kinetic energy is minimum

As the ball falls:

potential energy decreases
kinetic energy increases
This demonstrates conservation of energy.
INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
POWER
Power is the rate at which work is done or energy
is transferred. It is
measured in watts (joules per second).

Formula:
𝑊
𝑃=
𝑡

Where:
P = power
W = work
t = time
INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
POWER

Two machines may perform the

same amount of work, but:
the machine that finishes faster
has greater power.
INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS
OVERALL CONCEPT
Work
Transfers energy
↓
Energy
Allows work to be performed
↓
Power
Measures how quickly work is done
NEWTON’S LAW
OF MOTION
NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION
Isaac Newton
Newton formulated the three
fundamental laws of motion in 1687.
These laws became the foundation of:
• Classical Mechanics
• Engineering Mechanics
• Modern Physics

Important Scientists Before Newton

• Galileo Galilei
• Johannes Kepler
• René Descartes
NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION
TYPES OF FORCES

Contact Forces Non-Contact Forces

Require physical contact. Act over a distance.
Examples:
Examples:
Gravitational force
Normal force Magnetic force
Friction force Electric force
Tension force
Applied force
NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION
Normal Force
The normal force is:
• Exerted by a surface
• Always perpendicular to the surface
Symbol:
N
Examples:
Book on a table
Person standing on the floor
Box on an inclined plane
NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION
Friction Force Importance:
Friction: • Allows walking
• Helps vehicles stop
• Opposes motion
• Prevents slipping
• Acts parallel to surfaces
Without Friction:
Types: • Walking becomes impossible
• Cars lose control
• Static friction
• Kinetic friction
NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION
Tension Characteristics:
Tension is the pulling Acts along the rope
force transmitted by: Pulls away from the object
• Rope
Examples:
• Cable Elevator cables
• Wire Tugboats
• String Cranes lifting loads
NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION
APPLIED FORCE
• An applied force is a contact force
exerted on an object by another
object or a person through direct
physical contact.
• It can lead to changes in the object's
motion or state.
Examples:
• pushing a door open
• lifting an object
NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION
Newton’s First Law
Law of Inertia
Statement:
“An object at rest remains at rest, and
an object in motion remains in motion
with constant velocity unless acted
upon by an unbalanced force.”
NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION
What is Inertia?
Inertia is:
natural tendency of objects to resist
changes in their state of motion.

Key Idea:
Greater mass → Greater inertia

Examples:
Seatbelts
Tablecloth trick
NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION
What is Inertia?
Inertia is:
natural tendency of objects to
resist changes in their state of
motion.

Key Idea:
Greater mass → Greater inertia

Examples:
Seatbelts
Tablecloth trick
NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION

Newton’s Second Law

Force and Acceleration Law
Statement:
“The acceleration of an object is
directly proportional to the net
force and inversely proportional
to mass.”
NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION
What is Mass?
Mass is:
• a fundamental property of an object
and is a measure of the amount of
matter it contains.

SI Unit:
Kilogram (kg)

Important:
Mass does NOT change with location.
The mass remains constant.
NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION
Weight

• Weight is the gravitational force

acting on an object.
• Weight changes in other
location because of gravity
NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION

Newton’s Third Law

Action-Reaction Law
Statement:
“For every action, there is an
equal and opposite reaction.”
 NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION

Example:
A force of 250 N is applied to an object that accelerates at a rate
of 5 m/𝒔𝟐 . What is the mass of the object?
 NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION

Example:
A 5 kg block is pulled across a table by a horizontal force of 40
N with a frictional force of 8 N opposing the motion. Calculate
the acceleration of the object.
 LAW OF
CONSERVATION OF
ENERGY
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF
ENERGY
Energy cannot be:
Created
Destroyed

It can only:
CHANGE FORMS
TOTAL ENERGY = KE + PE
Total energy in an isolated
system remains constant.
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
The law was proposed and tested
by:
Emilie du Chatelet

Later developed further in:

• Thermodynamics
• Classical mechanics
• Relativity
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
KINETIC ENERGY
Energy possessed by a
moving object.

Where:
K = kinetic energy
m = mass
v = velocity
SI Unit:
JOULE (J)
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

POTENTIAL ENERGY
Energy due to position.
Formula:

PE = mgh

Where:
PE = Potential energy
m = mass of the object
g = acceleration due to gravity
h = height of the object above the reference point
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

Perpetual motion machines:

ARE IMPOSSIBLE

because they violate:

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

No machine can:
Operate forever
Without energy input
 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
Example:
An object of mass 1 kg is falling from the height h = 10 m. (Assume g = 10 m /𝑠 2 ). Calculate
a. The total energy of an object at h =10 m
b. Potential energy of the object when it is at h = 4 m
c. Kinetic energy of the object when it is at h = 4 m
d. What will be the speed of the object when it hits the ground?
 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
Example:
2. Determine American ski jumper Lee Ben Fardest's (a mass of approximately 50 kg) speed at locations
B, C, D and E.
 FLUID
MECHANICS
FLUID MECHANICS
Fluid mechanics is the study of fluids:
At rest → Fluid Statics
In motion → Fluid Dynamics

It also studies how fluids interact with:

• Solid surfaces
• Pipes and channels
• Other fluids
FLUID MECHANICS
What are Fluids?

Fluids include:
Liquids (water, oil, blood)

Gases (air, steam, oxygen)

A fluid is any substance that can flow and take the shape of its
container.
FLUID MECHANICS
What is Density?
Density is an important property of matter. It is defined as:
Mass per unit volume

A material with more mass packed into a smaller

volume has a higher density.
FLUID MECHANICS
What is Density?
In general, the density of a material depends on environmental factors such as
temperature and pressure.
Effect of Temperature on Effect of Pressure on Density
Density
Temperature affects how closely Pressure compresses materials,
particles are packed together. especially gases.
When temperature increases: When pressure increases:
• Particles move faster • Particles are pushed closer
• They spread farther apart together
• Volume increases • Volume decreases
• Density decreases • Density increases
Example: Example:
Hot air is less dense than cold Compressed air tanks contain
air. highly dense air because the gas
is squeezed into a smaller
space.
FLUID MECHANICS
TAKE NOTE:

Two objects made of the same material have the same density even if:
• their masses are different
• their sizes are different

Example:
Steel wrench
Steel nail

Both are made of steel, so both have the same density.

FLUID MECHANICS
DID YOU KNOW??
The densest natural metal on Earth is:
Osmium, density of 22.6 x 103 kg/m3

But astronomical objects like:

• White dwarf stars
• Neutron stars
have densities far greater than any material on Earth.
FLUID MECHANICS
What is Specific Weight?
Specific weight is the weight per unit volume of a substance.
Mathematically:
𝑾
γ= = 𝝆𝒈
𝑽
Where:
γ = Specific weight, N/m3
W = Weight of fluid, N (W = mg)
V = Unit volume, m3
The Specific weight of water at 4C = 9.81 kN/m3
SI Unit
N/m³
Important Concepts
• Specific weight depends on density and gravity.
• A denser fluid has a greater specific weight.
• If gravity changes, specific weight also changes.
FLUID MECHANICS
SPECIFIC VOLUME
Specific volume is the volume occupied by a unit mass of a substance.
Mathematically:
v = V/m
Where:
v = specific volume
V = volume
m = mass
Specific volume may also be written as the reciprocal of density.
v = 1/ρ
SI Unit
m³/kg

Important Concepts
• High density → Low specific volume.
• Low density → High specific volume.
FLUID MECHANICS
What is Specific Gravity?
Specific gravity is the ratio of:
Density of Material ÷ Density of Water
It has:
• No unit
• Pure number only

Example
Aluminum has:
Specific Gravity = 2.7
Meaning:
Aluminum is 2.7 times denser than water
FLUID MECHANICS
DID YOU KNOW?

Despite the name:

Specific gravity is NOT related to gravity.

A better term would be:

Relative Density
FLUID MECHANICS
Relationship Between Density, Specific Gravity, and Pressure

Density and specific gravity directly affect how much pressure a fluid can
produce.
A denser fluid exerts greater pressure at the same depth because it
contains more mass and therefore more weight in a given volume.
For example:
• Mercury has a much higher density than water.
• Therefore, mercury produces greater pressure than water at the same
depth.
• This relationship becomes important when we study hydrostatic
pressure.
FLUID MECHANICS
What is Pressure?
When a fluid is at rest, it exerts a force perpendicular to any
surface in contact with it. This is called pressure.
SI unit of pressure is Pascal.

1 Pascal = 1 Pa = 1 N/𝒎𝟐

Examples:
Swimming pool water pushing against your legs
Air pressing on walls and floors
Water pressing against dam walls
 FLUID MECHANICS
FORCE VS PRESSURE
PRESSURE FORCE
Defined as force per unit area Defined as a push or pull acting on an object
Scalar quantity Vector quantity
Has magnitude only Has both magnitude and direction
Acts perpendicular to surfaces Can act in any direction
Unit: Pascal (Pa) or (N/m^2) Unit: Newton (N)
Formula: (p =F/A) Formula: (F = ma) or (F = pA)
Depends on area Independent of area
Larger area produces larger force for same
Same pressure can act on different areas
pressure
Example: Water pressure at the bottom of a pool Example: Push exerted by water on a dam wall
 FLUID MECHANICS
What is Atmospheric Pressure?
Atmospheric pressure is the pressure
of the earth’s atmosphere, the pressure at
the bottom of this sea of air in which we
live. This pressure varies with weather
changes and with elevation.
Normal atmospheric pressure at sea level
is,
1 atmosphere (atm) = 101,325 Pa
 FLUID MECHANICS
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE AND GAUGE
PRESSURE
Pressure measurements may be expressed in two
ways:
Absolute Pressure
Measured relative to a perfect vacuum.

Gauge Pressure
Measured relative to atmospheric pressure.
Relationship:

(above atmospheric pressure) Pabs = Patm + Pgauge

(below atmospheric pressure) Pabs = Patm – Pvacuum
 FLUID MECHANICS
From Atmospheric Pressure to Hydrostatic
Pressure
Atmospheric pressure acts on the surface of all
fluids exposed to the atmosphere.
As we move deeper into a liquid, the weight of
the liquid itself adds additional pressure. This
additional pressure caused by the weight of
the fluid is called hydrostatic pressure.
Therefore, the total pressure at any point in a
fluid may consist of:
• Atmospheric pressure
• Hydrostatic pressure
This leads to the equation for pressure in a fluid
at rest.
 FLUID MECHANICS
PRESSURES IN A FLUID AT REST
1. The pressure difference between points 1
and 2 in a static fluid of uniform density, ρ
(an incompressible fluid) is proportional to
the difference between the elevations 𝑦1
and 𝑦2 .
p2 − p1 = −ρg(𝑦2 −𝑦1 )
(pressure in a fluid of uniform density)

2. If the pressure at the surface of an

incompressible liquid at rest is p0 , then
the pressure at a depth h is greater by an
amount ρgh.
𝑝 = p0 + ρgh
(pressure in a fluid of uniform density)
 FLUID MECHANICS
Important Concepts
At the same depth:
A denser fluid produces greater pressure.
A less dense fluid produces lower
pressure.
The shape of the container does not
affect pressure at a given depth or the
total volume of the liquid. This
phenomenon is called the hydrostatic
paradox.
 FLUID MECHANICS
PASCAL’S LAW
It was recognized in 1653 by the French
scientist Blaise Pascal (1623–1662).
Best example of this law is the Hydraulic
Lift Principle

It states that,
“Pressure applied to an enclosed
fluid is transmitted undiminished to
every portion of the fluid and the
walls of the containing vessel.”
 FLUID MECHANICS
Mechanical Advantage
is the ratio of output force to input force, showing how much a machine
amplifies effort.
 FLUID MECHANICS
What is Buoyancy?
Buoyancy is the upward force exerted
by a fluid on an object immersed in it.
When the body is less dense than the
fluid, it floats.

Examples
Ships floating on water
Helium balloons rising in air
Humans floating while swimming
 FLUID MECHANICS
Archimedes Principle
It states that,

“When a body is completely or partially

immersed in a fluid, the fluid exerts an upward
force on the body equal to the weight of the
fluid displaced by the body.”

Mathematically,
𝑭𝑩 = 𝝆𝒈𝑽
Where:
𝐹𝐵 =buoyant force
𝜌= density of fluid
𝑔= acceleration due to gravity
𝑉 = displaced fluid volume
 FLUID MECHANICS
There are three states describing the balance
between weight and the buoyant force:
Positive Buoyancy
Buoyant force is greater than the weight of the
object. The object rises or floats.

Negative Buoyancy
Buoyant force is less than the weight of the
object. The object sinks.

Neutral Buoyancy
Buoyant force equals the weight of the object.
The object remains suspended.
 FLUID MECHANICS
What is Surface Tension?
Surface tension is the property of a liquid surface
that makes it behave like:
A stretched elastic membrane.

Even objects denser than water may float if:

The water surface is not broken.

Examples
• Paper clip floating on water
• Water droplets forming spheres
• Insects walking on water
 FLUID MECHANICS
DID YOU KNOW?

Freely falling raindrops are spherical in

shape.

A sphere has:
• The smallest surface area
• For a given volume

Surface tension pulls the liquid inward:

• Forming a sphere
 FLUID MECHANICS
IDEAL FLUID

An ideal fluid has:

• No viscosity (internal friction)
• Constant density (incompressible)

Ideal fluids simplify analysis and help explain:

• Flow behavior
• Pressure changes
• Velocity relationships
 FLUID MECHANICS
IDEAL FLUID

IMPORTANT TERMS

The path of an individual particle in a moving fluid

is called a flow line.
If the overall flow pattern does not change with
time, the flow is called steady flow.
A streamline is a curve whose tangent at any point
is in the direction of the fluid velocity at that point.
The flow lines passing through the edge of an
imaginary element of area, such as the area A,
form a tube called a flow tube.
 FLUID MECHANICS
LAMINAR FLOW VS TURBULENT FLOW
Laminar Flow Turbulent Flow
Smooth and orderly fluid Chaotic and irregular fluid
motion motion
Fluid layers slide smoothly past Swirls, vortices, and eddies
each other form
Predictable flow pattern Unpredictable flow pattern
Low fluid speed High fluid speed
Little mixing between layers Strong mixing of fluid particles
Stable motion Unstable motion
Less energy loss Greater energy loss
Occurs in narrow pipes and Occurs in rapid flow and rough
slow flow surfaces
 FLUID MECHANICS
Reynolds Number
The Reynolds Number is used to predict whether a flow will be laminar or
turbulent.
Mathematically:

Where:
Re = Reynolds Number
ρ = fluid density
v = fluid velocity
D = pipe diameter
μ = dynamic viscosity
The Reynolds Number can be used to determine if flow is laminar, transient or
turbulent. The flow is
• laminar - when Re < 2300
• transient - when 2300 < Re < 4000
• turbulent - when Re > 4000
 FLUID MECHANICS
What is Bernoulli’s Equation?
Bernoulli’s Equation is one of the most important
equations in fluid mechanics.

It relates:
Pressure , Velocity and Elevation of a moving
fluid.
It states that the work done on a unit volume of
fluid by the surrounding fluid is equal to the
sum of the changes in kinetic and potential
energies per unit volume that occur during the
flow.
 FLUID MECHANICS
THE CONTINUITY EQUATION IN
FLUID MECHANICS

The continuity equation expresses

the conservation of mass in fluid
flow, stating that the mass entering
a control volume equals the mass
leaving it plus any accumulation
within the volume.
 FLUID MECHANICS
Bernoulli’s Equation Applies Only
When:
1. Fluid is Incompressible
Density remains constant
2. Fluid Flow is Steady
Flow pattern does not change with time
3. No Viscosity
No internal friction
4. Flow Occurs Along a Streamline
 FLUID MECHANICS
What is Viscosity?
Viscosity is the internal friction within a fluid.
It resists the motion between layers of fluid.

Key Concepts
High viscosity → flows slowly
Low viscosity → flows easily

Liquids become less viscous when heated.

Gases become more viscous when heated.

Viscosity is important in:

• Blood flow
• Engine lubrication
• Pipe systems
 FLUID MECHANICS
Boundary Layer
A viscous fluid tends to:
Cling to solid surfaces
This creates a thin layer called the:
Boundary Layer

Inside the boundary layer:

Fluid velocity is nearly zero
Friction is strongest
 FLUID MECHANICS
What is Turbulence?
Turbulence is chaotic and irregular fluid motion.
Occurs when:
Fluid speed exceeds a critical value

Characteristics
• Swirling motion
• Unstable flow
• Energy loss increases
• No steady pattern

Examples
Smoke rising irregularly
River rapids
Airplane wake turbulence
FLUID MECHANICS
Example:
A reservoir of glycerin (glyc) has a mass of 1200 kg and a volume of 0.952
cubic meters. Find
a. glycerin’s weight
b. mass density
c. specific weight
d. specific gravity
FLUID MECHANICS
Example:
If the atmospheric pressure is 0.900 bar abs and a gage attached to a tank
reads 390 mmHg vacuum, what is the absolute pressure within the tank?
FLUID MECHANICS
Example:
An open tank contains water up to a depth of 2 m and above it an oil of [Link].
0.9 depth for a depth of 1 m. Find the pressure intensity at the bottom of the
tank.
FLUID MECHANICS
Example:
The large piston in a hydraulic lift has an area of 250 cm². What force must be
applied to the small piston with an area of 25 cm² in order to raise a car of
mass 1500 kg?
FLUID MECHANICS
Example:
A 1500kg car is placed on the large piston with a radius of 4m.
a. What is the minimum upward force that the large piston must exert to lift the car?
b. If the mechanical advantage of the hydraulic lift system is 20, what is the minimum downward force that should be
applied to lift the car?
c. What is the radius of the small piston?
d. What is the pressure exerted by the large piston?
e. How far should the small piston descend in order to lift the car by 2m?
FLUID MECHANICS
Example:
A 10 kg spherical objective with a radius of 15.3 cm is fully submerged in
water.
a. Find the weight of the object
b. Calculate the buoyant force.
c. What happen to the object, will it float or not?
FLUID MECHANICS
Example:
A Newtonian fluid with a dynamic or absolute viscosity of 0.38 Ns/m2 and
a specific gravity of 0.91 flows through a 25 mm diameter pipe with a velocity
of 2.6 m/s . Compute the Reynolds number.
FLUID MECHANICS
Example:
An oil is being pumped inside a 10.0-mm diameter pipe at a Reynolds number of 2100. The oil density is 855 kg/m^3
and the viscosity is 2.1 x 10^-2 Pa-s.
a) What is the velocity in the pipe?
b) It is desired to maintain the same Reynolds number of 2100 and the same velocity as in part (a) using a second
fluid with a density of 925kg/m^3 and a viscosity of 1.5 x 10^-2 Pa-s. What pipe diameter should be used?
FLUID MECHANICS
Example:
In a particular pipe, palm oil with mass density 914 kg/m3 has an initial velocity of 23.4 m/s at an initial
height of 5.50 m and initial pressure of 65.3 kPa. At some other point in the pipe, the velocity is 22.1 m/s
and the pressure is 70.5 kPa. What is the height of the palm oil at this point?
FLUID MECHANICS
Example:
Water having a density of 998 kg/m^3 is flowing at the rate of 1.676 m/s in a 3.068-in.- diameter horizontal pipe at a
pressure of 68.9 kPa abs. It then passes to a pipe having an inside diameter of 2.067 in.
(a) Calculate the new pressure P2 in the 2.067-in. pipe. Assume no friction losses.
(b) If the piping is vertical and the flow is upward, calculate the new pressure P2. The pressure tap for P2 is 0.457 m
above the tap for P1.
 HEAT
TRANSFER
 HEAT TRANSFER
What is Heat Transfer?
Heat transfer is the movement of
thermal energy:
From a hotter object to a colder
object.

Heat transfer continues until:

Thermal equilibrium is reached.
 HEAT TRANSFER
THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM
Heat transfer occurs because of
temperature differences.
When two objects reach the same
temperature, heat transfer stops.
This condition is called thermal
equilibrium.
To measure temperature
quantitatively, different temperature
scales are used.
 HEAT TRANSFER
Examples:
• Spoon becoming hot in coffee
• Boiling water in a pot
• Air conditioner cooling a room
 HEAT TRANSFER
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT

Temperature Heat
Measure of hotness and coldness Energy in transfer
Scalar quantity Energy quantity
Unit: °C, K, °F Unit: Joule (J)
 HEAT TRANSFER
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
If C is initially in thermal equilibrium
with both A and B, then A and B are
also in thermal equilibrium with each
other. This result is called the zeroth
law of thermodynamics.

Two systems are in thermal equilibrium

if and only if they have the same
temperature.
 HEAT TRANSFER
Temperature Conversion

Celsius to Fahrenheit

Fahrenheit to Celsius

Celsius to Kelvin
 HEAT TRANSFER
EFFECTS OF HEAT

When heat is transferred to a material, several physical changes

may occur.

Heat can:
• Increase temperature
• Cause thermal expansion
• Change the phase of matter
 HEAT TRANSFER
Thermal expansion is:
The increase in size of a material
when temperature increases.

Most materials:
• Expand when heated
• Contract when cooled

Everyday Examples
Railway tracks expanding in hot
weather
Bridge expansion joints
Loosening metal jar lids using hot water
Sagging electrical wires during summer
 HEAT TRANSFER
Why Does Expansion Occur?

Heating increases:
• Molecular vibration
• Average distance between
atoms

Result:
Material dimensions increase
 HEAT TRANSFER
What is Linear Expansion?

Linear expansion refers to:

Increase in length due to temperature
increase.

Final Length Equation

𝑳 = 𝑳𝟎 𝟏 + 𝜶𝚫𝑻
The coefficient of linear expansion (α) tells:
How much a material expands per degree temperature increase.

Materials with larger 𝛼:

Expand more rapidly when heated.
 HEAT TRANSFER
What is Area Expansion?
Increase in area due to temperature
increase.
Occurs in:
• Solids
• Liquids
• Gases

∆𝐴 = 𝛽𝐴0 ∆𝑇
 HEAT TRANSFER
Important Relation
For solids:
𝜷 = 𝟐𝜶

Area expansion is approximately:

Two times linear expansion.

Because expansion occurs in:

• Length
• Width
 HEAT TRANSFER
What is Volume Expansion?
Increase in volume due to temperature
increase.
Occurs in:
• Solids
• Liquids
• Gases
 HEAT TRANSFER
Important Relation
For solids:
𝜷 = 𝟑𝜶

Volume expansion is approximately:

Three times linear expansion.

Because expansion occurs in:

• Length
• Width
• Height
 HEAT TRANSFER
What is Specific Heat?
Specific heat is:
The amount of heat required to raise the
temperature
∘
of a unit mass of a substance by
𝟏 𝑪 or 1 K.

Different materials heat up:

At different rates

Some materials:
Heat quickly
Cool quickly

Others:
Heat slowly
Store more thermal energy
 HEAT TRANSFER
What is Specific Heat?

4184 J/ kg C
 HEAT TRANSFER
LATENT HEAT AND PHASE CHANGE
Not all heat added to a substance changes
its temperature.
During a phase change, heat may be
absorbed or released while the temperature
remains constant.
This energy is called latent heat.
Examples:
• Melting
• Freezing
• Vaporization
• Condensation
 HEAT TRANSFER
Heat Transfer in a Phase Change?

Where:
Q = Heat Transfer
m = mass
L = heat of fusion
HEAT TRANSFER

There are three methods by which

heat is transferred, namely:

a) Conduction
b) Convection
c) Radiation
HEAT TRANSFER
A) CONDUCTION
What is Conduction?
Conduction is:
The transfer of heat through direct molecular
interaction.
Heat moves:
From hotter regions
To colder regions
without bulk movement of matter.

Examples
Metal spoon becoming hot in coffee
Frying pan heating on a stove
Iron rod heated at one end
HEAT TRANSFER
A) CONDUCTION
Heat Current
Heat current is the rate of heat transfer.
The unit is Watt(W).
since:
1𝑊 = 1 𝐽/𝑠

Where:
𝐻 = heat current A = Area
𝑑𝑄 = heat transferred Th = Hotter Temperature
𝑑𝑡= time interval Tc = Cooler Temperature
L = Length k = thermal conductivity of
material
HEAT TRANSFER
A) CONDUCTION
Temperature Gradient
Temperature change per unit length.

Meaning of Negative Sign

Heat always flows:
From high temperature to low temperature.
 HEAT TRANSFER
A) CONDUCTION
MATERIALS AND HEAT FLOW
Not all materials transfer heat
equally well.
Some materials conduct heat
efficiently, while others resist heat
transfer.
 HEAT TRANSFER
Difference Between Insulator and Conductor
Conductors Insulators
Allow heat to flow easily Resist or prevent heat flow
HEAT TRANSFER
A) CONVECTION
What is Convection?
Convection is:
The transfer of heat through the movement of
fluids.
The fluid itself moves:
Carrying thermal energy from one place to
another.

Convection occurs only in:

• Liquids
• Gases
because fluids can flow.
HEAT TRANSFER
A) CONVECTION
Types of Convection
1. Natural (Free) Convection
Occurs because of:
Density differences caused by temperature
changes.
No external device is needed.

2. Forced Convection
Occurs when fluid motion is produced by:
• Fans
• Pumps
• Blowers
HEAT TRANSFER
A) CONVECTION
Characteristics of Convection
1. Heat Transfer Increases with Surface Area
Large surface area means greater heat transfer

2. Fluid Viscosity Slows Convection

3. Wind Increases Cooling

Moving air removes heat faster; Wind-chill effect
 HEAT TRANSFER
A) RADIATION
What is Radiation?
Radiation is:
The transfer of heat through
electromagnetic waves.
Unlike conduction and convection:
Radiation does NOT require a medium.

Heat transfer by radiation can occur

through:
• Vacuum
• Air
• Space
 HEAT TRANSFER
A) RADIATION
Color Changes with Temperature
Around 800∘ 𝐶
Objects appear:
Red-hot

Around 3000∘ 𝐶
Objects appear:
White-hot
HEAT TRANSFER
A) RADIATION
QUANTIFYING THERMAL RADIATION

Hot objects continuously emit thermal radiation.

To determine the amount of energy emitted per unit time, use the
Stefan-Boltzmann Law.
 HEAT TRANSFER
A) RADIATION
Stefan–Boltzmann law

Where:
H = radiated power
A = surface area
e = emissivity
W
σ = Stefan–Boltzmann constant, 5.67 x 10−8
𝑚2 ∙𝐾 4
T = absolute temperature
 HEAT TRANSFER
A) RADIATION
What is a Blackbody? Properties
A blackbody is: • Perfect absorber
An ideal surface that absorbs and emits • Perfect emitter
all radiation perfectly. • Emissivity: 𝑒 = 1

Importance in Physics
Blackbody radiation explains:
Stellar temperatures
Thermal radiation laws
Infrared emission
 HEAT TRANSFER
Example:
You place a small piece of ice in your mouth. Eventually,
the water all converts from ice at 𝑇1 = 32.00˚𝐹 to body
temperature, 𝑇2 = 98.60˚𝐹. Express these temperatures in
both Celsius degrees and kelvins, and find ∆T in both
cases.
 HEAT TRANSFER
Example:
A steel rod is 2 m long at 20 ˚C. It is heated to 70˚C. If
α = 1.2 × 10-5 /˚C. Find the final length.
 HEAT TRANSFER
Example:
A sheet of steel at 20oC has size as shown in the figure
below. If the coefficient of linear expansion for steel is
1 x 10-5/ oC then what is the change in the area at 60oC.
 HEAT TRANSFER
Example:
A glass container with volume of 4 liters filled with water, then heated until the increase in
temperature is 20˚C. Some water spilled. The coefficient of linear expansion for glass = 9 x 10-
6/˚C; the coefficient of volume expansion for water = 2.1 x 10-4/˚C. Determine the volume of
spilled water.

1!
 HEAT TRANSFER
Example:
During a bout with the flu an 80-kg man ran a fever of 39∘ 𝐶 (102.2∘ 𝐹) instead
of the normal body temperature of 37∘ 𝐶 (98.6∘ 𝐹). Assuming that the human
body is mostly water, how much heat is required to raise his temperature by
that amount?
 HEAT TRANSFER
Example:
A hot 1 kg chunk of copper is allowed to cool to 100°C. If the copper gave off
231 kJ of energy, what was the initial temperature of the copper? The specific
heat of copper is 0.385 J/g°C.
 HEAT TRANSFER
Example:
A Styrofoam cooler has total wall area (including the lid) of 0.80 square meter and wall
thickness 2.0 cm. It is filled with ice, water, and cans of Omni-Cola all at 0∘ 𝐶. What is the rate
of heat flow into the cooler if the temperature of the outside wall is 30∘ 𝐶. How much ice melts
in 3 hours?
THERMAL
CONDUCTIVITY OF
MATERIALS (k)
 HEAT TRANSFER
Example:
A black body with a surface area of 2 m² is at 600 K. How much power does it
radiate?
 HEAT TRANSFER
Example:
A thin, square steel plate, 10 cm on a side, is heated in a blacksmith’s forge to
800∘ 𝐶. If the emissivity is 0.60, what is the total rate of radiation of energy from
the plate?
WAVES, SOUNDS
AND VIBRATION
WAVES
A mechanical wave is a disturbance
that travels through a material medium
while transferring energy from one
place to another.

The key idea is:

A wave carries energy, but it does not
carry matter permanently with it.

Examples:
• Sound waves traveling through air
• Waves on a rope
• Earthquake waves
• Water waves
WAVES
When a wave travels:
The wave pattern moves

The particles of the medium only

vibrate around equilibrium
positions.
WAVES
Characteristics of Mechanical Waves

1. A Disturbance Propagates
The disturbance moves from one
region to another.

Example:
If you shake one end of a rope, the
disturbance travels along the rope.
WAVES
Characteristics of Mechanical Waves

2. The Medium Oscillates About

Equilibrium
Particles move temporarily:
• up and down
• back and forth
• circularly

But after the wave passes, the particles

return to equilibrium.
WAVES
Types of Mechanical Waves
Mechanical waves are classified
according to the direction of particle
motion relative to wave motion.

There are three major types:

• Transverse Waves
• Longitudinal Waves
• Surface Waves
WAVES
Transverse Waves
A transverse wave is a wave in
which the particles of the medium
move perpendicular to the direction
of wave propagation.

When the hand moves upward and

downward:
• the disturbance travels
horizontally
• the string particles move
vertically
WAVES
Longitudinal Waves
A longitudinal wave is a wave in
which the particles of the medium
move parallel to the direction of
wave propagation.

If the wave moves horizontally:

particles also move horizontally
back and forth
WAVES
Surface Waves
Surface waves are waves in
which particles experience both:
• transverse motion
• longitudinal motion

Particles on the water surface

move in circular paths.
This produces the familiar rising
and falling water motion.
WAVES
What is a Periodic Wave?
A periodic wave is a wave
produced by a source that
repeats its motion at regular
intervals.

Unlike a single pulse, a

periodic wave continuously
repeats its pattern.
WAVES
Wave Pulse vs Periodic Wave
Wave Pulse
A single disturbance traveling
through a medium.
Example:
One quick shake of a rope

Periodic Wave
A continuous repeating disturbance.
Example:
Repeated up-and-down motion of
a rope
WAVES
Periodic waves are commonly
produced using Simple
Harmonic Motion (SHM).

When the source executes SHM:

the resulting wave becomes a
sinusoidal wave
WAVES
Sinusoidal Waves
A sinusoidal wave has the shape of
a sine or cosine curve.

This is the most important type of

periodic wave because:
• It is mathematically simple
• Many natural waves are
sinusoidal
• Any complex periodic wave can
be represented as a
combination of sinusoidal
waves
WAVES
Wave intensity is:
the amount of power transferred by a wave per
unit area.

It tells us:
• how strong a wave is
• how much energy passes through an area
every second

OR

Where:
I = intensity
P = power
A = area
WAVES
The most important quantities in
periodic waves are:
1. Amplitude
2. Frequency
3. Period
4. Wavelength
5. Wave Speed
WAVES
Wave Equation
This is one of the most important
equations in wave mechanics.

Where:
v = wave speed
f = frequency
λ = wavelength
WAVES
DECIBEL FORMULA
Decibel (dB) is a measurement unit used
when comparing two sound intensities.
The sound intensity level is:

𝑤
𝐼0 = 1 x 10−12
𝑚2
Where:
β = sound intensity level (dB)
I = sound intensity
𝐼0 = reference intensity
SOUNDS AND VIBRATION
Modes of Vibration
When waves reflect back and forth in a
bounded medium, interference occurs.

Under certain conditions, the reflected

waves combine with incoming waves
to produce a standing wave.

Only specific standing-wave patterns

are allowed.

These allowed patterns are called:

Modes of Vibration
SOUNDS AND VIBRATION
A system cannot vibrate at arbitrary
frequencies.
It means that the system has a natural
frequency or a preferred frequency of
vibration.

It vibrates only at specific natural

frequencies determined by:
• length
• boundary conditions
• tension
• density
• elasticity
SOUNDS AND VIBRATION
Natural frequency determines the
vibration pattern of an object. This
vibration can produce standing
waves, musical notes (sound), and,
if matched by an external force,
resonance.
SOUNDS AND VIBRATION

STRING vs AIR COLUMN

STRING AIR COLUMN
Guitar Flute
Violin Clarinet
Piano Organ Pipe
SOUNDS AND VIBRATION
Standing Waves
Definition
A standing wave is produced by the
superposition of:
two identical waves
traveling in opposite directions

Unlike traveling waves:

standing waves do NOT transport
energy continuously
the pattern appears stationary
SOUNDS AND VIBRATION
Important Feature
Nodes (N)
Points with zero displacement.
Particles do not move.

Antinodes (A)
Points with maximum displacement.
Particles vibrate strongly.
SOUNDS AND VIBRATION
Standing Waves on Strings
Consider a string fixed at both ends.

Examples:
• guitar string
• violin string
• piano string

Since both ends are fixed:

Both ends must always be
displacement nodes
SOUNDS AND VIBRATION
For a string fixed at both ends, the
ends cannot move, so they must
always be displacement nodes.
The standing wave forms only when
the wave pattern satisfies this
boundary condition, creating nodes at
both ends and antinodes in between.
These allowed patterns are called
harmonics, and they determine the
different notes produced by stringed
instruments like guitars, violins, and
pianos.
SOUNDS AND VIBRATION
1. First Harmonic 3. Third Harmonic
The simplest standing wave pattern Now the string contains:
contains: three loops
• one antinode three antinodes
• two nodes

2. Second Harmonic
Now the string contains:
• two loops
• two antinodes
• three nodes
SOUNDS AND VIBRATION
Standing Waves in Air Columns
Air columns behave similarly to
strings, but:
boundary conditions differ

In air columns:
waves are longitudinal

Examples:
Flute
Clarinet
SOUNDS AND VIBRATION
Open Pipes Closed Pipes (Stopped Pipes)

Pipe open at both ends. One end closed, one end open.

Examples: Examples:
flute clarinet
organ pipe resonance tube
 WAVES
Example:
Sound waves are longitudinal waves in air. The speed of
sound depends on temperature; at 20∘ 𝐶 it is 344 m/s. What
is the wavelength of a sound wave in air at 20∘ 𝐶 if the
frequency is 262 Hz (the approximate frequency of
middle C on a piano)?
 WAVES
Example:
The speed of a wave in a certain medium is 900 m/s. If
3000 waves passes over a certain point of the medium in 2
minutes, then compute its wavelength?
 WAVES
Example:
A ship in a sea sends SONAR waves straight down into the seawater from the
bottom of the ship. The signal reflects from the deep bottom bed rock and
returns to the ship after 3.5 s. After the ship moves to 100 km it sends another
signal which returns back after 2s. Calculate the depth of the sea in each case
and also compute the difference in height between two cases.
 WAVES
Example:
Consider two sound waves with wavelengths 5 m and 6 m.
If these two waves propagate in a gas with velocity
330 ms-1. Calculate the number of beats per second.
 WAVES
Example:
Calculate the intensity of a wave if the power transferred is
10 W and the area through which the wave is transferred is
5 square meters.
 WAVES
Example:
The loudness of a sound is measured to be 82 dB. What is
the value of the intensity of the sound?
 WAVES
Example:
The sound intensity inside a car is 0.600 𝜇𝑊/𝑚2 . What is
this sound intensity in decibels?
 ELECTRIC
CURRENT,
ELECTRIC
RESISTANCE AND
VOLTAGE
ELECTRIC CURRENT, ELECTRIC RESISTANCE AND VOLTAGE
REVIEW: ELECTRIC CHARGE
Electric Charge
Electricity begins with electric
charge.

There are two kinds:

Positive charge (+)
Negative charge (−)

Important Concepts
Like charges repel
Opposite charges attract
ELECTRIC CURRENT, ELECTRIC RESISTANCE AND VOLTAGE
REVIEW: ELECTRIC CHARGE
Electric Charge
Without charge
• There is no current
• No voltage
• No electrical power.
ELECTRIC CURRENT, ELECTRIC RESISTANCE AND VOLTAGE
COULOMB’S LAW

Coulomb’s law is the fundamental

physical law that describes the
electrostatic force between two
charged objects. It quantifies how the
force depends on the magnitudes of
the charges and the distance between
them.

The decisive quantitative breakthrough

came from the French physicist Charles-
Augustin de Coulomb in the late 18th
century.
ELECTRIC CURRENT, ELECTRIC RESISTANCE AND VOLTAGE

or
ELECTRIC CURRENT, ELECTRIC RESISTANCE AND VOLTAGE

Electric Field

• The electric field is the region around

a charged object where another
charge experiences an electric force.

• A static electric field is created when

the charges are stationary, and the
corresponding force is known as
electrostatic force.
ELECTRIC CURRENT, ELECTRIC RESISTANCE AND VOLTAGE
Charge Carriers
In metals:
• Electrons are free to move
• Electrons carry electric current
Fundamental Charge
The charge of one electron is:
e = 1.602 × 10−19 C

Conservation of Charge
Charge cannot be created nor
destroyed.
ELECTRIC CURRENT, ELECTRIC RESISTANCE AND VOLTAGE
ELECTRIC CURRENT

Electric current is:

the rate of flow of electric charge.

Where:
I = current (ampere)
Q = charge (coulomb)
t = time (second)

SI Unit
Ampere (A)
Meaning of 1 Ampere
1 A means 1 coulomb of charge passes a point every second.
ELECTRIC CURRENT, ELECTRIC RESISTANCE AND VOLTAGE
Types of Electric Current
1. Direct Current (DC)
Current flows in one direction
Example:
batteries
solar cells

2. Alternating Current (AC)

Current reverses direction periodically
Example:
household electricity
ELECTRIC CURRENT, ELECTRIC RESISTANCE AND VOLTAGE
ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
Basic Components of a Circuit

A working circuit needs:

1. Source 3. Load
• resistor
• battery
• bulb
• generator • appliance
2. Conducting Path 4. Switch
• wires • controls current flow

Key Idea
No closed path = no current.
ELECTRIC CURRENT, ELECTRIC RESISTANCE AND VOLTAGE
VOLTAGE

Electric Voltage
Voltage is:
• Also known as Potential Difference
• the electrical “push” that moves
charges.

SI Unit
Volt (V)

Meaning of 1 Volt
1 joule of energy per coulomb of charge.
ELECTRIC CURRENT, ELECTRIC RESISTANCE AND VOLTAGE
What Does Voltage Actually Do?
Voltage:
• causes charge motion
• creates electric current
• supplies energy to devices

Without Voltage
• no electric field
• no charge movement
• no current
ELECTRIC CURRENT, ELECTRIC RESISTANCE AND VOLTAGE
ELECTRIC RESISTANCE
Resistance is:
opposition to the flow of electric current.

Causes of Resistance
collisions between electrons and
atoms

SI Unit
Ohm (Ω)
ELECTRIC CURRENT, ELECTRIC RESISTANCE AND VOLTAGE

Factors Affecting Resistance

[Link]
[Link]-sectional area
[Link]
[Link]
ELECTRIC CURRENT, ELECTRIC RESISTANCE AND VOLTAGE
Resistivity of Materials
Resistivity measures:
how strongly a material opposes current.

Resistance Equation

𝑳
R=ρ
𝑨

Where:
R = resistance
ρ = resistivity
L = length
A = area
ELECTRIC CURRENT, ELECTRIC RESISTANCE AND VOLTAGE
Ohm’s Law

Ohm’s Law states that the current

through a conductor is proportional to
the voltage across it and inversely
proportional to its resistance.

The German physicist Georg Simon

Ohm (1787–1854) was the first to
demonstrate experimentally that the
current in a metal wire is directly
proportional to the voltage applied.
ELECTRIC CURRENT, ELECTRIC RESISTANCE AND VOLTAGE

Electrical Power
Power is:
the rate of electrical energy
consumption.

SI Unit
Watt (W)
ELECTRIC CURRENT, ELECTRIC RESISTANCE AND VOLTAGE
WHY WIRES HEAT UP WHY ELECTRICAL DEVICES GET HOT?

Joule’s Heating
When current flows:
• electrons collide with atoms
• energy becomes heat

Applications Danger
Too much current:
• electric stove
• overheating
• flat iron • short circuits
• toaster
• heater
It is named after the English physicist James Prescott Joule,
who discovered that the heat produced in a conductor
depends on the current, resistance, and time.
ELECTRIC CURRENT, ELECTRIC RESISTANCE AND VOLTAGE
SERIES CIRCUIT
Characteristics:
• one path only
• same current everywhere
ELECTRIC CURRENT, ELECTRIC RESISTANCE AND VOLTAGE
Parallel Circuit

Characteristics:
• multiple paths
• same voltage across branches
 ELECTRIC CURRENT, ELECTRIC RESISTANCE AND VOLTAGE

Example:
Two charges 𝑞1 = 2.0 𝑥 10−6 C and 𝑞2 = 3.0 𝑥 10−6 C are
separated by 0.50 m. Find the force between the two charges.
 ELECTRIC CURRENT, ELECTRIC RESISTANCE AND VOLTAGE

Example:
Consider a system of two charges of magnitude
𝑞1 = 2.0 𝑥 10−7 C and 𝑞2 = 4.5 𝑥 10−7 C which is acted upon
by a force of 0.1 N. What is the distance between the two
charges?
 ELECTRIC CURRENT, ELECTRIC RESISTANCE AND VOLTAGE

Example:
The amount of charge that passes through the filament of a certain
light bulb in 2 seconds is 12C.
A) What is the current in the light bulb?
B) What is the number of electrons that pass through the filament in
one second?
 ELECTRIC CURRENT, ELECTRIC RESISTANCE AND VOLTAGE

Example:
How many electrons pass a point in 10 s if a constant
current of 20 A is maintained in a conductor?
 ELECTRIC CURRENT, ELECTRIC RESISTANCE AND VOLTAGE

Example:
A heater has a resistance of 10 ohms. It operates on 120 V.
A) What is the current through the resistance?
B) What thermal energy is supplied to the heater in 10 s?
ELECTRIC CURRENT, ELECTRIC RESISTANCE AND VOLTAGE

Example:
An electric lamp has an 80 ohm filament connected
to a 110 V direct current line. What is the current
through the filament? What is the power loss in
watts?
 ELECTRIC CURRENT, ELECTRIC RESISTANCE AND VOLTAGE

Example:
A modern color TV set draws 2 A when operated on 120 V.
A) How much power does the set use?
B) If the set is operated for an average of 7 hours/day, what energy
in kWh does it consume per month (30 days)
C) At 18.00 pesos per kWh, what is the cost of operating the set per
month?
 ELECTRIC CURRENT, ELECTRIC RESISTANCE AND VOLTAGE
Example:
Determine the following quantities for the given circuit
• the equivalent resistance
• the current from the power supply
• the current through each resistor
• the voltage drop across each resistor
• the power dissipated in each resistor
KIRCHHOFF’S
RULES IN A
GIVEN CIRCUIT
KIRCHHOFF’S RULES IN A GIVEN CIRCUIT
Kirchhoff’s Rules are fundamental laws
used in analyzing electrical circuits,
especially complex circuits that cannot be
simplified using ordinary series and
parallel methods.

These rules were developed by the German

physicist, Gustav Kirchhoff.
KIRCHHOFF’S RULES IN A GIVEN CIRCUIT
Kirchhoff’s Rules are based on two important conservation
principles in physics:
1. Conservation of Charge
2. Conservation of Energy

These rules are used to determine:

• Current
• Voltage
• Resistance
in complicated multi-loop electrical circuits.
KIRCHHOFF’S RULES IN A GIVEN CIRCUIT
1. KIRCHHOFF’S JUNCTION RULE
(Kirchhoff’s Current Law or KCL)

The total current entering a junction is equal

to the total current leaving the junction.
KIRCHHOFF’S RULES IN A GIVEN CIRCUIT
What is a Junction?
A junction (or node) is a point in a circuit where:
• Three or more wires meet
At a junction:
Current splits OR Current combines

Kirchhoff’s Junction Rule is based on:

CONSERVATION OF CHARGE
Charge cannot:
• be created
• be destroyed
Therefore:
Any charge entering the junction must also
leave the junction.
KIRCHHOFF’S RULES IN A GIVEN CIRCUIT
2. KIRCHHOFF’S LOOP RULE
(Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law or KVL)
The algebraic sum of all potential
differences (voltages) around a
closed loop is equal to zero.
KIRCHHOFF’S RULES IN A GIVEN CIRCUIT
A loop is:
• Any closed conducting path in a circuit.
• A complete path where current can travel
and return to the starting point.
Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule is based on:
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
Electrical energy supplied by batteries must be
completely transferred to circuit components
such as:
• Resistors
• Lamps
Energy cannot disappear.
 KIRCHHOFF’S RULES IN A GIVEN CIRCUIT
Example:
Consider the circuit in Figure below. Analyze this circuit to find the
current through each resistor.
ELECTROMAGNETISM
ELECTROMAGNETISM

MAGNETISM
Magnetism is associated with:
MOVING ELECTRIC CHARGES

Examples:
Electric motors
Loudspeakers
MRI machines
Generators
ELECTROMAGNETISM

Magnetism was first observed in:

MAGNETITE

Ancient people discovered:

Natural magnets attract iron
Compass needles align north-south

Scientists:
Hans Christian Oersted
Andre-Marie Ampere
Michael Faraday
ELECTROMAGNETISM

MAGNETIC POLES
Every magnet has:
• North Pole (N)
• South Pole (S)

Law of Magnetic Poles

• Like poles repel
• Unlike poles attract
ELECTROMAGNETISM

Magnetic poles always exist in pairs.

If a magnet is broken:
Each piece still has:
North pole
South pole
Magnetic monopoles have never
been observed.
ELECTROMAGNETISM
MAGNETIC FIELD
• A magnetic field is the region
where magnetic forces act.
• A magnetic field is an invisible
force field generated by magnets,
moving electric charges, or
changing electric fields.
• It influences the behavior of
magnetic materials, such as
attracting or repelling other
magnets.
• They are quantified using units
like Tesla (T) and Gauss (G).
ELECTROMAGNETISM

Electromagnetism is the branch

of physics that studies:
Electric fields
Magnetic fields
Their interaction

It is one of the:
FOUR FUNDAMENTAL FORCES
OF NATURE
ELECTROMAGNETISM

Electromagnetism governs:
• Electricity
• Magnetism
• Light
• Radio waves
• X-rays
ELECTROMAGNETISM

FOUR FUNDAMENTAL FORCES

Gravitational Force
Electromagnetic Force
Strong Nuclear Force
Weak Nuclear Force

Among these:
Electromagnetic force is
responsible for most everyday
phenomena.
ELECTROMAGNETISM

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
Hans Christian Oersted Michael Faraday
Discovered that electric current Discovered electromagnetic
affects compass needles induction

James Clerk Maxwell

Andre-Marie Ampere
Developed Maxwell’s Equations
Developed equations relating
current and magnetism
ELECTROMAGNETISM
ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCE
The electromagnetic force acts between:
ELECTRICALLY CHARGED PARTICLES

It includes:
• Electric forces
• Magnetic forces

This force is responsible for:

• Atomic structure
• Chemical bonding
• Electricity
• Magnetism
ELECTROMAGNETISM
ELECTRIC FIELD
A region where electric force acts on
charges.
ELECTROMAGNETISM

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
• Moving charges create
magnetic fields.
• Changing magnetic fields
create electric fields.

This relationship forms:

ELECTROMAGNETISM
 OPTICS:
MIRRORS AND
LENSES
OPTICS
OPTICS
The branch of physics that studies:
• Light
• Electromagnetic waves
• Their interaction with matter

Applications
• Eyeglasses
• Microscopes
• Telescopes
• Cameras
• Fiber optics
• Lasers
OPTICS
Historical Views of Light
Particle Theory
Proposed by Isaac Newton
Light behaves as tiny particles (corpuscles)

Wave Theory
Supported by Huygens and Maxwell
Light behaves as electromagnetic waves

Modern View
Light exhibits:
Wave behavior
Particle behavior
This is called Wave-Particle Duality
OPTICS
LIGHT AS AN ELECTROMAGNETIC
WAVE
Light consists of:
• Oscillating electric fields
• Oscillating magnetic fields
• These are perpendicular to each
other.

Speed of Light in Vacuum

c = 3.00 x 108 m/s

Where:
c = speed of light
OPTICS
REFLECTION
The bouncing back of light from a
surface.

Types
1. Specular Reflection
• Smooth surfaces
• Produces clear images
2. Diffuse Reflection
• Rough surfaces
• Scatters light
OPTICS
LAW OF REFLECTION

θr=θi
Where:
θi = angle of incidence
θr​ = angle of reflection

Important Notes
• Incident ray
• Reflected ray
• Normal line
All lie in the same plane.
OPTICS
REFRACTION
The bending of light as it passes from
one medium to another.

Why does light bend?

Because the speed of light changes from
a medium to another medium.

Examples:
• Straw appearing bent in water
• Swimming pool appearing shallow
OPTICS
INDEX OF REFRACTION

Where:
n = index of refraction
c = speed of light in vacuum
v = speed of light in medium

Important Concept
Higher n means:
Lower speed of light
OPTICS
REFRACTION CASES
CASE 1: LOW n → HIGH n
Light bends toward normal.

CASE 2: HIGH n → LOW n

Light bends away from normal.

CASE 3: NORMAL INCIDENCE

No bending occurs.
OPTICS
SNELL’S LAW

Snell's Law states that the ratio of

the sine of the angle of incidence to
the sine of the angle of refraction is
constant for a given pair of media.
OPTICS
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
Occurs when:
• Light travels from higher n to lower n
• Incident angle exceeds critical angle

Result:
• All light is reflected back

Total Internal Reflection happens because light

reaches an angle where it can no longer refract
into the second medium, so all of its energy is
reflected back into the original medium
instead.
OPTICS
DISPERSION
The separation of white light into colors.
Cause:
• Different wavelengths travel at
different speeds.

Violet
• Higher refractive index
• More bending
Red
• Lower refractive index
• Less bending
OPTICS
POLARIZATION
• Restriction of wave vibration to
one direction.
• Only transverse waves can be
polarized.

Examples
• Polarized sunglasses
• LCD screens
• Camera filters
 OPTICS
MALUS’ LAW

Malus' law states that the intensity of plane-polarized

light passing through a polarizer varies as the square
of the cosine of the angle between the light’s
polarization direction and the polarizer’s axis.
Where:
I = transmitted intensity
𝐼0 ​ = maximum intensity
Malus’ law has been named after Étienne-Louis Malus, θ = angle between polarizers
who was a French engineer, physicist, and
mathematician. Malus published his work on the
polarization of light in 1809.
OPTICS
BREWSTER’S LAW

• Brewster's Law states that when unpolarized

light strikes a transparent surface at a
specific angle, called the Brewster angle,
the reflected light becomes completely
polarized perpendicular to the plane of
incidence.

• Proposed by Sir David Brewster in 1811.

OPTICS
OBJECT
Source of light rays.

IMAGE
Point where light rays:
Converge OR Appear to diverge

OPTIC AXIS
Principal symmetry axis of optical
system.

VERTEX
Center point of mirror or lens surface.
OPTICS
REAL VS VIRTUAL IMAGE

REAL IMAGE
• Rays actually converge
• Can be projected on screen
• Usually inverted

VIRTUAL IMAGE
• Rays only appear to diverge
• Cannot be projected
• Usually erect
OPTICS
PLANE MIRRORS
CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANE
MIRROR IMAGES
• Virtual
• Upright (erect)
• Same size as object
• Same distance behind mirror
as object distance
OPTICS
IMAGE DISTANCE IN PLANE MIRRORS
The distance from the image to the
mirror is called the image distance.
𝒅𝟎 = 𝒅𝒊
Important
Negative image distance means Virtual image

The height of the image is also another

important feature.
𝒉𝟎 = 𝒉𝒊
OPTICS
MAGNIFICATION
𝒉𝒊
The ratio of the is called magnification.
𝒉𝟎
Note:
m = +1

Meaning:
• Same image size
• Erect image
OPTICS
MAGNIFICATION

If
M=±1 image is same size as the object
M>1 image is bigger than the object
M<1 image is smaller than the object
+M means virtual image and upright
-M means real image and inverted
OPTICS
TYPES OF SPHERICAL MIRRORS
Concave Mirror
• Converging mirror
• Forms real or virtual images
• Have a reflecting surface that curves
inward, resembling the interior of a
sphere
• Commonly used in reflecting telescopes,
shaving mirrors, torchlights, and
headlights
OPTICS
TYPES OF SPHERICAL MIRRORS
Convex Mirror
• Diverging mirror
• Forms virtual images only
• Have a reflecting surface that curves
outward, resembling the exterior of a
sphere.
• Commonly used as side-view or
rearview mirrors in vehicles
OPTICS
PARTS OF SPHERICAL MIRRORS
OPTICS
SPHERICAL MIRROR EQUATION

Where:
𝒅𝟎 = object distance
𝒅𝒊 = image distance
f = focal length
R = radius of curvature
OPTICS
REFRACTION
Bending of light at boundary between
two media.

Causes
• Change in speed of light
• Different refractive indices
OPTICS
Spherical refracting surfaces
• These are surfaces that cause
light to bend as it passes through
different media with varying
refractive indices.
• This bending of light is a
fundamental principle in optics.
OPTICS
APPARENT DEPTH
Objects underwater appear:
Closer to surface

Reason:
Refraction at air-water interface
OPTICS
THIN LENSES
Two refracting surfaces close
together.
The word “lens” derives from the
Latin word for a lentil bean, the
shape of which is similar to a
convex lens.

Types
• Converging Lens (Convex)
• Diverging Lens (Concave)
OPTICS
CONVERGING LENS
Characteristics:
• Positive focal length
• Converges parallel rays
• Forms real or virtual images

Applications:
• Magnifying glass
• Camera
• Microscope
OPTICS
DIVERGING LENS
Characteristics:
• Negative focal length
• Diverges rays
• Always forms virtual image

Applications:
• Eyeglasses for myopia
• Door viewers
OPTICS
THIN LENS EQUATION
OPTICS
HUMAN EYE AS AN OPTICAL
SYSTEM
Components:
• Cornea
• Lens
• Retina
Common Defects
• Myopia (Nearsighted)
• Hyperopia (Farsighted)
• Astigmatism
OPTICS
 OPTICS
Example:
A ray travels from water to glass with incident angle 60. Find:
a. Angle of reflection
b. Angle of refraction
 OPTICS
Example:
The refractive index of ethanol is 1.36. What is the speed of light in ethanol?
 OPTICS
Example:
The refractive index of air is 1.0003 and the refractive index of crystalline quartz is 1.544. What
is the critical angle for a ray of light going from crystalline quartz into air?
 OPTICS
Example:
Unpolarized light of intensity 𝐼0 passes through two polarizers at 30. Find the
final intensity.
 OPTICS
Example:
A concave mirror has focal length 10 cm. An object is placed 30 cm from the
mirror.
Find:
• Image distance
• Magnification
• Nature of image
 OPTICS
Example:
Light from a point source in air falls on a spherical glass surface (n = 1.5, R = 20
cm). The distance from the light source to the glass surface is 100 cm. Where is
the image formed?
 OPTICS
Example:
Find the radius of curvature of a biconcave lens symmetrically ground from a glass with index of
refractive 1.55 so that its focal length in air is 20 cm (for a biconcave lens, both surfaces have
the same radius of curvature).
 OPTICS

Example:
A bi-convex lens made of glass (p = 1.5) has radii of curvature 20
cm each. Find its focal length.