LINGAYA’S VIDYAPEETH UNIVERSITY
SESSION: 2025-26
(B. Arch., III - SEMESTER)
Building Structure-III (BAR-203)
Prepared by: Dr. Mudassir Ali Khan
Notes Unit-2
1 Introduction
Every structure is designed to safely resist all the forces and loads acting on it during its lifespan.
The design must ensure strength, stability, and serviceability under varying load conditions such
as dead load, live load, wind, snow, and seismic effects. Understanding these loads and how they
are transferred through the structure to the ground forms the basis of foundation engineering.
2 Classification of Loads
According to IS 875 (Part 1–5) and IS 1893 (Part 1): 2016, the loads on buildings and structures
are broadly classified into:
IS Code
Type of Load Description
Reference
Permanent/static load due to the self-weight of
Dead Load (DL) IS 875 – Part 1
structural and non-structural components.
Imposed Load (Live Load due to occupancy, furniture, movable
IS 875 – Part 2
Load, LL) equipment, or people.
Load caused by wind pressure on exposed surfaces
Wind Load (WL) IS 875 – Part 3
of a structure.
Load from accumulated snow, depending on roof
Snow Load (SL) IS 875 – Part 4
slope and snow density.
Includes loads due to temperature changes, cranes,
Special/Other Loads IS 875 – Part 5
impact, vibration, and erection.
Earthquake Load IS 1893 (Part Dynamic loads induced by ground motion during
(Seismic Load, EL) 1) earthquakes.
2.1 Loads and Load Combinations as per IS 800:2007
The design of steel structures must consider the different types of loads that act on the structure
during its lifetime. IS 800:2007 provides clear guidelines for classification, values, and
combinations of loads to ensure safety, serviceability, and durability.
2.2 Types of Loads (Cl. 3.12 & IS 875 reference)
(a) Dead Load (DL)
• Permanent/static loads due to self-weight of:
o Structural members (beams, columns, trusses, etc.)
o Non-structural elements (roof sheeting, flooring, finishes, partitions, fixtures)
• Value: Calculated from unit weights of materials (as per IS 875 Part 1).
(b) Imposed Load (Live Load, LL)
• Transient or moving loads acting on the structure during use.
Includes:
o Occupancy loads (people, furniture, equipment)
o Storage loads
o Moving or impact loads (vehicles in bridges, cranes in industrial sheds)
• Taken as per IS 875 Part 2
(c) Wind Load (WL)
• Force exerted by wind pressure on structural surfaces.
• Depends on:
o Wind speed (basic wind speed from IS 875 Part 3)
o Terrain category, topography, building height/size
o Shape and orientation of structure
• Acts horizontally or vertically (uplift on roofs).
(d) Snow Load (SL)
• For structures in snow-prone areas (IS 875 Part 4).
• Depends on:
o Shape of roof (flat, sloping, curved)
o Snow accumulation due to drifting/sliding.
(e) Earthquake Load (EL/Seismic Load)
• Dynamic load due to ground motion during earthquakes (as per IS 1893).
• Considered as horizontal and vertical seismic forces applied to the mass of the structure.
(f) Other Loads (where applicable)
• Crane loads → horizontal and vertical forces from overhead cranes.
• Temperature effects → expansion/contraction due to thermal variation.
• Settlement loads → from differential settlement of supports.
• Erection loads → temporary loads during construction.
3 INTRODUCTION TO FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
3.1 Definition
Foundation Engineering deals with the design and construction of foundations that safely transfer
structural loads to the underlying soil or rock without causing failure or excessive settlement.
3.2 Functions of a Foundation
Load Transfer: Transmit loads from structure to the soil beneath.
Stability: Prevent overturning and sliding.
Settlement Control: Distribute loads to avoid differential settlement.
Protection: Shield the structure from moisture, frost, or soil movement.
4 Classification of Foundations
4.1 Shallow Foundations
Shallow foundation is a type of foundation that transmits the structural load to the ground at a
depth less than or equal to its width. It is used when strong soil is available near the ground surface
(up to 3–4 m depth).
Mathematically, if
𝐷𝑓 /𝐵 ≤ 1
where
𝐷𝑓 = depth of foundation,
𝐵= width of foundation,
then it is classified as a shallow foundation.
Shallow foundations are preferred when:
• The bearing capacity of the upper soil layers is sufficient to carry structural loads.
• The loads from the structure are relatively light to moderate.
• The groundwater table is at a sufficient depth below the foundation base.
• Differential settlement is minimal or within permissible limits.
• The site has uniform soil conditions and minimal risk of erosion.
4.2 Types of shallow foundation
4.2.1 Isolated (pad) footing
• Supports a single column or pier.
• Shape: Square, rectangular, or circular.
• Load Transfer: Directly from the column to the soil.
• Application: Used when columns are spaced far apart and loads are moderate.
• Advantages: Simple design, economical, easy construction.
• Example: Reinforced concrete columns supporting residential buildings.
4.2.2 Combined footing
Definition: A single footing supporting two or more columns.
Used : Columns are closely spaced, or One column is near a property line where an isolated footing
cannot be placed symmetrically.
Types:
• Rectangular combined footing
• Trapezoidal combined footing
Design Objective: Uniform soil pressure under the entire footing are
4.2.3 Strap (cantilever) footing
Definition: Two isolated footings connected by a strap or beam that does not transfer load to the
soil but balances the moments.
Purpose: Used when one column is near a boundary and an isolated footing cannot be centered.
Key Feature: The strap beam connects footings to distribute load evenly without inducing
differential settlement.
4.2.4 Raft (mat) foundation
Definition: A large, continuous slab covering the entire area under a structure, supporting several
columns or walls.
Used When:
• Loads are heavy, or
• Soil bearing capacity is low, and isolated footings would overlap.
Advantages:
• Reduces differential settlement
• Suitable for soft soils
• Provides a rigid base for high-rise or framed structures
Design: Thickness and reinforcement are designed to maintain uniform soil pressure
4.3 Soil–Foundation Relationship
The interaction between soil and foundation governs the overall stability of a structure.
Key aspects include:
Aspect Description
The ability of soil to support the loads applied from the foundation
Bearing Capacity
without failure.
Vertical displacement of the foundation due to load; should be within
Settlement
permissible limits.
Shear Strength of
Determines the resistance to sliding or collapse.
Soil
Clayey soils compress more and drain slowly; sandy soils settle faster
Soil Type
but stabilize quickly.
Water Table High groundwater may reduce effective stress and bearing capacity.
4.4 Importance of Soil Investigation
Before designing a foundation, a geotechnical investigation must be conducted to determine:
• Soil stratification and properties (SPT, CPT results)
• Groundwater level
• Bearing capacity
• Compressibility and settlement characteristics
These data ensure the foundation is safe and economical.\
4.5 IS Codes guidelines for foundation design
The design and construction of foundations in India are governed by several Indian Standard
(IS) codes, which ensure safety, durability, and stability of structures under varying soil and
loadingconditions.
These standards cover aspects such as:
• Site investigation and soil testing
• Bearing capacity determination
• Design of shallow and deep foundations
• Settlement and stability criteria
• Construction practices and material specifications
A properly designed foundation must:
1. Transfer the load of the structure to the soil safely.
2. Avoid excessive settlement or rotation.
3. Remain stable under all loading conditions.
4. Resist adverse effects due to groundwater, temperature, or seismic forces
Table: 3 Major IS Codes Related to Foundation Design
IS Code Title Scope
Code of Practice for Design and
General design principles for
IS 1904:1986 Construction of Foundations in Soils:
shallow and deep foundations.
General Requirements
Code of Practice for Determination of
Procedure for calculating ultimate
IS 6403:1981 Bearing Capacity of Shallow
and safe bearing capacity.
Foundations
Code of Practice for Design and
Practical guidelines for small and
IS 1080:1980 Construction of Simple Foundations in
low-rise buildings.
Soils
IS 2911 (Part Design and Construction of Pile Covers concrete, steel, and timber
1–4):2010 Foundations pile design and installation.
IS 8009 (Part 1 Calculation of Settlement of Guidelines for immediate and
& 2):1976 Foundations consolidation settlement.
Field testing for bearing capacity
IS 1888:1982 Method of Load Test on Soils
verification.
Method for Standard Penetration Test Determines soil resistance and
IS 2131:1981
(SPT) correlates to bearing capacity.
Laboratory and field testing for soil
IS 2720
Methods of Test for Soils classification, strength, and
(Series)
compressibility.
IS 2911 (Part Applicable for bridge piers and
Well Foundations
4):1984 abutments.
General Construction in Steel — Code Load combinations and stability
IS 800:2007
of Practice checks for steel structures.
Code of Practice for Plain and Foundation design in concrete
IS 456:2000
Reinforced Concrete (strength, reinforcement, durability).
Seismic design guidelines for
IS 1893 (Part Criteria for Earthquake Resistant
foundation and soil–structure
1):2016 Design of Structures
interaction.
Concrete Structures for Storage of Foundations under hydrostatic or
IS 3370:2009
Liquids uplift pressure.
4.6 Key Guidelines from IS 1904:1986 (Main Foundation Code)
4.6.1 3.1 General Design Requirements
• Foundation should be designed to safely sustain the applied loads without excessive
settlement or rotation.
• Should be economical, durable, and constructible with available materials and site
conditions.
o Must take into account:
o Type of structure and loading
o Nature and behavior of foundation soil
o Depth of water table
o Environmental effects such as frost, chemical attack, and erosion
4.6.2 Depth of Foundation
• Minimum depth 𝐷𝑓 determined to prevent shear failure and to remain below the zone of
seasonal moisture variation.
• Recommended formula (Rankine’s theory):
𝑞 1 − sin 𝜙 2
𝐷𝑓 = ( )
𝛾 1 + sin 𝜙
where
𝑞= net bearing pressure at the base,
𝛾= unit weight of soil,
𝜙= angle of internal friction.
• Typical minimum depth:
o 0.9 m for small residential buildings
o 1.5 m for multi-storey or loaded structures
4.6.3 Safe Bearing Capacity (SBC)
• Determined by analytical, empirical, or field methods as per IS 6403:1981 and IS
1888:1982.
• Must be greater than the maximum intensity of pressure transmitted by the structure:
𝑞𝑠 ≥ 𝑞𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑
• A factor of safety (F.S.) = 2.5 to 3.0 is recommended against shear failure.
o Used for weak or compressible surface soils.
4.6.4 Settlement Criteria
As per IS 8009 (Part 1 & 2):
• Total Settlement Limits:
o Isolated footings: ≤ 50 mm
o Raft foundations: ≤ 65 mm
• Differential Settlement Limits:
o Between columns: ≤ 10–25 mm
• Settlements should be computed for both immediate and consolidation phases.
4.6.5 Groundwater Consideration
• Foundations should be placed above the groundwater table, wherever possible.
• If below, provisions must be made to prevent uplift, buoyancy, and loss of bearing
strength.
• Draining or dewatering methods should be adopted if necessary.
4.6.6 Loads and Load Combinations
As per IS 875 (Part 1–5) and IS 800:2007, foundations should be designed for combinations of:
1. 1.5(𝐷𝐿 + 𝐿𝐿)
2. 1.5(𝐷𝐿 + 𝑊𝐿/𝐸𝐿)
3. 1.2(𝐷𝐿 + 𝐿𝐿 + 𝑊𝐿/𝐸𝐿)
4. 0.9𝐷𝐿 + 1.5𝑊𝐿/𝐸𝐿(when DL stabilizes against overturning
4.6.7 Factor of Safety
Recommended minimum factors of safety against ultimate bearing capacity:
Type of Foundation Factor of Safety
Isolated or combined footing 3.0
Raft foundation 3.0
Pile foundation 2.5
Rock foundations 2.0
4.6.8 IS 6403:1981 – Bearing Capacity Determination
Provides detailed procedures for computing ultimate and safe bearing capacity using:
• Terzaghi’s theory (for general shear failure)
• Meyerhof’s and Vesic’s methods (for shape and depth corrections)
• Key Equation:
𝑞𝑢 = 𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 𝛾𝐷𝑓 𝑁𝑞 + 0.5𝛾𝐵𝑁𝛾
𝑞𝑢 − 𝛾𝐷𝑓
𝑞𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒 =
𝐹. 𝑆.
where
𝑞𝑢 = ultimate bearing capacity,
𝑞𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒 = safe bearing capacity,
𝑁𝑐 , 𝑁𝑞 , 𝑁𝛾 = bearing capacity factors.
7. Summary
This Unit emphasizes the understanding of structural loads and their safe transfer to the
ground.
A good foundation design ensures:
• Stability under different load combinations (as per IS codes)
• Compatibility between structural behavior and soil response
• Longevity and safety of the building system.