Lesson 60
OUTLINE
PART 1: GRAMMAR
PART 2: PRACTICE
PART I: GRAMMAR
MODALS / SEMI-MODALS / MODALS PERFECT
MODALS: modal verb + bare infinitive
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VERB USE EXAMPLE
can • ability in the present and future Harriet can play the piano.
• to express what is possible You can buy tickets to the concert
online. Can we join you for lunch?
• requests or offers
I can give you a lift home.
• permission
Yes, of course you can go out on
• to soften a statement or Saturday.
criticism
Olivia can be very demanding
sometimes!
can’t • lack of ability in the present or Dan can’t play football this weekend;
future he’s away on holiday.
• logical assumptions about Sylvia lives in Beech Street, which is
something that is unlikely or just around the corner, so her
impossible house can’t be far away.
could • general ability in the past Nicky could swim when she was just
three years old!
• possibility in the present or
future Oliver could be studying in the library;
he said that’s where he was going.
• polite requests
Could you tell me some more about
• suggestions the Mayan civilisation, please?
• to show annoyance at You could avoid eating dairy products
something to see if you feel better.
You could look more excited to see
me!
couldn’t • general and specific inability in Lily couldn’t play the cello when she
the past was four.
• impossibility in the present Ben hurt his ankle, so he couldn’t go to
football practice yesterday.
Tom couldn’t know what Mary’s
password is because she never tells
anyone that kind of thing.
may • possibility in the present or The Museum of Modern Art may
future be closed on Sundays.
• formal requests or permission May we have a minute of your time, Mr
Thomas?
• to express wishes or hopes
(formal)
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May your marriage be filled with happy
moments!
might • possibility in the present or I might not be coming with you to the
future cinema after all.
• as criticism You might knock before you open the
door!
will • predictions, future facts I’m sure your boss will let you leave
early.
• decisions made at the time of
speaking, offers It’s raining; I’ll drop you off at the
cinema.
• requests
Will you help me move these exhibits
• refusals to the main hall, please?
• won’t can be used with I won’t be answering any more of your
offers/formal invitations in order questions!
to be more polite
Won’t you join us for dinner this
evening?
would • polite requests Would you come into my office,
please?
• past habits
I grew up in Essex, but we would
• the past form of will visit London every weekend.
• to emphasise that an action is I believed all the students would
uncertain pass the exam.
Do you really think Alice would
hurt her sister?
shall • suggestions, offers Shall we meet at the entrance to the
(with I and we) carnival?
• in rules, contracts, formal Both parties shall adhere to the terms
English and conditions of this agreement.
should / • advice, suggestions If you really want to explore Rome,
ought to you ought to stay for at least a week.
• obligations
He should apologise to your mother
• expected outcomes immediately.
• used with if, in case, for fear The coach ought to be arriving any
that to imply that an action is minute now.
less likely
We’ll leave the key under the doormat
• in that clauses after adjectives in case you should arrive home when
to express the importance of an
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action we’re asleep.
• in that clauses after adjectives, I’m anxious that you should
to describe a personal reaction to understand what really happened.
a known fact
It’s not surprising that they should
offer him the job; he’s got so much
experience.
How strange that she should
ignore you.
must • obligations All employees must come to work
smartly dressed.
• logical assumptions, deductions
You haven’t eaten anything. You must
• recommendations, strong be starving!
advice
You must get your car serviced!
mustn’t • prohibition You mustn’t bring food or drink into
the art gallery.
needn’t • lack of necessity The tickets have been delivered, so
you needn’t stop off at the theatre to
collect them.
ALERT!
How could sb do sth ...?
We use this structure to say that we think somebody’s behaviour is inappropriate,
very surprising or wrong.
How could you tease that little girl?
How could Mark eat insects? That’s just disgusting!
couldn’t be + comparative
We use this structure to emphasise the extreme nature of something.
John couldn’t be more different to his brother.
You’re getting married! I couldn’t be happier!
may / might as well
We use this phrase to make a suggestion when there is nothing more interesting,
useful or better to do.
It doesn’t look like anyone’s going to turn up; we may as well go home.
There’s nothing on TV tonight; we might as well watch a DVD.
How should ...? / Why should ...?
We can use should in questions to indicate annoyance.
‘What time will Dan turn up?’ ‘How should I know? He never tells me anything!’
‘Miriam’s had an argument with Sophie!’ ‘Why should I care? I don’t like either of
them.’
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SEMI-MODALS: semi-modal verb + bare infinitive
There are a number of semi-modals. Unlike modal verbs, they can be used in a variety of
tenses as well as in a gerund or an infinitive form providing the meaning allows it.
USE EXAMPLE
(not) be able to • ability Were you able to contact Mr. Hennessey
last night?
I’m not able to draw very well.
Sue isn’t going to be able to help you.
Dylan should be able to come with us on
Saturday.
I like being able to see my friends as
often as I want.
Thomas hopes to be able to travel on the
same flight as us.
have to • necessity, I had to return the book to the library.
obligation
All guests have to check out by eleven
o’clock in the morning.
The art gallery is closed. We’ll have to
visit another time.
A move to France will mean having to
learn French.
Gillian was disappointed to have to
leave so early.
not have to • lack of obligation You don’t have to drive me to the theatre
tonight; Susie is picking me up.
Stan didn’t have to travel on business.
Andrea won’t have to pay full price
because she’s a student.
Hazel enjoys not having to get up early
at the weekend.
(not) need to • necessity Your cough is getting worse; you need to
see a doctor.
I didn’t need to buy a train ticket
because I already had one.
Will you need to find a new job when you
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move house?
Alan might need to ask permission to
photograph exhibits.
She answered all the questions
despite not needing to do so.
(not) be supposed • obligation (similar I’m supposed to join my boss and his
to to should) wife for dinner tonight.
You aren’t supposed to be in here. Please
leave.
Jenny and I were supposed to catch the
• to express six o’clock train, but we got to the
contrast between station just as it was leaving!
what was expected
and what actually You weren’t supposed to open your
happened present before your birthday!
(not) dare (to) • to express We don’t dare (to) use our phones at
courage or lack of school.
it (usually used in
negative They kept running and didn’t dare (to)
sentences) look back.
dare to • to challenge sb I dare you to knock on the door and run
away!
ALERT!
There is a difference between mustn’t and don’t have to. We use mustn’t to say
that something is prohibited or forbidden. We use don’t have to to say that
something is optional; it is our choice whether we do it or not.
Compare:
You mustn’t take photographs in this part of the museum. It’s not allowed.
You don’t have to take photographs with your mobile phone; you can borrow
my camera.
We also use dare in these set phrases:
Don’t you dare tell our parents!
How dare you accuse me of lying!
I dare say Henry will forgive you eventually.
MODALS PERFECT: modal verb + have + past participle
USE EXAMPLE
must have • certainty about a past Judging by these old photos,
action or state (affirmative Alexandria must have been a beautiful
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statements) • logical city in the past.
assumption
Paul isn’t here yet. He must have
missed the bus!
can’t have / • certainty about a past Virginia can’t have told everyone your
couldn’t action or state (negative secret. She’s not that kind of person.
have statements)
Matthew couldn’t have forgotten your
• to express surprise or birthday!
disbelief
The weather last weekend couldn’t have
been better!
could have / • possibility in the past The location of the legendary city of
may have / Atlantis may have been near Cadiz,
might have Spain.
Driving home so late was very
irresponsible. You could have fallen
asleep at the wheel.
Dean might have told me, but I can’t
• uncertainty about past remember.
action
Don’t be angry. Lia may have
broken the cup by accident.
could have / • to express annoyance He could have rung to say he’d be late.
might have about the failure to do You might have warned me Josh would
something be at the dance.
could have • actions that were possible It was a fine evening, so we could have
in the past, but didn’t walked to the theatre. (but we didn’t)
happen
should • criticism You should have told me that you’re
have / ought allergic to shell fish.
to have
You ought not to have spoken to him
like that.
needn’t have • to express the idea that You needn’t have gone shopping. I had
something was already bought everything we need
unnecessary, but it was earlier today!
done regardless
will have • certainty Mary left early this morning, so she will
have arrived in Paris by now. In a couple
• to look back on a past of hours, we’ll have finished the
action from a point in the museum tour.
future
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would have • assumptions about the A tall blonde lady? That would have
past been Jessie’s mum.
• actions that were A bank loan would have enabled the
possible, but didn’t take Murrays to send their son to college.
place
ALERT!
I might have known (that) + pronoun/noun + would + bare infinitive
We use this structure to show that we are not surprised by an action.
I might have known (that) Cassie would forget to bring any money with her!
needn’t / shouldn’t have + past participle
We can use this structure to thank someone politely for doing something.
What a beautiful bracelet! You really needn’t have gone to so much trouble.
You shouldn’t have sent me flowers, but thank you; they are beautiful!
There is a difference between didn’t need to and needn’t have. We use didn’t
need to to say that something was unnecessary. We do not know if the action was
done or not. We use needn’t have to say something was unnecessary even though
it was done.
Compare:
There was plenty of food left over from the party, so I didn’t need to cook
anything. We made do with what we had.
There was plenty of food left over, so I didn’t need to cook anything. I made a
vegetarian lasagna, though, because it’s Lucy’s favourite.
There was plenty of food left over, so I needn’t have cooked anything. I wish mum
had told me earlier!
PART II: PRACTICE
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