Chapter 1: Computer System Overview

Class XI — Computer Science with Python

1.1 Introduction
A computer system works through the combination of hardware and software:
• Hardware — physical, electronic components of a computer, e.g. keyboard, CPU, monitor, printer.
• Software — recorded instructions/programs that govern the working of a computer. A program is a set of instructions
to carry out a specific task or achieve a work goal.

1.2 Computer Components & Basic Organization

A computer system comprises five basic components:
• Input Unit — takes input for the computer; formed by the input devices attached to it.
• Output Unit — produces information as output; formed by the output devices attached to it.
• CPU (Central Processing Unit) — processes data & instructions. Has two parts: ALU and Control Unit.
• Primary Memory — internal, volatile memory where data/instructions are stored during processing.
• Secondary Storage Unit — external devices that provide permanent memory.
The components make up the physical structure of a computer; the logical structure — how components connect and affect
each other's functioning — is called Computer Organisation.
Computers follow the IPO principle: Input → Process → Output. Basic organization: CPU (ALU, Registers, Control Unit)
and Memory are connected to each other and to the Input, Output and Storage units via the BUS.

1.2.2 Input Unit

Formed by input devices; converts input into computer-understandable (binary) form.
All inputs consist of data (on which the action is performed) and instruction (the action to be taken).
• Keyboard — typewriter-like device; Braille keyboards available for visually challenged users.
• Mouse — pointing device (roller or laser) that controls the on-screen pointer.
• Microphone (Mic) — converts sound into digital audio; needs a sound card to work.
• Others: MICR, OMR, OCR, joystick, scanner, etc.

1.2.3 Output Unit

Converts the binary output from the CPU into human-readable form (characters, graphics, or audio-visual).
• Monitors — display made up of thousands of tiny coloured dots called pixels; Braille monitors also available.
• Printers — inkjet, laserjet, dot matrix; modern 3D printers can print/create 3D models.
• Speakers — receive sound as electric current from the sound card and convert it to audible sound.

1.2.4 The CPU (Central Processing Unit)

The main control & processing unit — called the "brain" of the computer. It guides, directs, controls and governs a
computer's performance. Sub-components:
• (i) Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) — performs the four arithmetic operations (+, −, ×, ÷) and logical operations (<, >, =,
≤, ≥, ≠). A logical operation's result is TRUE or FALSE — this gives the computer decision-making capability.
• (ii) Control Unit (CU) — controls & guides the flow and manipulation of data and information; sends control signals to
ALU and memory. Key job: program execution — fetching, decoding and executing instructions one after another.
Also controls data flow between input devices, memory, and output devices.
• (iii) Registers — small, high-speed data-holding units inside the CPU; temporarily hold data, a memory address, or an
instruction during processing.
Note: Data entered through an input device is temporarily stored in RAM.
1.2.5 The Memory (Main / Primary Memory)
The internal workspace of the computer where data and instructions are held during processing. Each memory location has a
unique memory address; memory is cleared once its task is complete.
Bit = elementary unit of memory. 8 bits = 1 Byte (smallest unit that can represent a data item or character). A group of 4 bits
is called a nibble. Every higher memory unit = 2^10 of the next lower unit.

Table 1.1 — Units of Computer Memory Measurement

Unit Short Name Full Name
1 Bit Bit Binary Digit
8 Bits 1 Byte Byte
2^10 (1024 Bytes) 1 KB Kilo Byte
2^10 (1024 KB) 1 MB Mega Byte
2^10 (1024 MB) 1 GB Giga Byte
2^10 (1024 GB) 1 TB Tera Byte
2^10 (1024 TB) 1 PB Peta Byte
2^10 (1024 PB) 1 EB Exa Byte
2^10 (1024 EB) 1 ZB Zetta Byte
2^10 (1024 ZB) 1 YB Yotta Byte

Since primary memory (RAM) is temporary/volatile, secondary memory is needed to store data permanently. Secondary
storage devices are also called storage devices.

1.2.5A Parts of Main Memory

• Dynamic RAM (DRAM) — made of transistors & capacitors; access time ~20–70 nanoseconds; used in the primary
storage of most computers.
• Static RAM (SRAM) — made of flip-flops; faster access time (~10 ns); used in specialized applications (e.g. cache).
RAM (Random Access Memory) — memory cells can be accessed randomly, each access taking equal time. Main
drawback: volatile — contents are erased when power is switched off.
ROM (Read Only Memory) — performs read operation only; cannot be written to after manufacture; non-volatile (contents
persist without power); slower than RAM. Types of ROM:
• PROM (Programmable ROM / OTP) — user-programmable once, using a special ROM burner.
• EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM) — can be erased (e.g. via UV radiation, up to 20 minutes) and
reprogrammed.
• EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM) — erased electrically, faster than EPROM; selective bytes can
be erased.
• Flash EEPROM — like EEPROM but very fast (erases entire contents in under a second); erases fully, not selectively.
• Mask ROM — contents programmed by the IC manufacturer; not user-programmable.

1.2.6 Cache Memory

Pronounced "cash" — a special high-speed storage mechanism; may be a reserved section of main memory, an independent
high-speed device, or built onto the CPU chip. The CPU checks cache first before accessing main memory, which speeds up
processing.
A cache hit = when required data is found in cache. Cache effectiveness is judged by its hit rate (typically ~95%).

1.2.7 The Storage Unit (Secondary Storage)

Since primary memory has limited, non-permanent capacity, secondary storage devices store large amounts of data
permanently.
Common Secondary Storage Devices
Device Type Approx. Capacity
Hard Disk Magnetic media GB to TB (rotating platters
coated with magnetic
material)
CD (Compact Disk) Optical media Up to 700 MB
DVD (Super Density disk) Optical media Up to 17 GB (~15x a CD)
Blu-ray Disc (BD) Optical media (blue-violet laser, Up to 128 GB
405nm)
Flash Memory (Pen drive/SSD) Solid state — no moving parts 256 MB to 128 GB+

• Hard Disks — store data on one or more spinning, magnetically coated circular platters; capacity in GB to TB.
• Compact Disks (CDs) — optical media, relatively cheap, up to 700 MB.
• DVDs (Super Density disk) — optical; ~15x the capacity and ~20x the transfer speed of a CD-ROM; up to 17 GB or 4
hours of video per side.
• Flash Memory — solid-state, ultra-portable, no moving parts, no lasers; data is retained even when powered off; 256
MB up to 128 GB+.
• Blu-ray Disc (BD) — same physical size as DVD/CD but uses a blue-violet laser (405 nm, shorter wavelength than a
red laser's 650 nm) allowing tighter data packing; up to 128 GB.

1.2.8 The System Bus

An electronic pathway of connecting cables that links the major components of a computer system; carries data and
instructions between components.
• Data Bus — carries data.
• Control Bus — carries control instructions.
• Address Bus — carries memory addresses.
• I/O Bus — a separate bus connecting Input, Output and other external devices to the system.

1.3 Mobile System Organization

Modern mobile devices are tiny computers with less computing power than PCs, but handle diverse tasks: calls (radio
signals), camera, touch-sensitive display, audio/video/graphics, all on limited battery power. These days major components
are integrated on a single chip called a System on a Chip (SoC), which consumes less power than other alternatives.

Key subsystems (Fig. 1.4)

• 1. Mobile Processor (CPU) — the "brain" of the smartphone; receives commands, does calculations, plays audio/video,
stores information, sends signals throughout the device. Has two sub-processor types:
◦ Communications Processing Unit — (Mobile System I/O Unit) handles making/receiving calls; has a digital
signal processor working with the RF Transceiver and Audio subsystem. Its Radio Signal Management Unit
connects the SIM (a type of modem) to base stations via radio signals (3G/LTE/4G).
◦ Applications Processing Unit (APU) — governs, controls and runs all mobile applications (apps) and
operations on the device.
• 2. Display Subsystem — provides display facilities, touch-sensitive interface, and touch-sensitive keyboards.
• 3. Camera Subsystem — has an integrated Image Signal Processor for instant image capture, high-resolution support,
image stabilization and enhancements.
• 4. Mobile System Memory — two types:
◦ RAM — work memory; installed apps are loaded here to run; the more RAM, the better the performance; does
not retain data once powered off.
◦ ROM — part of internal storage, not user-writable; basically Flash memory or, technically, EEPROM.
• 5. Storage — external/expandable storage (SD cards, micro SD cards); cloud storage can also be considered external
storage.
 • 6. Power Management Subsystem (Battery) — provides power via a battery unit, battery charger, and battery
management system.

1.4 Types of Software

A computer system needs both hardware (physical, tangible components — input/output devices, CPU, hard disk, printer,
etc.) and software (the set of programs that govern its operation and make the hardware run) to function.
Software is broadly classified into two categories:
• 1. System Software
• 2. Application Software

1.4.1 System Software

Software that controls internal computer operations — reading data from input devices, checking system components,
converting data/instructions to computer-understandable form, and transmitting processed information to output devices.
Further classified into two categories:

1.4.1A Operating System (OS)

Primary goal: make the computer system convenient to use. Secondary goal: use hardware efficiently. An OS is an important
component that controls all other components of the computer system, acting as an interface between the user and the
hardware (i.e., all computer resources).
Major components of a computer system: (1) Hardware (2) Operating System (3) Application program routines —
compilers, linkers, DBMS, utility programs (4) Humanware (users).
An OS's major role is to execute programs and manage computer resources. Types: Single user OS, Multiuser OS, Time
sharing OS, Real time OS, Multiprocessing OS, Distributed OS, etc.

1.4.1B Language Processors / Language Translators

Special software that translates source code (program code written by a programmer in a high-level language like C, Java,
C++) into object code / machine code (binary code the computer/hardware can run).
• Assembler — converts a program written in assembly language into machine language.
• Interpreter — translates and executes instructions line-by-line / unit by unit.
• Compiler — translates and executes an entire program's instructions in one go; the translated machine code then runs
with faster execution time since no further conversion is needed (unlike source code, which needs conversion each
time).

1.4.2 Application Software

Pertains to one specific application/task (e.g. a railway reservation system cannot prepare a school's results). Programs
written to let the computer perform a specific task — word processing, inventory control, calculations, medical/financial
accounting, result preparation, railway reservation, billing, etc.
Subdivided into four categories: (1) Packages (2) Utilities (3) Customised (Business) Software (4) Developer Tools.

1.4.2A Packages
General-purpose application software usable by individual users to suit their own needs, rather than software built for each
specific application. Major categories:
• Word Processing Software
• Spreadsheets
• Database Management Systems
• Desktop Publishing Software
• Graphics, multimedia and presentation applications
1.4.2B Utilities
Helpful application programs that ensure smooth functioning of the computer by performing housekeeping functions —
backing up disks, scanning/cleaning viruses, arranging information, etc.
• Text Editor — for creating/editing text files.
• Backup Utility — duplicates disk information so backed-up data can be used after damage/data-loss.
• Compression Utility — compresses large files to take up less storage space.
• Disk Defragmentor — speeds up disk access by rearranging files/free space into contiguous units (fragmented files,
stored across scattered locations, slow a computer down).
• Antivirus Software — scans for and removes viruses (malicious programs that disrupt normal computer functioning);
may run continuously in memory to detect and counter viruses as they occur.

1.4.2C Business (Customised) Software

Software created specifically for a business's requirements, e.g. Inventory Management System, Payroll System, Financial
Accounting. Companies may use standard readymade business software, or get customised (tailor-made) software — which
generally cannot be directly reused at a different workplace since requirements differ.

1.4.3 Software Libraries

A software library is a predefined, ready-to-use suite of data and programming code — prewritten
code/functions/scripts/classes — that can be used in developing new software/applications, without having to rewrite that
functionality. To use one, a programmer imports/includes the library into their code.
• NumPy (Numerical Python) — functions/features for operations on numeric arrays and matrices.
• SciPy (Scientific Python) — modules for linear algebra, optimization, integration and statistics.
• Pandas — package for working with "labeled"/"relational" data; designed for quick, easy data manipulation,
aggregation and visualization.

Quick Recap
• Computer takes Input → Process → Output (IPO principle).
• RAM = Random Access Memory (volatile, work memory); ROM = Read Only Memory (non-volatile).
• ALU performs all arithmetic operations; results are stored/returned via memory.
• CPU = "brain" of the computer; also brain of a smartphone (Mobile CPU).
• Cache memory = high-speed memory inside CPU to speed up access to RAM data.
• Data entered via an input device is temporarily stored in RAM.
• SSD = Solid State Disk.