WJEC GCSE Chemistry Your notes

2.3 Metals & Their Extraction

Contents
Metal Ores
Native Metals
Metal Reactivity
Metal Displacement Reactions
Oxidation & Reduction
Extraction of Iron
Electrolysis of Molten Ionic Compounds
Oxidation & Reduction Using Electrons
Extraction of Aluminium
Properties of Metals
Transition Metals
Identifying Metal Ions
Alloys
Electrolysis of Water
Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions
Investigating Electrolysis
Electroplating
Electrolysis of Brine
Factors Affecting Extraction Processes

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 Metal Ores
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Metal Ores
The Earth’s crust contains metals and metal compounds such as gold, copper, iron oxide
and aluminium oxide

Pie chart to show the abundance of different elements in the

Earth's crust

Aluminium is the most abundant metal in the Earth's crust. It is a reactive metal so will form
compounds with other elements
Useful metals are often chemically combined with other substances forming ores
A metal ore is a rock that contains enough of the metal to make it worthwhile
extracting
They have to be extracted from their ores through processes such as electrolysis, using
a blast furnace or by reacting with a more reactive material
In many cases, the ore is an oxide of the metal, therefore the extraction of these metals
is a reduction process since oxygen is being removed

Table of Common Metal Ores

Name of Ore Metal Compound Formula of metal compound in ore

Haematite Iron oxide Fe2O3

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Bauxite Aluminium oxide Al2O3
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Rock salt Sodium chloride NaCl

Rutile Titanium dioxide TiO2

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 Native Metals
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Native Metals
What are native metals?
Unreactive metals do not have to be extracted chemically as they are often found as
the uncombined element
This occurs as they do not easily react with other substances due to
their chemical stability
They are known as native metals and examples include gold and silver which can both
be mined directly from the Earth’s crust
The position of the metal on the reactivity series influences the method of extraction
Those metals placed higher up on the series (above carbon) have to be extracted using
electrolysis
Metals lower down on the series can be extracted by heating with carbon in a reduction
reaction

The Extraction Method Depends on the Position of a Metal in

the Reactivity Series
Metal Method of Extraction

Most reactive

Potassium Extracted by electrolysis of molten chloride or molten oxide

Large amount of electricity required so expensive process
Sodium

Lithium

Calcium

Magnesium

Aluminium

Carbon

Zinc Extracted by heating with reducing agent such as carbon or carbon

monoxide

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 Iron
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Hydrogen

Copper Found as pure elements (copper may have to be extracted from it's ore by
heating with carbon or hydrogen)
Silver

Gold

Least reactive

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 Metal Reactivity
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Metal Reactivity
The Reactivity Series
Based on how they react with other substances, a reactivity series can be produced in
which the metals are placed in order of their reactivity
Metal atoms form positive ions by loss of electrons when they react with other
substances
The tendency of a metal to lose electrons is a measure of how reactive the metal is
A metal that is high up on the series loses electrons easily and is thus more reactive than
one which is lower down on the series
Note that although carbon and hydrogen are non-metals, they are included in the series
as they are useful in extracting metals from their oxides by reduction processes

The Reactivity Series

The reactivity of metals decreases going down the reactivity series

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 A displacement reaction occurs when a more reactive metal will displace a less reactive
metal from its compounds
Your notes
This can occur by:
Reacting a metal with a metal oxide (by heating)
Reacting a metal with an aqueous solution of a metal compound
It is possible to reduce copper(II) oxide by heating it with zinc
The reducing agent in the reaction is zinc
Zn + CuO → ZnO + Cu
zinc + copper oxide → zinc oxide + copper

Metal Oxide Displacement Table

Mixture Products Equation for
Reaction

Iron(III) oxide and aluminium - Iron and aluminium oxide Fe2O3 + 2Al → 2Fe
thermite reaction + Al2O3

Sodium oxide and magnesium No reaction as sodium is above -----

magnesium

Silver oxide and copper Silver and copper(II) oxide Ag2O + Cu → 2Ag +
CuO

Zinc oxide and calcium Zinc and calcium oxide ZnO + Ca → Zn +

CaO

Lead(II) oxide and silver No reaction as lead is more ------

reactive than silver

Iron nail and copper(II) chloride Copper and iron(II) chloride Fe + CuCl2 → FeCl2
+ Cu

Thermite
The thermite reaction is a highly exothermic reaction that occurs when iron(III) oxide is
reacted with aluminium metal
As aluminium is more reactive than iron, the iron in iron(III) oxide is displaced
iron(III) oxide + aluminium → iron + aluminium oxide
Fe2O3 + 2Al → 2Fe + Al2O3

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 The reaction releases so much heat that the iron formed is molten so this process is used
in welding and incendiary devices
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Displacement reactions between metals & aqueous solutions
of metal salts
The reactivity between two metals can be compared using displacement reactions in
salt solutions of one of the metals
This is easily seen as the more reactive metal slowly disappears from the
solution, displacing the less reactive metal
For example, magnesium is a reactive metal and can displace copper from a copper
sulfate solution:
Mg + CuSO4 → MgSO4 + Cu
The blue colour of the CuSO4 solution fades as colourless magnesium sulfate solution is
formed.
Copper coats the surface of the magnesium and also forms solid metal which falls to the
bottom of the beaker

Diagram showing a displacement reaction

The colour of the solution changes when magnesium displaces copper from copper
sulfate

Other displacement reactions

Metal Solutions Displacement Table
Mixture Products Equation for Reaction

Magnesium and iron(II) Magnesium sulfate and iron Mg + FeSO4 → MgSO4 +

sulfate Fe

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Zinc and sodium chloride No reaction as sodium is above ------
zinc
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Lead and silver nitrate Lead(II) nitrate and silver Pb + AgNO3 → Pb(NO3)2
+ Ag

Copper and calcium No reaction as calcium is above -------

chloride copper

Iron and copper(II) sulfate Iron(II) sulfate and copper Fe + CuSO4 → FeSO4 +
Cu

Examiner Tips and Tricks

You should have an awareness of the approximate position of common metals (and
carbon and hydrogen) in the reactivity series but you do not need to be able to recall
the reactivity series

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 Metal Displacement Reactions
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Specified Practical: Metal Displacement

Reactions
Introduction
The reactivity of metals decreases going down the reactivity series.
This means that a more reactive metal will displace a less reactive metal from its
compounds
Two examples are:
Reacting a metal with a metal oxide (by heating)
Reacting a metal with an aqueous solution of a metal compound
The order of reactivity can be determined using displacement reactions

Apparatus
1 cm strips of zinc, magnesium, copper and iron metal
5 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm–1 zinc sulfate, magnesium sulfate, copper(II) sulfate and iron(II)
sulfate
4 dropping pipettes
Dimple tile

Diagram
Diagram to show the set up for the metal displacement
reactions

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 Your notes

Set up the dimple tray as shown to investigate the reactivity of zinc, magnesium, copper
and iron

Method
1. Use the dropping pipette to add one to two drops of zinc sulfate to the first row of
dimples
2. Add one piece of each of the four metals to different dimples (as shown in the diagram)
3. Record any changes in the table
4. Note there will be no change for dimples that involve the metal and compound that are
contain the same metal (e.g. zinc and zinc sulfate)
5. Use a different dropping pipette for each solution to avoid contamination
6. If a reaction occurs, add a tick in the correct box, if a reaction does not occur add in a x

Zinc Magnesium Copper Iron

Zinc sulfate

Magnesium sulfate

Copper(II) sulfate

Iron(II) sulfate

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Practical tip
Careful not to overfill the dimples with solution as these will overflow and contaminate Your notes
the other reactions

Analysis of Results
Results
Results table
Zinc Magnesium Copper Iron

Zinc sulfate - ✓ x x

Magnesium sulfate x - x x

Copper(II) sulfate ✓ ✓ - ✓

Iron(II) sulfate ✓ ✓ x -

Conclusion
Magnesium displaces the other metals out of solution
Zinc displaces iron and copper out of solution, iron will only displace copper out of
solution
Copper does not displace any metal out of solution
The equations for the reactions that occur are
Mg + ZnSO4 → Zn + MgSO4
Mg + CuSO4 → Cu + MgSO4
Mg + FeSO4 → Cu + FeSO4

Evaluation
The metal that shows the most reactions will be the most reactive metal
This is because it has displaced the other metals out of the sulfate solution
Therefore we can deduce that the order of reactivity is
Magnesium (most reactive)
Zinc
Iron
Copper (least reactive)

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 Your notes
Worked Example
A student set up a series of displacement reactions involving copper, magnesium,
iron, and zinc along with their sulfate solutions.
i) Name the products formed between iron and copper sulfate
ii) State the formula of copper sulfate
Answer
i) The products are iron sulfate and copper
ii) The formula for copper sulfate is CuSO4

Examiner Tips and Tricks

There will be no change for dimples that involve the metal and compound that are
contain the same metal (e.g. zinc and zinc sulfate).

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 Oxidation & Reduction
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Oxidation & Reduction

Redox reactions in terms of oxygen
Oxidation and reduction take place together at the same time in the same reaction
These are called redox reactions
Oxidation is a reaction in which oxygen is added to an element or a compound
Reduction is a reaction in which oxygen is removed from an element or compound
The following reaction between zinc oxide and carbon is an example of redox reaction:

The reaction between zinc oxide and carbon

Both reduction and oxidation has occurred in this reaction so it is classed as a redox
reaction
In this reaction, the zinc oxide has been reduced since it has lost oxygen
The carbon atom has been oxidised since it has gained oxygen
In the blast furnace a reaction between iron(III) oxide and carbon monoxide takes place
This is also classed as a redox reaction

The reaction between iron(III) and carbon monoxide

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 Your notes

Carbon is above iron in the reactivity series so is able to reduce iron from iron(III) oxide

Examiner Tips and Tricks

You must be precise about your descriptions of oxidation and reduction. In the blast
furnace, it is the iron(III) oxide that is reduced and not iron. Students often get this
wrong so take care to check the equation.

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 Extraction of Iron
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Extraction of Iron from Hematite

Iron is extracted in a large container called a blast furnace from its ore, hematite
Modern blast furnaces produce approximately 10,000 tonnes of iron per day
This is a continuous process with new raw materials added and products removed all the
time due to the time and cost associated with getting the furnace up to temperature

The Blast Furnace

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 There are three main zones in the blast furnace
The raw materials: iron ore (hematite), coke (an impure form of carbon), and limestone Your notes
are added into the top of the blast furnace
Hot air is blown into the bottom

Table of raw materials and their uses

Raw material Formula Use

Iron ore (heamatite) Fe2O3 Source of iron

Coke C To provide carbon

Limestone CaCO3 To neutralise acidic impurities

Zone 1
Coke burns in the hot air forming carbon dioxide
The reaction is exothermic so it gives off heat, heating the furnace
carbon + oxygen → carbon dioxide
C (s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g)

Zone 2
At the high temperatures in the furnace, more coke reacts with carbon dioxide forming
carbon monoxide
Carbon dioxide has been reduced to carbon monoxide
carbon + carbon dioxide → carbon monoxide
CO2 (g) + C (s) → 2CO (g)

Zone 3
Carbon monoxide reduces the iron(III) oxide in the iron ore to form iron
This will melt and collect at the bottom of the furnace, where it is tapped off:
iron(III) oxide + carbon monoxide → iron + carbon dioxide
Fe2O3 (s) + 3CO (g) → 2Fe (I) + 3CO2 (g)

Removal of impurities
Limestone (calcium carbonate) is added to the furnace to remove acidic impurities in the
ore
The calcium carbonate in the limestone thermally decomposes to form calcium
oxide

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 calcium carbonate → calcium oxide + carbon dioxide
CaCO3 (s) → CaO (s) + CO2 (g) Your notes
The calcium oxide formed reacts with the silicon dioxide, which is an impurity in the iron
ore, to form calcium silicate by neutralisation
calcium oxide + silicon dioxide → calcium silicate
CaO (s) + SiO2 (s) → CaSiO3 (l)
This melts and collects as a molten slag floating on top of the molten iron, which is
tapped off separately

Worked Example
a) Balance the symbol equation for the following reaction that occurs in the blast
furnace.
Fe2O3 + ____ CO → ____ Fe + ____ CO2
b) Give the name of the substance that is oxidised in the reaction.
Answer
a) The balanced equation is
Fe2O3 + CO → Fe + CO2
Balance the oxygen atoms
Fe2O3 + 3CO → Fe + 3CO2
The carbon atoms are now also balanced
Balance the iron atoms
Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2
b) The species oxidised is:
Carbon monoxide
This is because the carbon monoxide has gained oxygen to form carbon dioxide

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 Electrolysis of Molten Ionic Compounds
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Electrolysis of Molten Ionic Compounds

What is electrolysis?
When an electric current is passed through a molten ionic compound the
compound decomposes or breaks down
The process also occurs for aqueous solutions of ionic compounds
Liquids and solutions that are able to conduct electricity are called electrolytes
Covalent compounds cannot conduct electricity hence they do not undergo
electrolysis
An electrolytic cell is the name given to the set-up used in electrolysis and which
consists of the following:
Electrode: a rod of metal or graphite through which an electric current flows into or
out of an electrolyte
Electrolyte: ionic compound in molten or dissolved solution that conducts the
electricity
Anode: the positive electrode of an electrolysis cell
Anion: negatively charged ion which is attracted to the anode
Cathode: the negative electrode of an electrolysis cell
Cation: positively charged ion which is attracted to the cathode

The basic set-up of an electrolysis cell

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 Your notes

The electrolyte must be molten or in solution for a current to flow

Lead(II) bromide is an ionic compound meaning that it is a compound consisting of just
two elements joined together by ionic bonding
When these compounds are heated beyond their melting point, they become molten
and can conduct electricity as their ions can move freely and carry the charge
These compounds undergo electrolysis and always produce their corresponding
element
To predict the products of any binary molten compound first identify the ions present
The positive ion will migrate towards the cathode and the negative ion will migrate
towards the anode
Therefore the cathode product will always be the metal and the product formed at
the anode will always be the non-metal

Diagram showing the electrolysis of lead(II) bromide

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 Your notes

Lead is formed at the cathode and bromine gas is formed at the anode
Method:
Add lead(II) bromide into a crucible and heat so it will turn molten, allowing ions to be free
to move and conduct an electric charge
Add two graphite rods as the electrodes and connect this to a power pack or battery
Turn on the power pack or battery and allow electrolysis to take place
Negative bromide ions move to the positive electrode (anode) and lose two electrons to
form bromine molecules. There is bubbling at the anode as brown bromine gas is given
off
Positive lead ions move to the negative electrode (cathode) and gain electrons to form
grey lead metal which deposits on the bottom of the electrode

Electrode Products:
Anode: Bromide ions lose electrons (are oxidised) to form bromine gas
2Br– → Br2 + 2e–
Cathode: Lead ions gain electrons (are reduced) to form lead metal
Pb2+ + 2e– → Pb

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 Your notes
Examiner Tips and Tricks
Remember electrodes need to be inert such as graphite or platinum so that they don’t
participate in a side reaction with the electrolyte.

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 Oxidation & Reduction Using Electrons
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Oxidation & Reduction Using Electrons

As well as understanding oxidation and reduction in terms of oxygen, you need to
understand these reactions in terms of electrons
When a substance loses electrons it is oxidised
When a substance gains electrons it is reduced
If this occurs in the same reaction, the reaction is a redox reaction
For example, when iron reacts with a compound of copper such as copper sulfate a
displacement reaction occurs
iron + copper sulfate → iron(II) sulfate + copper
Fe + CuSO4 → FeSO4 + Cu
We can write this as an ionic equation
Fe + Cu2+ + SO42– → Fe2+ + SO42– + Cu
We can then remove the spectator ions to see the overall change
Fe + Cu2+→ Fe2+ + Cu
The iron has lost electrons to become a positive ion, so has been oxidised
The positive copper ion has gained electrons to become an atom, so have been
reduced

The redox reaction between Fe and Cu2+

The Fe atom is oxidised (loses electrons) and the Cu2+ ion is reduced (gains electrons)
Electrolysis
Oxidation and reduction take place during the process of electrolysis at the anode
(positive electrode) and the cathode (negative electrode)
Positive ions are attracted towards the cathode
Reduction (gain of electrons) takes place here

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 E.g. Pb2+ + 2e– → Pb
Negative ions are attracted towards the anode
Your notes
Oxidation (loss of electrons) takes place here
E.g. 2Br– → Br2 + 2e–

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Remember: OIL RIG - Oxidation Is Loss, Reduction Is Gain of electrons
You can also remember which electrodes oxidation takes place by remembering: RED
CAT (reduction at the cathode) and AN OX (oxidation at the anode)

Worked Example
Which change in the following equation is oxidation?
V3+ + Fe3+ → V4+ + Fe2+
Answer:
Step 1
Identify the changes for each species
V3+ to V4+
V3+ has lost 1 electron
Fe3+ to Fe2+
Fe3+ has gained 1 electron
Step 2
Identify each change as either oxidation and reduction
V3+ to V4+ is oxidation
Fe3+ to Fe2+ is reduction
Therefore V3+ has been oxidised

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 Extraction of Aluminium
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Extraction of Aluminium
Aluminium is a reactive metal, above carbon in the reactivity series
Its main ore, is bauxite, which contains aluminium oxide
Aluminium is higher in the reactivity series than carbon, so it cannot be extracted by
reduction using carbon
Instead, aluminium is extracted by electrolysis

The electrolytic cell for extraction of aluminium

Diagram showing the extraction of aluminium by electrolysis

Bauxite is first purified to produce aluminium oxide, Al2O3
Aluminium oxide is then dissolved in molten cryolite
This is because aluminium oxide has a melting point of over 2000°C which would
use a lot of energy and be very expensive
The resulting mixture has a lower melting point without interfering with the reaction
The mixture is placed in an electrolysis cell, made from steel, lined with graphite
The graphite lining acts as the negative electrode, with several large graphite blocks as
the positive electrodes
At the cathode (negative electrode):
Aluminium ions gain electrons (reduction)

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 Molten aluminium forms at the bottom of the cell
The molten aluminium is siphoned off from time to time and fresh aluminium oxide is Your notes
added to the cell
Al3+ + 3e– → Al
At the anode (positive electrode):
Oxide ions lose electrons (oxidation)
Oxygen is produced at the anode:
2O2– → O2 + 4e–
The carbon in the graphite anodes reacts with the oxygen produced to produce CO2
C (s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g)
As a result the anode wears away and has to be replaced regularly
A lot of electricity is required for this process of extraction, this is a major expense

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 Properties of Metals
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Properties of Metals
Different metals have different properties and this will influence how they are used
For example, aluminium has a low density, is a good conductor and is strong, so makes it
ideal to be used as overhead power cables

Properties and uses of common metals

Metal Property Use

Steel Hard and strong Buildings, reinforced concrete, cars, tools

Aluminium Strong Aeroplane parts, cans, window frames, foils,

overhead power cables
Low density
Good conductor of heat and
electricity, Resistant to
corrosion

Copper Very good conductor of heat Wiring, pipes, motors

and electricity
Malleable and ductile
Attractive colour and lustre

Titanium Hard and strong Medical industry (surgical instruments, joint

replacements), spacecraft, sports
Low density equipment
Resistant to corrosion
High melting point

Reinforced concrete block with steel rods

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 Your notes

Steel rods are used to reinforce concrete to increase strength in buildings

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Make sure you can explain why a substance is used for a particular use.
For example, copper is used in electrical wiring because it is a good conductor of
electricity.

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 Transition Metals
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Transition Elements
What are the general properties of transition metals?
Transition metals are found in the centre of the Periodic Table
They display typical metallic properties:
They have high melting and boiling points
They are malleable (can be hammered into shape)
They have a high density
They conduct electricity and heat
In addition to these, transition metals have some other properties:
They form coloured compounds
They can form more than one type of ion
E.g. Iron can form Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions
The are useful as catalysts
They speed up the rate of a chemical reaction in industrial processes
Iron is used as a catalyst in the Haber process to manufacture ammonia
Platinum is also used in car exhausts in catalytic converters to reduce the levels
of nitrous oxides and carbon monoxide produced

The transition metals

The transition elements on the Periodic Table are highlighted in blue

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Higher Tier
Transition metals can form more than one ion and their compounds are often coloured Your notes
For example, copper(II) sulfate contains Cu2+ ions, and is a blue compound

Copper(II) sulfate crystals

Photo by Wikimedia commons

Table of ions and their colours

Ion Colour of compounds

Fe2+ Pale green

Fe3+ Brown

Cu2+ Blue

Examiner Tips and Tricks

If you are higher tier, be specific when giving the colours of the compounds and
solutions formed by the ions referenced above.
Stating that Fe2+ ions form 'green solutions' might not get the mark, as the
specification states 'pale green.'

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 Identifying Metal Ions
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Identifying Metal Ions by Precipitation

Higher Tier
Using NaOH solution to identify metal ions
Metal cations in aqueous solution can be identified by the colour of the precipitate they
form on addition of sodium hydroxide solution, NaOH (aq)
A few drops of NaOH is added at first and any colour changes or precipitates formed are
noted

Identification of metal ions by addition of NaOH (aq)

The addition of sodium hydroxide to the metal ions forms precipitates of different colours
A summary of the reactions is shown in the table below

Table showing the colour of the precipitates formed

Metal ion Reaction Colour

Fe2+ Fe2+ (aq) + 2OH– (aq) → Fe(OH)2 (s) Pale green precipitate

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 Fe3+ Fe3+ (aq) + 3OH– (aq) → Fe(OH)3 (s) Orange / brown precipitate
Your notes
Cu2+ Cu2+ (aq) + 2OH– (aq) → Cu(OH)2 (s) Blue precipitate

Examiner Tips and Tricks

You will only have to give state symbols in your answer if specifically asked to.

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 Alloys
Your notes

Properties & Uses of Alloys

What is an alloy?
An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals or metal with a non-metal such as carbon
Steel is made from iron and carbon
Alloys often have properties that can be very different from the metals they contain
They can be stronger and harder
They are resistance to corrosion or extreme temperatures
These enhanced properties can make alloys more useful than pure metals

Structure of an alloy

The regular arrangement of a metal lattice structure is distorted in alloys

Common alloys and their uses

Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc and is much stronger than either metal
It is used in musical instruments, ornaments and door knobs
Different types of steel are made by varying the carbon content and by adding other
metals
For example Stainless steel is a mixture of iron and other elements, for example,
chromium, nickel and carbon

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 It is used in cutlery because of its hardness and resistance to corrosion
Alloys of iron with tungsten are extremely hard and resistant to high temperatures
Your notes
Alloys of iron mixed with chromium or nickel are resistant to corrosion
Aluminium is mixed with copper, manganese and silicon for aircraft body production as
the alloy is stronger but still has a low density
Why are the properties of an alloy different to a pure
metal?
Alloys contain atoms of different sizes, which distorts the normally regular
arrangements of atoms in metals
This makes it more difficult for the layers to slide over each other, so alloys are usually
much harder than the pure metal

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Alloys are mixtures of substances, they are not chemically combined and an alloy is
not a compound.
You are not expected to know the specific types of steel and their names.

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 Electrolysis of Water
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Electrolysis of Water
What is the electrolysis of water?
Electrolysis of water is the process of using electricity to split water into hydrogen and
oxygen
2H2O (l) → 2H2 (g) + O2 (g)
This process can be done using a Hoffman voltameter
When the current flows:
Hydrogen ions, H+, in the water are attracted to the cathode
They gain electrons (reduced) and hydrogen gas is formed
2H+ (aq) + 2e– (aq) → H2 (g)
Hydroxide ions, OH–, in the water are attracted to the anode
They lose electrons (oxidised) and oxygen gas is formed
2OH– (aq) → O2 (g) + 2H+ (aq) + 4e–

The Hoffman voltameter

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 Your notes

The Hoffman voltameter is used to split water into two gases, hydrogen and oxygen
In the overall equation you will notice that there are 2 moles of hydrogen gas produced
compared to 1 mole of oxygen
This is shown in the experiment as the volume of hydrogen gas formed is double the
volume of oxygen gas
The gases formed at each electrode can be tested for
Test for hydrogen
Test for oxygen

Examiner Tips and Tricks

You should be able to write the a balanced equation to show the reaction taking place
at the cathode, but you are not expected to recall the equation taking place at the
anode.
Cathode:

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2H+ (aq) + 2e– (aq) → H2 (g)
Anode: Your notes
2OH– (aq) → O2 (g) + 2H+ (aq) + 4e–
Higher tier candidates should be able to balance the equation for the reaction at the
anode.

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 Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions
Your notes

Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions

What is formed at the anode and cathode
Aqueous solutions will always have water present
Some water molecules split up into hydrogen and hydroxide ions, H+ and OH–, which
participate in the electrolysis reactions

H2O (l) ⇌ H+ (aq) + OH– (aq)

Products at the anode

Negatively charged ions are attracted to the positive electrode, the anode
When the aqueous electrolyte undergoes electrolysis, the OH– and any other negative
ions (e.g. Cl–, Br–) in solution are attracted to the anode and they will lose electrons (be
oxidised)
E.g. 2Cl– → Cl2 + 2e–

Products at the cathode

Positively charged ions are attracted to the negative electrode, the cathode
When the aqueous electrolyte undergoes electrolysis, the H+ and any other positive ions
(e.g. Cu2+, Ag+) in solution are attracted to the anode and they will gain electrons (be
reduced)
Only metals that are below hydrogen in the reactivity series will form at the cathode
Cu2+ + 2e– → Cu

Table of products when solutions undergo electrolysis

Solution Product at anode Product at cathode

copper(II) chloride chlorine gas copper

sodium bromide bromine gas hydrogen gas

Gases formed at the anode and cathode are collected using inverted test tubes

Collecting gases formed in electrolysis

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 Your notes

The gases are collected using the inverted test tubes are filled with water. The gases will
displace the water

Competing Ions
Higher Tier
Rules for identifying products formed at electrodes
Positive Electrode - Anode
Negatively charged OH– ions and non-metal ions are attracted to the positive electrode
If halide ions (Cl-, Br-, I-) and OH- are present then the halide ion is discharged at the
anode, loses electrons and forms a halogen (chlorine, bromine or iodine)
If no halide ions are present, then OH- is discharged at the anode, loses electrons and
forms oxygen gas
In both cases, the other negative ion remains in solution

Negative Electrode - Cathode

H+ ions and metal ions are attracted to the negative electrode but only one will gain
electrons

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 Either hydrogen or a metal will be produced
If the metal is above hydrogen in reactivity series, hydrogen will be produced – bubbling Your notes
will be seen at the cathode
The reactivity series

The reactivity series of metals enables chemists to predict the products at the cathode in
the electrolysis of aqueous solutions

Using Named Electrolytes

The products at the electrodes from solutions of copper chloride and sodium chloride

The Products of Electrolysing Aqueous Solutions

Aqueous solution Ions present Equation at anode Equation at cathode

Sodium chloride, NaCl H+, OH– , Na+, 2Cl– (aq) → Cl2 (g) + 2H+ + 2e– → H2 (g)
Cl– 2e–

Copper(II) chloride, H+, OH– , Cu2+, 2Cl– (aq) → Cl2 (g) + Cu2+ (aq) + 2e– → Cu
CuCl2 Cl– 2e– (s)

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Explaining the products:
Copper chloride: Your notes
Copper is below hydrogen so copper(II) ions are preferentially discharged at the
cathode; chlorine is a halogen, so is preferentially discharged at the anode
Sodium chloride:
Sodium is above hydrogen so hydrogen ions are preferentially discharged at the
cathode; chlorine is a halogen, so is preferentially discharged at the anode

Examiner Tips and Tricks

You are not expected to know the products at the anode if nitrate or sulfate solutions
are used as the electrolyte.

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 Investigating Electrolysis
Your notes

Core Practical: Electrolysis of

Copper(II)Sulfate
Introduction
To electrolyse copper(II) sulfate solution using inert(graphite) electrodes followed by the
use of copper electrodes

Apparatus
250 cm3 beaker
2 graphite electrodes
Beaker suitable for electrolysis
12 V DC. power supply
Leads and crocodile clips
400 cm3 copper(II) sulfate, about 0.5 mol dm–3

Diagram
Electrolysis of copper(II) sulfate using graphite electrodes

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 Your notes

There are different observations for each electrode

Method
Graphite electrodes
1. Pour copper(II) sulfate solution into a beaker
2. Place two graphite rods into the copper sulfate solution
3. Attach one electrode to the negative terminal of a DC supply, and the other electrode to
the positive terminal
4. Completely fill two small test tubes with copper(II) sulfate solution and position a test
tube over each electrode as shown in the diagram
5. Turn on the power supply and observe what happens at each electrode
6. Test any gas produced with a glowing splint and a burning splint
7. Record observations of what happens at each electrode, including the results of the gas
tests

Observations at anode Observations at cathode

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 Your notes
Practical tip
The anode will always be the one where gas is produced, which means that you will see
bubbles

Analysis of Results
Results table
Observations at anode Observations at cathode

Bubbling seen and gas formed relights a glowing Orange / brown solid forming on
splint electrode

Evaluation
Copper metal is formed at the negative electrode and oxygen gas is formed at the
positive electrode

Conclusion
Copper ions are attracted to the negative electrode and are reduced (gain electrons)
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e– → Cu (s)
At the positive electrode, oxygen gas is formed.
The equation for this reaction is:
2OH– (aq) → O2 (g) + 2H+ (aq) + 4e–

Using copper electrodes

Apparatus
250 cm3 beaker
2 copper electrodes
beaker suitable for electrolysis
12 V DC. power supply
Leads and crocodile clips
400 cm3 copper(II) sulfate, about 0.5 mol dm–3

Diagram
Electrolysis of copper sulfate using graphite electrodes

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 Your notes

Cooper is used for both the anode and cathode

Method
Copper electrodes
1. Pour copper(II) sulfate solution into a beaker
2. Measure and record the mass of a piece of copper foil.
3. Attach it to the negative terminal of a DC supply, and dip the copper foil into the copper
sulfate solution
4. Repeat step 2 and 3 with another piece of copper foil, but this time attach it to the
positive terminal
5. Make sure the electrodes do not touch each other, then turn on the power supply
6. Adjust the power supply to achieve a constant current and leave for 20 minutes
7. Remove one of the electrodes and wash it with distilled water, then dip it into propanone
8. Lift the electrode out and allow all the liquid to evaporate. Do not wipe the electrodes
clean.
9. Measure and record the mass of the electrode
10. Repeat with the other electrode making sure you can identify which electrode is which
11. Repeat the experiment with fresh electrodes and different currents

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 Anode Cathode
Your notes
Mass before (g)

Mass after (g)

Practical Tip
If you measure an electrode to see how much copper has been produced (or has been
lost), ensure it is dry so you don't get a false reading

Analysis of results
Results
Results table
Anode Cathode

Mass before (g) 18.0 18.0

Mass after (g) 18.4 17.6

Evaluation
Identify whether the mass of the electrodes has changed and by how much
The anode has increased in mass by 0.4 g
The cathode has decreased in mass by 0.4 g

Conclusion
The cathode increases in mass while the anode decreases
This occurs as copper atoms are oxidised at the anode and form ions while copper ions
are reduced at the cathode, forming copper atoms
The gain in mass by the negative electrode is the same as the loss in mass by the positive
electrode
Therefore the copper deposited on the negative electrode must be the same copper
ions that are lost from the positive electrode
That implies that the concentration of the Cu2+ ions in the solution remains constant

Worked Example

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The electrolysis of copper sulfate using graphite electrodes forms copper at the
cathode.
Your notes
i) State the observation at the anode
ii) Write the equation for the formation of copper at the cathode.
Answer
i) The observation at the anode is bubbling
ii) The equation for the formation of copper at the cathode is
Cu2+ + 2e– → Cu

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 Electroplating
Your notes

Electroplating
What is electroplating?
Electroplating is a process where the surface of one metal is coated with a layer of a
different metal
The anode is made from the pure metal you want to coat your object with
The cathode is the object to be electroplated
The electrolyte is an aqueous solution of a soluble salt of the pure metal at the anode

Electroplating a strip of iron with tin

A piece of iron being electroplated with tin. The electrolyte is tin(II) chloride, a water-
soluble salt of tin
At the anode: Tin atoms lose electrons (is oxidised) to form tin ions in solution
At the cathode: Tin ions gain electrons (is reduced) to form tin atoms which deposit on
the strip of iron metal, coating it with a layer of tin

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What is electroplating used for?
Electroplating is done to make metals more resistant to corrosion or damage Your notes
E.g. chromium and nickel plating
It is also done to improve the appearance of metals,
E.g. coating cutlery and jewellery with silver

Examiner Tips and Tricks

You may be asked to write the half equations for the reaction at each electrode. For
the example above, these would be:
At the anode: Sn (s) → Sn2+ (aq) + 2e-
At the cathode: Sn2+ (aq) + 2e- → Sn (s)

Purification of copper
Higher Tier
How is copper purified?
The electrolysis of aqueous CuSO4 using graphite rods produces oxygen and copper
By changing the electrodes from graphite to pure and impure copper, the products can
be changed at each electrode
Electrolysis can be used to purify metals by separating them from their impurities
In the set-up, the impure metal is always the anode, in this case the impure copper
The cathode is a thin sheet of pure copper
The electrolyte used is an aqueous solution of a soluble salt of the pure metal at the
anode, e.g. CuSO4
Copper atoms at the anode lose electrons and go into solution as ions:
Cu ⟶ Cu2+ + 2e
The anode thus becomes thinner due to loss of atoms and the impurities fall to the
bottom of the cell as sludge
The copper(II) ions are attracted to the cathode where they gain electrons and form now
purified copper atoms
The cathode gradually becomes thicker
Cu2+ + 2e- ⟶ Cu

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 The anode sludge is a highly valuable material and is further refined as it often contains
small quantities of precious metals like silver which are found as impurities in the
unrefined copper Your notes

Purification of copper

The cathode increases in mass and the anode decreases in mass

Worked Example
Explain why the electrolyte maintains the blue colour during the electrolysis of
aqueous copper sulfate using copper electrodes.
Answer
The concentration of Cu2+ stays the same
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e– → Cu (s) occurs at the cathode
Cu (s) → Cu2+ (aq) + 2e– occurs at the anode
Cu2+ ions which give the blue colour leave and enter the solution at the same rate

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 Electrolysis of Brine
Your notes

Manufacture of Sodium Hydroxide

Higher Tier
How is sodium hydroxide produced?
Brine is a concentrated solution of aqueous sodium chloride
When electrolysed, it produces chlorine and hydrogen at the electrodes leaving behind
sodium hydroxide solution

Industrial Uses of the Products

Substance Used to make

chlorine bleach

hydrogen margarine

sodium hydroxide soap and detergents

The electrolyte is concentrated sodium chloride which contains the following ions: Na+,
H+, Cl– and OH–

Reaction at the Negative Electrode:

The H+ ions are discharged at the cathode as they are less reactive than sodium ions
The H+ ions gain electrons to form hydrogen gas
2H+ + 2e– → H2

Reaction at the Positive Electrode:

The Cl– ions are discharged at the anode
They lose electrons and chlorine gas forms
2Cl– → Cl2 + 2e–
The Na+ and OH– ions remain behind and form the NaOH solution

The production of sodium hydroxide

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 Your notes

Diagram showing the products of the electrolysis of brine

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Make sure you can recall the equations that occur at the anode and cathode but you
do not need to know details about membrane cells in this process.

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 Factors Affecting Extraction Processes
Your notes

Factors Affecting Extraction Processes

What factors must be considered when extracting a
metal?
The most important factor to consider is if the metal is economically viable to extract
Extracting the metal should provide more financial gain than expense involved in the
extraction
Costs involved are:
Raw materials
Energy
Labour costs

Site
The site of extraction plant must be in an area with the following factors:
Good transport links e.g. rail links and roads
Close to a populated area to ensure a workforce is available, though not too close to
built up areas so noise pollution is not a factor
Close to power stations as large amounts of energy are required to extract a metal
The location of the site should be near the coast to import raw materials

Possible location for aluminium extraction plant

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 The site of a metal extraction plant should consider transport and populated areas
Your notes

Examiner Tips and Tricks

A common mistake made by students is thinking that plants are sited near the
coast and other transport links to export products
This is true but the main reason for such positions is to import the raw materials
needed

Sustainability
Sustainability refers to making sure resources meet present needs but are also available
for future generations
To be sustainable the extraction of metals should adhere to the following:
Reduce environmental impact
Conserve resources for the future
Use energy efficient methods
Use renewable energy resources
Ensure minimal waste
Recycle materials
Reduce the carbon footprint of the process

Aluminium
The extraction of aluminium requires a huge amount of energy
Electricity energy for electrolysis
Energy to ensure the electrolyte remains molten
A power station should be close to an aluminium extraction plant as otherwise the
process would become unsustainable

Iron
Raw materials such as iron ore (haematite) and limestone required for the blast furnace
are imported due to economical (cost) and environmental impact through quarrying

Recycling
It is economically beneficial to recycle metals, especially those that are costly to extract
such as aluminium
Recycling aluminium requires approximately 5% of the energy used to extract the
metal from the ore (bauxite)

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Recycling is fast becoming a major industry and provides employment which feeds
back into the economy
Your notes
Mining and extracting metal from ores has detrimental effects on the environment and
ecosystems
It is much more energy efficient to recycle metals than it is to extract them
as melting and re-moulding requires less energy
Recycling decreases the amount of waste produced, hence saving space
at landfill sites and energy in transport

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Before it was decommissioned, the Wylfa Power Station was used to power Anglesey
Aluminium.
The electricity the power station provided accounted for 10-15% of all the electricity
used in Wales!

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