UNIT - I

INTRODUCTION TO DISTRIBUTED DATABASE

Introduction of Distributed Databases-Features of Distributed Databases-Distributed
databases versus Centralized Databases- Principles—Levels Of Distribution-
Transparency-Reference Architecture- Types of Data Fragmentation- Integrity Constraints
in Distributed Databases- Architectural Issues- Alternative Client/Server Architecture.
A database is an ordered collection of related data that is built for a specific purpose. A
database may be organized as a collection of multiple tables, where a table represents a real
world element or entity. Each table has several different fields that represent the characteristic
features of the entity.
For example, a company database may include tables for projects, employees, departments,
products and financial records. The fields in the Employee table may be Name, Company_Id,
Date_of_Joining, and so forth.
A database management system is a collection of programs that enables creation and
maintenance of a database. DBMS is available as a software package that facilitates
definition, construction, manipulation and sharing of data in a database. Definition of a
database includes description of the structure of a database. Construction of a database
involves actual storing of the data in any storage medium. Manipulation refers to the
retrieving information from the database, updating the database and generating reports.
Sharing of data facilitates data to be accessed by different users or programs.
Examples of DBMS Application Areas
Automatic Teller Machines Train Reservation System Employee Management System
Student Information System
Examples of DBMS Packages
MySQL
Oracle
SQL Server dBASE
FoxPro PostgreSQL, etc.
Database Schemas
A database schema is a description of the database which is specified during database design
and subject to infrequent alterations. It defines the organization of the data, the relationships
among them, and the constraints associated with [Link] are often represented
through the three-schema architecture or ANSISPARC architecture. The goal of this
architecture is to separate the user application from the physical database. The three levels are
−
Internal Level having Internal Schema − It describes the physical structure, details of
internal storage and access paths for the database.
Conceptual Level having Conceptual Schema − It describes the structure of the whole
database while hiding the details of physical storage of data. This illustrates the entities,
attributes with their data types and constraints, user operations and relationships.
External or View Level having External Schemas or Views − It describes the portion of a
database relevant to a particular user or a group of users while hiding the rest of database.
Types of DBMS
Hierarchical DBMS
In hierarchical DBMS, the relationships among data in the database are established so that
one data element exists as a subordinate of another. The data elements have parent-child
relationships and are modelled using the “tree” data structure. These are very fast and simple.

Figure 1.1 Hierarchical DBMS

Network DBMS
Network DBMS in one where the relationships among data in the database are of type many-
to-many in the form of a network. The structure is generally complicated due to the existence
of numerous many-to-many relationships. Network DBMS is modelled using “graph” data
structure.

Figure 1.2 Network DBMS

Relational DBMS
In relational databases, the database is represented in the form of relations. Each relation
models an entity and is represented as a table of values. In the relation or table, a row is
called a tuple and denotes a single record. A column is called a field or an attribute and
denotes a characteristic property of the entity. RDBMS is the most popular database
management system.
For example − A Student Relation −

Figure 1.3 A Student Relation

Object Oriented DBMS
Object-oriented DBMS is derived from the model of the object-oriented programming
paradigm. They are helpful in representing both consistent data as stored in databases, as well
as transient data, as found in executing programs. They use small, reusable elements called
objects. Each object contains a data part and a set of operations which works upon the data.
The object and its attributes are accessed through pointers instead of being stored in
relational table models.
For example − A simplified Bank Account object-oriented database −

Figure 1.4 A simplified Bank Account object-oriented database

Distributed DBMS
A distributed database is a set of interconnected databases that is distributed over the
computer network or internet. A Distributed Database Management System (DDBMS)
manages the distributed database and provides mechanisms so as to make the databases
transparent to the users. In these systems, data is intentionally distributed among multiple
nodes so that all computing resources of the organization can be optimally used.
A distributed database is a collection of multiple interconnected databases, which are
spread physically across various locations that communicate via a computer network.
Features
• Databases in the collection are logically interrelated with each other. Often they
represent a single logical database.
• Data is physically stored across multiple sites. Data in each site can be managed by
a DBMS independent of the other sites.
• The processors in the sites are connected via a network. They do not have any
multiprocessor configuration.
 • A distributed database is not a loosely connected file system.
• A distributed database incorporates transaction processing, but it is not synonymous
with a transaction processing system.

Distributed Database Management System

A distributed database management system (DDBMS) is a centralized software system that
manages a distributed database in a manner as if it were all stored in a single location.
Features
• It is used to create, retrieve, update and delete distributed databases.
• It synchronizes the database periodically and provides access mechanisms by the
virtue of which the distribution becomes transparent to the users.
• It ensures that the data modified at any site is universally updated.
• It is used in application areas where large volumes of data are processed and accessed
by numerous users simultaneously.
• It is designed for heterogeneous database platforms.
• It maintains confidentiality and data integrity of the databases.

Factors Encouraging DDBMS

• Distributed Nature of Organizational Units − Most organizations in the current times
are subdivided into multiple units that are physically distributed over the globe. Each
unit requires its own set of local data. Thus, the overall database of the organization
becomes distributed.
• Need for Sharing of Data − The multiple organizational units often need to
communicate with each other and share their data and resources. This demands
common databases or replicated databases that should be used in a synchronized
manner.
• Support for Both OLTP and OLAP − Online Transaction Processing (OLTP) and
Online Analytical Processing (OLAP) work upon diversified systems which may
have common data. Distributed database systems aid both these processing by
providing synchronized data.
• Database Recovery − One of the common techniques used in DDBMS is replication
of data across different sites. Replication of data automatically helps in data recovery
if database in any site is damaged. Users can access data from other sites while the
damaged site is being reconstructed. Thus, database failure may become almost
inconspicuous to users.
• Support for Multiple Application Software − Most organizations use a variety of
application software each with its specific database support. DDBMS provides a
uniform functionality for using the same data among different platforms.
Advantages of Distributed Databases
• Modular Development − If the system needs to be expanded to new locations or new
units, in centralized database systems, the action requires substantial efforts and
disruption in the existing functioning. However, in distributed databases, the work
simply requires adding new computers and local data to the new site and finally
connecting them to the distributed system, with no interruption in current functions.
• More Reliable − In case of database failures, the total system of centralized databases
comes to a halt. However, in distributed systems, when a component fails, the
functioning of the system continues may be at a reduced performance. Hence
DDBMS is more reliable.
• Better Response − If data is distributed in an efficient manner, then user requests can
be met from local data itself, thus providing faster response. On the other hand, in
centralized systems, all queries have to pass through the central computer for
processing, which increases the response time.
• Lower Communication Cost − In distributed database systems, if data is located
locally where it is mostly used, then the communication costs for data manipulation
can be minimized. This is not feasible in centralized systems.

Adversities of Distributed Databases

• Need for complex and expensive software − DDBMS demands complex and often
expensive software to provide data transparency and co-ordination across the several
sites.
• Processing overhead − Even simple operations may require a large number of
communications and additional calculations to provide uniformity in data across the
sites.
• Data integrity − The need for updating data in multiple sites pose problems of data
integrity.
• Overheads for improper data distribution − Responsiveness of queries is largely
dependent upon proper data distribution. Improper data distribution often leads to
very slow response to user requests.

Distributed Database Vs Centralized Database

Centralized DBMS Distributed DBMS
In Distributed DBMS the database are stored
In Centralized DBMS the database are stored
in different site and help of network it can
in a only one site
access it

Database and DBMS software distributed

If the data is stored at a single computer
over many sites,connected by a computer
site,which can be used by multiple users
network

Database is maintained at a number of

Database is maintained at one site
different sites
If centralized system fails,entire system is If one system fails,system continues work
halted with other site

It is a less reliable It is a more reliable

Centralized database

Figure 1.5 Centralized database

Distributed database

Figure1. 6 Distributed database

Types of Distributed Databases

Figure 1.7 Types of Distributed Databases

Distributed databases can be broadly classified into homogeneous and heterogeneous
distributed database environments
Homogeneous Distributed Databases
In a homogeneous distributed database, all the sites use identical DBMS and operating
systems. Its properties are −
• The sites use very similar software.
• The sites use identical DBMS or DBMS from the same vendor.
• Each site is aware of all other sites and cooperates with other sites to process user
requests.
• The database is accessed through a single interface as if it is a single database.

Types of Homogeneous Distributed Database

There are two types of homogeneous distributed database −
Autonomous − Each database is independent that functions on its own. They are integrated
by a controlling application and use message passing to share data updates.
Non-autonomous − Data is distributed across the homogeneous nodes and a central or
master DBMS co-ordinates data updates across the sites.
Heterogeneous Distributed Databases
In a heterogeneous distributed database, different sites have different operating systems,
DBMS products and data models. Its properties are −
• Different sites use dissimilar schemas and software.
• The system may be composed of a variety of DBMSs like relational, network,
hierarchical or object oriented.
• Query processing is complex due to dissimilar schemas. Transaction processing is
complex due to dissimilar software.
• A site may not be aware of other sites and so there is limited co-operation in
processing user requests.

Types of Heterogeneous Distributed Databases

Federated − The heterogeneous database systems are independent in nature and integrated
together so that they function as a single database system.
Un-federated − The database systems employ a central coordinating module through which
the databases are accessed.
Distributed DBMS Architectures
DDBMS architectures are generally developed depending on three parameters −
• Distribution − It states the physical distribution of data across the different sites.